Professional Documents
Culture Documents
U.D.A.T.Retina Diagnostic and Treatment Division, Hospital de Olhos de Araraquara, Rua Padre Duarte 989 ap 172, Araraquara, SP 14801 310, Brazil
b
Glaucoma Section, Hospital de Olhos de Araraquara, Araraquara, SP, Brazil
c
Instituto de Fsica de Sao CarlosUSP, Sao Carlos-SP, Brazil
d
Department of Ophthalmology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
e
Institute of Physics, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland
Abstract
Over the 15 years since the original description, optical coherence tomography (OCT) has become one of the key diagnostic
technologies in the ophthalmic subspecialty areas of retinal diseases and glaucoma. The reason for the widespread adoption of this
technology originates from at least two properties of the OCT results: on the one hand, the results are accessible to the non-specialist
where microscopic retinal abnormalities are grossly and easily noticeable; on the other hand, results are reproducible and exceedingly
quantitative in the hands of the specialist. However, as in any other imaging technique in ophthalmology, some artifacts are expected to
occur. Understanding of the basic principles of image acquisition and data processing as well as recognition of OCT limitations are
crucial issues to using this equipment with cleverness.
Herein, we took a brief look in the past of OCT and have explained the key basic physical principles of this imaging technology. In
addition, each of the several steps encompassing a third generation OCT evaluation of retinal tissues has been addressed in details.
A comprehensive explanation about next generation OCT systems has also been provided and, to conclude, we have commented on the
future directions of this exceptional technique.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Artifacts; Cross-sectional; Fourier domain; Glaucoma; Interferometer; Macula; Macular map; Measurement; Nerve fiber layer; Optic disc;
Optical coherence tomography (OCT); Photoreceptor; Retinal boundary; Retinal thickness; Spectral
Contents
1.
2.
3.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
326
326
329
329
329
332
335
337
337
Abbreviations: A-scan(s), axial scan(s); HRL, highly reflective layer; OCT, optical coherence tomography; RNFL, retinal nerve fiber layer; RPE, retinal
pigment epithelium; RTA, retinal thickness analyzer; SLD, superluminescent diode
$
Supported in part by Fundac- ao de Amparo a` Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo, FAPESP Grant no.: 98/14270-8, and by Grant no.: KBN
4T11E02322.
!Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +55 16 3331 1001.
E-mail address: roger.retina@globo.com (R.A. Costa).
1350-9462/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2006.03.001
ARTICLE IN PRESS
326
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
3.2.2. Reproducibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3. Diagnostic capability and progression evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4. Normative database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.5. Future directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.6. Additional considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Next generation OCT devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1. Spectral OCT instrument using Fourier domain detection . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1. Standard-resolution retinal imaging with high-speed spectral OCT .
4.1.2. High-resolution retinal imaging with high-speed spectral OCT . . . .
4.2. Additional considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
338
339
341
341
342
342
342
343
345
347
348
349
349
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
327
Fig. 3. An optical coherence tomography cross-sectional image (grayscale image) is built up from many A-scans (red plot lines). Reprinted by
courtesy of Elsevier (Huang et al., in progress).
Ultrasound imaging and RADAR are also reflectometry-based imaging methods. Because OCT employs light,
several advantages are gained. The wavelength of light
(!0.001 mm) is shorter than that of ultrasound (!0.1 mm)
and radio wave (410 mm). Therefore the spatial resolution
of OCT is much higher. And unlike ultrasound imaging,
OCT does not require probe-tissue contact or an immersion fluid since light passes through the airtissue interface
easily.
Because light travels very rapidly (3 " 108 m/s), it is not
possible to directly measure the time-of-flight delay on a
small spatial scale. The micron-scale resolution of OCT is
achieved by comparing the delays of sample reflections
with the known delay of a reference reflection in an
interferometer. The classic OCT system (Fig. 4) employs a
low-coherence fiber-optic Michelson interferometer
(Huang et al., 1991). Interferometry measures the effect
of combining 2 light waves. Low coherence means that the
system employs a wide range of wavelengths. We will
explain the concepts of interferometry and coherence
separately.
The interferometer (Fig. 4) has source, sample, reference,
and detector arms all centered on a 50/50 fiber coupler.
Output of the superluminescent diode (SLD) light source is
launched into the source arm fiber and split by the coupler
into the sample and reference arms. Sample and reference
reflections are recombined at the coupler and produce
interference. This interferometric signal is converted from
light to electrical current by a photodetector, processed
electronically, and transferred to computer memory.
To understand how the Michelson interferometer works,
let us start with the simple case (Fig. 5) where the sample
arm reflection comes from a simple mirror surface and
the light source emits only one wavelength. Think of the
sample and reference reflections as 2 waves of light. The
coupler partially transfers theses waves to the detector arm,
ARTICLE IN PRESS
328
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
329
ARTICLE IN PRESS
330
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
Fig. 9. Verifying in separate the automatic delineation of the retinal boundaries in each image (B-scan) to be used to macular maps. (A) At the end of one
scanning session for macular thickness maps, analysis of the automatic retinal boundaries delineation using the retinal thickness (single eye) analysis
protocol revealed one major delineation error in scan 5 (red dashed line/asterisk). (B) A new complete scanning session has solved the issue (red dashed
line/asterisk).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
331
Fig. 12. Review software tool. After activating the scanning mode (A), the
examiner may freeze the image at any desired time (B). By pressing the
review button (C), the examiner is allowed to retrieve all tomograms
acquired in that session (scan review window). If an optimal tomogram
exists amongst recovered images, it can be selected (D) and saved by the
examiner (E).
Fig. 13. Alternative mouse disposition within the table of third generation
OCT. The examiner may keep one of freeze (with or without flash) buttons
of the scan acquisition window pressed during scanning to speed up image
acquirement.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
332
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
Fig. 14. Fast and standard macular thickness maps. (A) In the fast mode,
each tomogram (B-scan) consists of 128 A-scans while in standard mode
(B) each tomogram consists of 512 A-scans. In both modes, a total of 6
tomograms oriented at 301 intervals are acquired.
