Professional Documents
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AbSTRACT
The study’s objective is to arrive at a theoretical model and framework to guide research into the imple-
mentation of KMS, while also seeking to inform practice. In order to achieve this, the paper applies the
critical success factors (CSF) method in a field study of successful KMS implementations across 12 large
multinational organisations operating in a range of sectors. The paper first generates a ‘collective set’ of
CSFs from extant research to construct an a priori model and framework: this is then empirically validated
and extended using the field study findings to arrive at a ‘collective set’ of CSFs for all 12 organisations.
These are then employed to refine and extend the theoretical model using insights from the literature on
capability theory. It is hoped that the model and framework will aid theory building and future empirical
research on this highly important and relevant topic.
Keywords: business strategy; critical success factors (CSFs); information technology; knowledge
management; knowledge management system; organisational factors
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2 Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007
a more systematic and deliberate study on the model and framework for KMS implementa-
critical success factors (CSFs) for implementing tion. In order to undertake the study with the
KM… [as] Organisations need to be cognizant required degree of rigour, the concepts of IS
and aware of the factors that will influence the implementation and KMSs, as applied in this
success of a KM initiative” (p. 261): This study study, are first delineated.
seeks to address such concerns.
It is with these points in mind that this IS Implementation Defined
study seeks to arrive at a theoretical model and In an early article on IS implementation, Zmud
framework of critical success factors to guide and Cox (1979) argued that “MIS implementa-
research into the implementation of KMS. It tion is commonly viewed as involving a series
also aims to inform practice, as practitioners of related activities” (p. 35). Inter alia, these
in organisations remain unsure as to how to go stages are defined by Zmud and Cox as the
about planning and deploying KMS (Moffett et initiation, strategic design, technical design,
al., 2003). In order to achieve its objective, the development, conversion, and evaluation stages.
article adopts a qualitative research approach However, researchers subsequently adopted
and applies Rockart’s (1976) CSF method in a the convention of referring to the “conversion”
field study of KMS implementations across 12 stage as the implementation stage and using
large multinational organisations operating in a the term IS development to refer to planning,
range of sectors. Drawing on Rockart (1979), analysis, design, design, implementation, and
CSFs may be defined for KM as “the few key use. In essence, IS implementation takes place
areas where “things must go