Fig. 15. (AD) Four scanning sessions performed in 5-min intervals using the fast macular thickness map acquisition protocol in a patient with central
serous chorioretinopathy. (A0 D0 ) Data processing revealed optimal centralization of the scans in all four scanning sessions and good correspondence of
topographic macular maps.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
333
ARTICLE IN PRESS
334
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
Fig. 18. Tomographic appearance of outer foveal retina and visual acuity (VA). (A) Typical inner HRL appearance in normal macula (VA 20/20). (B)
Macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion and VA 20/25; note at the fovea, the inner HRL is well preserved. Intense fragmentation of the inner
HRL in one patient with outer macular hole and VA 20/50$1 (C), and in patient with photic maculopathy and VA 20/60 (D).
2003); unexpected retinal lamination abnormalities (Jacobson et al., 2003, 2004); and, definition of the relationship
between outer nuclear layer thickness and visual function
(Jacobson et al., 2005).
3.1.2.3. Vitreoretinal interface. Unparalleled characterization of the vitreoretinal interface has been possible with
the advent of third generation OCT. Studies focused on the
analysis of the vitreomacular interface have led to new
insights about our understanding and management of
several maculopathies, such as idiopathic macular hole and
diabetic macular edema. For example, a high prevalence of
perifoveal posterior vitreous detachment with incomplete
vitreofoveal separation has been demonstrated in diabetic
patients with macular edema, suggesting a possible
additional role of the vitreomacular interface status in the
pathogenesis of diabetic macular edema (Gaucher et al.,
2005). Anecdotal reports of favorable macular remodeling
in eyes with diabetic macular edema after spontaneous
vitreofoveal separation, as well as in the early postNd:YAG laser capsulotomy period, may provide additional supportive data of the possible influence of the
vitreomacular interface status in such scenario (Watanabe
et al., 2000; Yamaguchi et al., 2003) (Fig. 19).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
335
ARTICLE IN PRESS
336
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
Fig. 23. Automated retinal thickness measurement was obtained from corresponding A-scan at the fovea (left). Manual caliper-assisted measurement of
retinal thickness at the fovea using the automated delineation for the inner retinal boundary by the software as one point (inner caliper cross) and
positioning the outer caliper cross just above the outer HRL demonstrated a difference of 51 mm.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
337
3.1.3.5. Additional considerations. Summing up, automatic OCT macular thickness is calculated by computer
image-processing algorithms with several notable flaws.
The most important flaw is that the software does not truly
measure the anatomic macular thickness due to its inability
to reliably discriminate the junction between the inner and
outer segments of the photoreceptors (inner HRL) from
the RPE, because both produce a high backscattering
signal. Therefore, macular thickness is actually measured
using the hyper-reflective layer corresponding to the
junction between the photoreceptor inner and outer
segment (inner HRL) as the outer retinal boundary,
effectively truncating the outer segments in most subjects.
Obviously, this is not an incapacitating limitation of the
methodology, but this issue should be stressed because one
may assume that these measurements are more anatomically meaningful than they truly are. By addressing these
issues, we intent to promote a better comprehension of the
actual limitations of the OCT3 software, and to assure
researchers as well as manufactures best efforts to
overcome them as fast as possible. Recognition of the
limitations of any particular device is the basic principle for
its use with cleverness.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
338
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
Fig. 24. (A) Fundus image and corresponding B-scan of the RNFL
thickness 3.4-mm (circle diameter) acquisition protocol in the regular
mode (512 A-scans/image). (B) Fundus image and corresponding B-scans
of the fast RNFL thickness 3.4-mm (circle diameter) acquisition protocol.
Three images of 256 A-scans each are captured simultaneously
(consecutively, at same scanning session).
Fig. 25. Four different RNFL thickness circle acquisition protocols. (A) Fixed 3.4 mm diameter circle. (BD) After determining the disc radius (!1 mm)
three additional protocols enable to tailor de measurement circle accordingly: (B) nerve head circle (measurement circle was chosen to be 400 mm after the
disc margin), (C) RNFL thickness (2.27 " disc), and (D) proportional circle (1.5 was chosen as the multiplication factor).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
339
ARTICLE IN PRESS
340
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
Fig. 26. Fundus photography showing localized RNFL defects (arrows) in both eyes, which could also be identified by OCT using the RNFL thickness
average protocol (with normative data analysis). Glaucomatous damage was mild in the right eye, and moderate in the left eye.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
341
Fig. 27. Fixed 3.4-mm circle and large optic discs. The measurement is performed closer to disc margin and values for RNFL thickness tend to be
overestimated.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
342
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
343
ARTICLE IN PRESS
344
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
Fig. 28. Comparison of standard-resolution third generation optical coherence tomography (OCT) (Stratus OCT) and spectral OCT images. (A) Stratus
OCT image of macula contains 512 axial scans (A-scans) and was acquired in 1.3 s with axial resolution of 10 micrometers. (B) Stratus OCT image after
numerical correction of motion artifacts. (C) spectral OCT image of macula contains 4000 A-scans and was acquired in 0.17 s with axial resolution of
10 mm.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
345
Fig. 29. Standard-resolution spectral optical coherence tomography retinal imaging with high quality: (A) cross-sectional image of the retinal
panorama measured horizontally from temporal to nasal along the fovea to the inferior part of the optic disc, (B) cross-sectional image of the fovea
measured in the same eye. Both images contain 2500 axial scans. Red square shows approximately the region where the bottom image was taken.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
346
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
Fig. 30. Real-time spectral optical coherence tomography observation of dynamic processes in the retina: (A) the set of cross-sectional images measured
with 8 frames per second; (B) cross-sectional image of optic disc region with indicated region of interest.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
347
Fig. 31. Three-dimensional spectral optical coherence tomography imaging with standard resolution: (A) volume rendering of optic disc region,
(B) segmentation of intraretinal layers in macular region; NFL-nerve fiber layer, OPL-outer plexiform layer, IS/OS-junction between inner and outer
segments of photoreceptors, and RPE- retinal pigment epithelium.
Fig. 32. Three-dimensional spectral optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging with standard resolution: (A) fundus view (400 horizontal points, 300
vertical points) reconstructed from the spectral OCT data contains 300 cross-sectional images; (B) two cross-sectional images from the three-dimensional
set of data. The location of each cross-sectional image is perfectly registered relative to the fundus view.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
348
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
Fig. 33. High-resolution spectral optical coherence tomography imaging: (A) cross-sectional image of macula, and (B) cross-sectional image of optic disc.
Both images contain 10.000 axial scans and were acquired in 0.43 s with axial resolution of 4.5 mm.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
349
Fig. 34. Three-dimensional high-resolution, spectral optical coherence tomography imaging: (A) reconstruction of the OCT fundus view, (B) crosssectional image with delineated automatically segmented layers, (C) full retinal thickness map, and (D) thickness map of outer segments of photoreceptors;
ILM-inner limiting membrane, IS/OS-junction between inner and outer segments of photoreceptors, and RPE-retinal pigment epithelium.
devices. One should say that three-dimensional, highspeed, ultrahigh-resolution retinal assessment is just
around the corner.
Acknowledgments
M.W. thanks Prof. Andrzej Kowalczyk and members of
Medical Physics Group from Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun especially to Iwona Gorczynska and Anna
Szkulmowska, and Prof. James G. Fujimoto from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
and members of his group: Vikas Sharma, Aurea Zare,
Vivek Srinivasan, Tony Ko and Mariana Carvalho. R.A.C.
and M.W. includes special thank to Yijun Huang, and to
Robert Huber and Robert Zawadzki, respectively, for
creative discussions.
References
Aleman, T.S., Cideciyan, A.V., Volpe, N.J., Stevanin, G., Brice, A.,
Jacobson, S.G., 2002. Spinocerebellar ataxia type 7 (SCA7) shows a
cone-rod dystrophy phenotype. Exp. Eye Res. 74, 737745.
Antcliff, R.J., Spalton, D.J., Stanford, M.R., Graham, E.M., Fytche, T.J.,
Marshall, J., 2001. Intravitreal triamcinolone for uveitic cystoid
macular edema: an optical coherence tomography study. Ophthalmology 108, 765772.
Bagga, H., Greenfield, D.S., Knighton, R.W., 2005. Macular symmetry
testing for glaucoma detection. J. Glaucoma 14, 358363.
Bartsch, D-U., Freeman, W.R., 1994. Axial intensity distribution analysis
of the human retina with a confocal scanning laser tomograph. Exp.
Eye Res. 58, 161173.
Blumenthal, E.Z., Williams, J.M., Weinreb, R.N., Girkin, C.A., Berry,
C.C., Zangwill, L.M., 2000. Reproducibility of nerve fiber layer
thickness measurements by use of optical coherence tomography.
Ophthalmology 107, 22782282.
Bonini-Filho, M.A., Jorge, R., Barbosa, J.C., Calucci, D., Cardillo, J.A.,
Costa, R.A., 2005. Intravitreal injection versus sub-Tenons infusion
of triamcinolone acetonide for refractory diabetic macular edema:
a randomized clinical trial. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46,
38453849.
Bowd, C., Weinreb, R.N., Williams, J.M., Zangwill, L.M., 2000. The
retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in ocular hypertensive, normal, and
glaucomatous eyes with optical coherence tomography. Arch.
Ophthalmol. 118, 2226.
Bowd, C., Zangwill, L.M., Berry, C.C., Blumenthal, E.Z., Vasile, C.,
Sanchez-Galeana, C., Bosworth, C.F., Sample, P.A., Weinreb, R.N.,
2001. Detecting early glaucoma by assessment of retinal nerve fiber
layer thickness and visual function. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42,
19932003.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
350
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
Browning, D.J., McOwen, M.D., Bowen Jr., R.M., OMarah, T.L., 2004.
Comparison of the clinical diagnosis of diabetic macular edema with
diagnosis by optical coherence tomography. Ophthalmology 111,
712715.
Budenz, D.L., Chang, R.T., Huang, X., Knighton, R.W., Tielsch, J.M.,
2005. Reproducibility of retinal nerve fiber thickness measurements
using the stratus OCT in normal and glaucomatous eyes. Invest.
Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46, 24402443.
Burgansky-Eliash, Z., Wollstein, G., Chu, T., Ramsey, J.D., Glymour, C.,
Noecker, R.J., Ishikawa, H., Schuman, J.S., 2005. Optical coherence
tomography machine learning classifiers for glaucoma detection: a
preliminary study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46, 41474152.
Campochiaro, P.A., C99-PKC412-003 Study Group, 2004. Reduction of
diabetic macular edema by oral administration of the kinase inhibitor
PKC412. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45, 922931.
Cardillo, J.A., Melo Jr., L.A., Costa, R.A., Skaf, M., Belfort Jr., R.,
Souza-Filho, A.A., Farah, M.E., Kuppermann, B.D., 2005. Comparison of intravitreal versus posterior sub-Tenons capsule injection of
triamcinolone acetonide for diffuse diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 112, 15571563.
Carpineto, P., Ciancaglini, M., Zuppardi, E., Falconio, G., Doronzo, E.,
Mastropasqua, L., 2003. Reliability of nerve fiber layer thickness
measurements using optical coherence tomography in normal and
glaucomatous eyes. Ophthalmology 110, 190195.
Catier, A., Tadayoni, R., Paques, M., Erginay, A., Haouchine, B.,
Gaudric, A., Massin, P., 2005. Characterization of macular edema
from various etiologies by optical coherence tomography. Am. J.
Ophthalmol. 140, 200206.
Cense, B., Nassif, N., Chen, T.C., Pierce, M.C., Yun, S., Park, B.H.,
Bouma, B., Tearney, G., de Boer, J.F., 2004. Ultrahigh-resolution
high-speed retinal imaging using spectral-domain optical coherence
tomography. Opt. Express 12, 24352447.
Chen, H.Y., Huang, M.L., 2005. Discrimination between normal and
glaucomatous eyes using Stratus optical coherence tomography in
Taiwan Chinese subjects. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 243,
894902.
Chinn, S.R., Swanson, E.A., Fujimoto, J.G., 1997. Optical coherence
tomography using a frequency-tunable optical source. Opt. Lett. 22,
340342.
Choma, M.A., Sarunic, M.V., Yang, C.H., Izatt, J.A., 2003a. Sensitivity
advantage of swept source and Fourier domain optical coherence
tomography. Opt. Express 11, 21832189.
Choma, M.A., Yang, C.H., Izatt, J.A., 2003b. Instantaneous quadrature
low-coherence interferometry with 3 " 3 fiber-optic couplers. Opt.
Lett. 28, 21622164.
Cideciyan, A.V., Jacobson, S.G., Aleman, T.S., et al., 2005. In vivo
dynamics of retinal injury and repair in the rhodopsin mutant dog
model of human retinitis pigmentosa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102,
52335238 (Epub 2005 Mar 22).
Costa, R.A., 2005. Evaluation of image artifact produced by optical
coherence tomography of retinal pathology. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 140,
349350.
Costa, R.A., Scapucin, L., Moraes, N.S., Calucci, D., Melo Jr., L.A.,
Cardillo, J.A., Farah, M.E., 2002. Indocyanine green-mediated
photothrombosis as a new technique of treatment for persistent
central serous chorioretinopathy. Curr. Eye Res. 25, 287297.
Costa, R.A., Farah, M.E., Cardillo, J.A., Calucci, D., Williams, G.A.,
2003a. Immediate indocyanine green angiography and optical coherence tomography evaluation after photodynamic therapy for subfoveal
choroidal neovascularization. Retina 23, 159165.
Costa, R.A., Calucci, D., Cardillo, J.A., Farah, M.E., 2003b. Selective
occlusion of subfoveal choroidal neovascularization in angioid streaks
by using a new technique of ingrowth site treatment. Ophthalmology
110, 11921203.
Costa, R.A., Calucci, D., Teixeira, L.F., Cardillo, J.A., Bonomo, P.P.,
2003c. Selective occlusion of subfoveal choroidal neovascularization in
pathologic myopia using a new technique of ingrowth site treatment.
Am. J. Ophthalmol. 135, 857866.
Costa, R.A., Calucci, D., Skaf, M., Cardillo, J.A., Castro, J.C., Melo Jr.,
L.A., Martins, M.C., Kaiser, P.K., 2004. Optical coherence tomography 3: automatic delineation of the outer neural retinal boundary
and its influence on retinal thickness measurements. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45, 23992406.
Costa, R.A., Calucci, D., Paccola, L., Jorge, R., Cardillo, J.A., Castro,
J.C., Scott, I.U., 2005. Occult chorioretinal anastomosis in age-related
macular degeneration: a prospective study by optical coherence
tomography. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 140, 107116.
de Boer, J.F., Cense, B., Park, B.H., Pierce, M.C., Tearney, G.J., Bouma,
B.E., 2003. Improved signal-to-noise ratio in spectral-domain compared with time-domain optical coherence tomography. Opt. Lett. 28,
20672069.
Doggrell, S.A., 2005. Pegaptanib: the first antiangiogenic agent approved
for neovascular macular degeneration. Expert. Opin. Pharmacother. 6,
14211423.
Drexler, W., 2004. Ultrahigh-resolution optical coherence tomography.
J. Biomed. Opt. 9, 4774.
Drexler, W., Morgner, U., Kartner, F.X., Pitris, C., Boppart, S.A., Li,
X.D., Ippen, E.P., Fujimoto, J.G., 1999. In vivo ultrahigh-resolution
optical coherence tomography. Opt. Lett. 24, 12211223.
Drexler, W., Morgner, U., Ghanta, R.K., Kartner, F.X., Schuman, J.S.,
Fujimoto, J.G., 2001. Ultrahigh-resolution ophthalmic optical coherence
tomography. Nat. Med. 7, 502507 (Erratum in: 2001. Nat. Med. 7, 636).
Drexler, W., Sattmann, H., Hermann, B., Ko, T.H., Stur, M., Unterhuber,
A., Scholda, C., Findl, O., Wirtitsch, M., Fujimoto, J.G., Fercher,
A.F., 2003. Enhanced visualization of macular pathology with the use
of ultrahigh-resolution optical coherence tomography. Arch. Ophthalmol. 121, 695706.
Eandi, C.M., Chung, J.E., Cardillo-Piccolino, F., Spaide, R.F., 2005.
Optical coherence tomography in unilateral resolved central serous
chorioretinopathy. Retina 25, 417421.
Eter, N., Spaide, R.F., 2005. Comparison of fluorescein angiography and
optical coherence tomography for patients with choroidal neovascularization after photodynamic therapy. Retina 25, 691696.
Fercher, A.F., Hitzenberger, C.K., Kamp, G., Elzaiat, S.Y., 1995.
Measurement of intraocular distances by backscattering spectral
interferometry. Opt. Commun. 117, 4348.
Fercher, A.F., Drexler, W., Hitzenberger, C.K., Lasser, T., 2003. Optical
coherence tomography-principles and applications. Reports Prog.
Phys. 66, 239303.
Fujimoto, J.G., 2003. Optical coherence tomography for ultrahigh
resolution in vivo imaging. Nat. Biotech. 21, 13611367.
Gaucher, D., Tadayoni, R., Erginay, A., Haouchine, B., Gaudric, A.,
Massin, P., 2005. Optical coherence tomography assessment of the
vitreoretinal relationship in diabetic macular edema. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 139, 807813.
Gaudric, A., Haouchine, B., Massin, P., Paques, M., Blain, P., Erginay,
A., 1999. Macular hole formation: new data provided by optical
coherence tomography. Arch. Ophthalmol. 117, 744751.
Gragoudas, E.S., Adamis, A.P., Cunningham Jr., E.T., Feinsod, M.,
Guyer, D.R., VEGF Inhibition Study in Ocular Neovascularization
Clinical Trial Group, 2004. Pegaptanib for neovascular age-related
macular degeneration. N. Engl. J. Med. 351, 28052816.
Greenberg, P.B., Martidis, A., Rogers, A.H., Duker, J.S., Reichel, E.,
2002. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for macular oedema due to
central retinal vein occlusion. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 86, 247248.
Gross, J.G., 2005. Late reopening and spontaneous closure of previously
repaired macular holes. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 140, 556558.
Guedes, V., Schuman, J.S., Hertzmark, E., Wollstein, G., Correnti, A.,
Mancini, R., Lederer, D., Voskanian, S., Velazquez, L., Pakter, H.M.,
Pedut-Kloizman, T., Fujimoto, J.G., Mattox, C., 2003. Optical
coherence tomography measurement of macular and nerve fiber layer
thickness in normal and glaucomatous human eyes. Ophthalmology
110, 177189.
Haouchine, B., Massin, P., Gaudric, A., 2001. Foveal pseudocyst as the
first step in macular hole formation: a prospective study by optical
coherence tomography. Ophthalmology 108, 1522.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
Haouchine, B., Massin, P., Tadayoni, R., Erginay, A., Gaudric, A., 2004.
Diagnosis of macular pseudoholes and lamellar macular holes by
optical coherence tomography. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 138, 732739.
Hausler, G., Linduer, M.W., 1998. Coherence radar and spectral
radarnew tools for dermatological diagnosis. J. Biomed. Opt. 3,
2131.
Hee, M.R., 2005. Artifacts in optical coherence tomography topographic
maps. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 139, 154155.
Hee, M.R., Izatt, J.A., Swanson, E.A., Huang, D., Schuman, J.S., Lin,
C.P., Puliafito, C.A., Fujimoto, J.G., 1995a. Optical coherence
tomography of the human retina. Arch. Ophthalmol. 113, 325332.
Hee, M.R., Puliafito, C.A., Wong, C., Duker, J.S., Reichel, E., Schuman,
J.S., Swanson, E.A., Fujimoto, J.G., 1995b. Optical coherence
tomography of macular holes. Ophthalmology 102, 748756.
Hee, M.R., Puliafito, C.A., Duker, J.S., Reichel, E., Coker, J.G., Wilkins,
J.R., Schuman, J.S., Swanson, E.A., Fujimoto, J.G., 1998. Topography of diabetic macular edema with optical coherence tomography.
Ophthalmology 105, 360370.
Hess, D.B., Asrani, S.G., Bhide, M.G., Enyedi, L.B., Stinnett, S.S.,
Freedman, S.F., 2005. Macular and retinal nerve fiber layer analysis of
normal and glaucomatous eyes in children using optical coherence
tomography. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 139, 509517.
Hillenkamp, J., Saikia, P., Gora, F., Sachs, H.G., Lohmann, C.P., Roider,
J., Baumler, W., Gabel, V.P., 2005. Macular function and morphology
after peeling of idiopathic epiretinal membrane with and without the
assistance of indocyanine green. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 89, 437443.
Hitzenberger, C.K., Trost, P., Lo, P.W., Zhou, Q.Y., 2003. Threedimensional imaging of the human retina by high-speed optical
coherence tomography. Opt. Expr. 11, 27532761.
Hoyt, W.F., Newman, N.M., 1972. The earliest observable defect in
glaucoma? Lancet 1, 692693.
Hoyt, W.F., Frisen, L., Newman, N.M., 1973. Fundoscopy of nerve fiber
layer defects in glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. 12, 814829.
Huang, D., Swanson, E.A., Lin, C.P., et al., 1991. Optical coherence
tomography. Science 254, 11781181.
Huang, D., Tan, O., Fujimoto, J.G., et al., Optical coherence tomography.
In: Huang D, Kaiser PK, Lowder CY, Traboulsi E, (Eds.), Retinal
Imaging, first ed., Elsevier; in progress.
Huang, M.L., Chen, H.Y., 2005. Development and comparison of
automated classifiers for glaucoma diagnosis using stratus optical
coherence tomography. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46, 41214129.
Huang, Y., Cideciyan, A.V., Papastergiou, G.I., Banin, E., SempleRowland, S.L., Milam, A.H., Jacobson, S.G., 1998. Relation of optical
coherence tomography to microanatomy in normal and rd chickens.
Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 39, 24052416.
Huang, Y., 1999. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) in hereditary
retinal degenerations: layer-by-layer analyses in normal and diseased
retinas. A dissertation in Bioengineering. Presented to the faculties of
the University of Pennsylvania in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Ishikawa, H., Stein, D.M., Wollstein, G., Beaton, S., Fujimoto, J.G.,
Schuman, J.S., 2005. Macular segmentation with optical coherence
tomography. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46, 20122017.
Jacobson, S.G., Cideciyan, A.V., Huang, Y., et al., 1998. Retinal
degenerations with truncation mutations in the cone-rod homeobox
(CRX) gene. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 39, 24172426.
Jacobson, S.G., Cideciyan, A.V., Iannaccone, A., et al., 2000. Disease
expression of RP1 mutations causing autosomal dominant retinitis
pigmentosa. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41, 18981908.
Jacobson, S.G., Cideciyan, A.V., Aleman, T.S., et al., 2003. Crumbs
homolog 1 (CRB1) mutations result in a thick human retina with
abnormal lamination. Hum. Mol. Genet. 12, 10731078.
Jacobson, S.G., Sumaroka, A., Aleman, T.S., et al., 2004. Nuclear
receptor NR2E3 gene mutations distort human retinal laminar
architecture and cause an unusual degeneration. Hum. Mol. Genet.
13, 18931902 (Epub 30 June 2004).
Jacobson, S.G., Aleman, T.S., Cideciyan, A.V., et al., 2005. Identifying
photoreceptors in blind eyes caused by RPE65 mutations: prerequisite
351
for human gene therapy success. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102,
61776182 (Epub 18 April 2005).
Johnson, M.W., 2005. Tractional cystoid macular edema: a subtle variant
of the vitreomacular traction syndrome. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 140,
184192.
Jones, A.L., Sheen, N.J., North, R.V., Morgan, J.E., 2001. The Humphrey
optical coherence tomography scanner: quantitative analysis and
reproducibility study of the normal human retinal nerve fibre layer.
Br. J. Ophthalmol. 85, 673677.
Jonas, J.B., Sofker, A., 2001. Intraocular injection of crystalline cortisone
as adjunctive treatment of diabetic macular edema. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 132, 425427.
Jonas, J.B., Kreissig, I., Degenring, R.F., 2002. Intravitreal triamcinolone
acetonide as treatment of macular edema in central retinal vein
occlusion. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 240, 782783 (Epub
13 August 2002).
Jorge, R., Costa, R.A., Quirino, L.S., Paques, M.W., Calucci, D., Cardillo,
J.A., Scott, I.U., 2004. Optical coherence tomography findings in
patients with late solar retinopathy. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 137, 11391143.
Kerrigan-Baumrind, L.A., Quigley, H.A., Pease, M.E., Kerrigan, D.F.,
Mitchell, R.S., 2000. Number of ganglion cells in glaucoma eyes
compared with threshold visual field tests in the same persons. Invest.
Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41, 741748.
Kitaya, N., Hikichi, T., Kagokawa, H., Takamiya, A., Takahashi, A.,
Yoshida, A., 2004. Irregularity of photoreceptor layer after successful
macular hole surgery prevents visual acuity improvement. Am. J.
Ophthalmol. 138, 308310.
Ko, T.H., Adler, D.C., Fujimoto, J.G., Mamedov, D., Prokhorov, V.,
Shidlovski, V., Yakubovich, S., 2004. Ultrahigh resolution optical
coherence tomography imaging with a broadband superluminescent
diode light source. Opt. Express 12, 21122119.
Ko, T.H., Fujimoto, J.G., Schuman, J.S., Paunescu, L.A., Kowalevicz,
A.M., Hartl, I., Drexler, W., Wollstein, G., Duker, J.S., Ishikawa, H.,
2005. Comparison of ultrahigh and standard resolution optical
coherence tomography for imaging of macular pathology. Ophthalmology (22 September 2005, Epub ahead of print).
Kowalevicz, A.M., Schibli, T.R., Kartner, F.X., Fujimoto, J.G., 2002.
Ultralow-threshold Kerr-lens mode-locked Ti:Al2O3 laser. Opt. Lett.
27, 20372039.
Leitgeb, R., Wojtkowski, M., Kowalczyk, A., Hitzenberger, C.K., Sticker,
M., Fercher, A.F., 2000. Spectral measurement of absorption by
spectroscopic frequency-domain optical coherence tomography. Opt.
Lett. 25, 820822.
Leitgeb, R., Hitzenberger, C.K., Fercher, A.F., 2003a. Performance of
Fourier domain vs. time domain optical coherence tomography. Opt.
Express 11, 889894.
Leitgeb, R.A., Schmetterer, L., Drexler, W., Fercher, A.F., Zawadzki,
R.J., Bajraszewski, T., 2003b. Real-time assessment of retinal blood
flow with ultrafast acquisition by color Doppler Fourier domain
optical coherence tomography. Opt. Express 11, 31163121.
Leitgeb, R.A., Drexler, W., Unterhuber, A., Hermann, B., Bajraszewski,
T., Le, T., Stingl, A., Fercher, A.F., 2004a. Ultrahigh resolution
Fourier domain optical coherence tomography. Opt. Express 12,
21562165.
Leitgeb, R.A., Schmetterer, L., Hitzenberger, C.K., Fercher, A.F.,
Berisha, F., Wojtkowski, M., Bajraszewski, T., 2004b. Real-time
measurement of in vitro flow by Fourier-domain color Doppler optical
coherence tomography. Opt. Lett. 29, 171173.
Lerche, R.C., Schaudig, U., Scholz, F., Walter, A., Richard, G., 2001.
Structural changes of the retina in retinal vein occlusion: imaging and
quantification with optical coherence tomography. Ophthal. Surg.
Lasers 32, 272280.
Leung, C.K., Yung, W.H., Ng, A.C., Woo, J., Tsang, M.K., Tse, K.K.,
2004. Evaluation of scanning resolution on retinal nerve fiber layer
measurement using optical coherence tomography in normal and
glaucomatous eyes. J. Glaucoma 13, 479485.
Leung, C.K., Chong, K.K., Chan, W.M., Yiu, C.K., Tso, M.Y., Woo, J.,
Tsang, M.K., Tse, K.K., Yung, W.H., 2005a. Comparative study of
ARTICLE IN PRESS
352
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
retinal nerve fiber layer measurement by Stratus OCT and GDx VCC,
II: structure/function regression analysis in glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46, 37023711.
Leung, C.K., Chan, W.M., Yung, W.H., Ng, A.C., Woo, J., Tsang, M.K.,
Tse, R.K., 2005b. Comparison of macular and peripapillary measurements for the detection of glaucoma: an optical coherence tomography
study. Ophthalmology 112, 391400.
Lexer, F., Hitzenberger, C.K., Fercher, A.F., Kulhavy, M., 1997.
Wavelength-tuning interferometry of intraocular distances. Appl.
Opt. 36, 65486553.
Martidis, A., Duker, J.S., Puliafito, C.A., 2001. Intravitreal triamcinolone
for refractory cystoid macular edema secondary to birdshot retinochoroidopathy. Arch. Ophthalmol. 119, 13801383.
Martidis, A., Duker, J.S., Greenberg, P.B., Rogers, A.H., Puliafito, C.A.,
Reichel, E., Baumal, C., 2002. Intravitreal triamcinolone for refractory
diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 109, 920927.
Medeiros, F.A., Zangwill, L.M., Bowd, C., Weinreb, R.N., 2004.
Comparison of the GDx VCC scanning laser polarimeter, HRT II
confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscope, and stratus OCT optical
coherence tomograph for the detection of glaucoma. Arch. Ophthalmol. 122, 827837.
Medeiros, F.A., Zangwill, L.M., Bowd, C., Vessani, R.M., Susanna Jr.,
R., Weinreb, R.N., 2005. Evaluation of retinal nerve fiber layer, optic
nerve head, and macular thickness measurements for glaucoma
detection using optical coherence tomography. Am. J. Ophthalmol.
139, 4455.
Meirelles, R.L., Aggio, F.B., Costa, R.A., Farah, M.E., 2005. STRATUS
optical coherence tomography in unilateral colobomatous excavation
of the optic disc and secondary retinoschisis. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp.
Ophthalmol. 243, 7681 (Epub 4 August 2004).
Michels, S., Rosenfeld, P.J., Puliafito, C.A., Marcus, E.N., Venkatraman,
A.S., 2005. Systemic bevacizumab (Avastin) therapy for neovascular
age-related macular degeneration twelve-week results of an uncontrolled open-label clinical study. Ophthalmology 112, 10351047.
Milam, A.H., Barakat, M.R., Gupta, N., et al., 2003. Clinicopathologic
effects of mutant GUCY2D in Leber congenital amaurosis. Ophthalmology 110, 549558.
Montero, J.A., Ruiz-Moreno, J.M., 2005. Optical coherence tomography
characterisation of idiopathic central serous chorioretinopathy. Br. J.
Ophthalmol. 89, 562564.
Montero, J.A., Ruiz-Moreno, J.M., Tavolato, M., 2003. Follow-up of
age-related macular degeneration patients treated by photodynamic
therapy with optical coherence tomography 3. Graefes Arch. Clin.
Exp. Ophthalmol. 241, 797802.
Mrugacz, M., Bakunowicz-Lazarczyk, A., 2005. Optical coherence
tomography measurement of the retinal nerve fiber layer in normal
and juvenile glaucomatous eyes. Ophthalmologica 219, 8085.
Nassif, N.A., Cense, B., Park, B.H., Pierce, M.C., Yun, S.H.,
Bouma, B.E., Tearney, G.J., Chen, T.C., de Boer, J.F., 2004. In vivo
high-resolution video-rate spectral-domain optical coherence
tomography of the human retina and optic nerve. Opt. Express 12,
367376.
Niwa, H., Terasaki, H., Ito, Y., Miyake, Y., 2005. Macular hole
development in fellow eyes of patients with unilateral macular hole.
Am. J. Ophthalmol. 140, 370375.
Paunescu, L.A., Schuman, J.S., Price, L.L., Stark, P.C., Beaton, S.,
Ishikawa, H., Wollstein, G., Fujimoto, J.G., 2004. Reproducibility of
nerve fiber thickness, macular thickness, and optic nerve head
measurements using Stratus OCT. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45,
17161724.
Pianta, M.J., Aleman, T.S., Cideciyan, A.V., et al., 2003. In vivo
micropathology of Best macular dystrophy with optical coherence
tomography. Exp. Eye. Res. 76, 203211.
Pieroth, L., Schuman, J.S., Hertzmark, E., Hee, M.R., Wilkins, J.R.,
Coker, J., Mattox, C., Pedut-Kloizman, R., Puliafito, C.A., Fujimoto,
J.G., Swanson, E., 1999. Evaluation of focal defects of the nerve fiber
layer using optical coherence tomography. Ophthalmology 106,
570579.
Podoleanu, A.G., Seeger, M., Dobre, G.M., Webb, D.J., Jackson, D.A.,
Fitzke, F.W., 1998. Transversal and longitudinal images from the
retina of the living eye using low coherence reflectometry. J. Biomed.
Opt. 3, 1220.
Podoleanu, A.G., Dobre, G.M., Cucu, R.G., Rosen, R., Garcia, P., Nieto,
J., Will, D., Gentile, R., Muldoon, T., Walsh, J., Yannuzzi, L.A.,
Fisher, Y., Orlock, D., Weitz, R., Rogers, J.A., Dunne, S., Boxer, A.,
2004. Combined multiplanar optical coherence tomography and
confocal scanning ophthalmoscopy. J. Biomed. Opt. 9, 8693.
Pons, M.E., Garcia-Valenzuela, E., 2005. Redefining the limit of the outer
retina in optical coherence tomography scans. Ophthalmology 112,
10791085.
Puliafito, C.A., Hee, M.R., Schuman, J.S., Fujimoto, J.G., 1996. Optical
Coherence Tomography of Ocular Diseases. Slack Inc., Thorafore, NJ.
Sahni, J., Stanga, P., Wong, D., Harding, S., 2005. Optical coherence
tomography in photodynamic therapy for subfoveal choroidal
neovascularisation secondary to age related macular degeneration: a
cross sectional study. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 89, 316320.
Salinas-Alaman, A., Garcia-Layana, A., Maldonado, M.J., Sainz-Gomez,
C., Alvarez-Vidal, A., 2005. Using optical coherence tomography to
monitor photodynamic therapy in age related macular degeneration.
Am. J. Ophthalmol. 140, 2328.
Sanchez-Galeana, C.A., Bowd, C., Zangwill, L.M., Sample, P.A., Weinreb,
R.N., 2004. Short-wavelength automated perimetry results are correlated
with optical coherence tomography retinal nerve fiber layer thickness
measurements in glaucomatous eyes. Ophthalmology 111, 18661872.
Sandhu, S.S., Talks, S.J., 2005. Correlation of optical coherence
tomography, with or without additional colour fundus photography,
with stereo fundus fluorescein angiography in diagnosing choroidal
neovascular membranes. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 89, 967970.
Savini, G., Zanini, M., Carelli, V., Sadun, A.A., Ross-Cisneros, F.N.,
Barboni, P., 2005. Correlation between retinal nerve fibre layer
thickness and optic nerve head size: an optical coherence tomography
study. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 89, 489492.
Schuman, J.S., Hee, M.R., Puliafito, C.A., Wong, C., Pedut-Kloizman, T.,
Lin, C.P., Hertzmark, E., Izatt, J.A., Swanson, E.A., Fujimoto, J.G.,
1995. Quantification of nerve fiber layer thickness in normal and
glaucomatous eyes using optical coherence tomography. Arch.
Ophthalmol. 113, 586596.
Schuman, J.S., Pedut-Kloizman, T., Hertzmark, E., Hee, M.R., Wilkins,
J.R., Coker, J.G., Puliafito, C.A., Fujimoto, J.G., Swanson, E.A.,
1996. Reproducibility of nerve fiber layer thickness measurements
using optical coherence tomography. Ophthalmology 103, 18891898.
Skaf, M., Bernardes, A.B., Cardillo, J.A., Costa, R.A., Melo, L.A.,
Castro, J.C., Varma, R., 2005. Retinal nerve fibre layer thickness
profile in normal eyes using third-generation optical coherence
tomography. Eye (22 July 2005, Epub ahead of print).
Soliman, M.A., Van Den Berg, T.J., Ismaeil, A.A., De Jong, L.A., De
Smet, M.D., 2002. Retinal nerve fiber layer analysis: relationship
between optical coherence tomography and red-free photography. Am.
J. Ophthalmol. 133, 187195.
Sommer, A., Katz, J., Quigley, H.A., Miller, N.R., Robin, A.L., Richter,
R.C., Witt, K.A., 1991. Clinically detectable nerve fiber atrophy
precedes the onset of glaucomatous field loss. Arch. Ophthalmol. 109,
7783.
Swanson, E.A., Izatt, J.A., Hee, M.R., et al., 1993. In vivo retinal imaging
by optical coherence tomography. Opt. Lett. 18, 18641866.
Szkulmowski, M., Wojtkowski, M., Bajraszewski, T., Gorczynska, I.,
Targowski, P., Wasilewski, W., Kowalczyk, A., Radzewicz, C., 2005.
Quality improvement for high resolution in vivo images by Spectral
domain Optical Coherence Tomography with supercontinuum source.
Opt. Commun., forthcoming.
Targowski, P., Gorczynska, I., Szkulmowski, M., Cyganek, M., Wojtkowski, M., Kowalczyk, A., 2005. Improved complex spectral domain
OCT for in vivo eye imaging. Opt. Commun., forthcoming.
Targowski, P., Wojtkowski, M., Kowalczyk, A., Bajraszewski, T.,
Szkulmowski, M., Gorczynska, W., 2004. Complex spectral OCT in
human eye imaging in vivo. Opt. Commun. 229, 7984.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.A. Costa et al. / Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25 (2006) 325353
Tornambe, P.E., 2003. Macular hole genesis: the hydration theory. Retina
23, 421424.
Uemoto, R., Yamamoto, S., Aoki, T., Tsukahara, I., Yamamoto, T.,
Takeuchi, S., 2002. Macular configuration determined by optical coherence
tomography after idiopathic macular hole surgery with or without internal
limiting membrane peeling. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 86, 12401242.
Varma, R., Skaf, M., Barron, E., 1996. Retinal nerve fiber layer thickness
in normal human eyes. Ophthalmology 103, 21142119.
Villate, N., Lee, J.E., Venkatraman, A., Smiddy, W.E., 2005. Photoreceptor layer features in eyes with closed macular holes: optical
coherence tomography findings and correlation with visual outcomes.
Am. J. Ophthalmol. 139, 280289.
Watanabe, M., Oshima, Y., Emi, K., 2000. Optical cross-sectional
observation of resolved diabetic macular edema associated with
vitreomacular separation. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 129, 264267.
White, B.R., Pierce, M.C., Nassif, N., Cense, B., Park, B.H., Tearney,
G.J., Bouma, B.E., Chen, T.C., de Boer, J.F., 2003. In vivo dynamic
human retinal blood flow imaging using ultra-high-speed spectral
domain optical Doppler tomography. Opt. Express 11, 34903497.
Williams, Z.Y., Schuman, J.S., Gamell, L., Nemi, A., Hertzmark, E.,
Fujimoto, J.G., Mattox, C., Simpson, J., Wollstein, G., 2002. Optical
coherence tomography measurement of nerve fiber layer thickness and
the likelihood of a visual field defect. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 134,
538546.
Wojtkowski, M., Kowalczyk, A., Leitgeb, R., Fercher, A.F., 2002a. Full
range complex spectral optical coherence tomography technique in eye
imaging. Opt. Lett. 27, 14151417.
Wojtkowski, M., Leitgeb, R., Kowalczyk, A., Bajraszewski, T., Fercher,
A.F., 2002b. In vivo human retinal imaging by Fourier domain optical
coherence tomography. J. Biomed. Opt. 7, 457463.
Wojtkowski, M., Bajraszewski, T., Targowski, P., Kowalczyk, A., 2003.
Real-time in vivo imaging by high-speed spectral optical coherence
tomography. Opt. Lett. 28, 17451747.
Wojtkowski, M., Bajraszewski, T., Gorczynska, I., Targowski, P.,
Kowalczyk, A., Wasilewski, W., Radzewicz, C., 2004a. Ophthalmic
imaging by spectral optical coherence tomography. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 138, 412419.
353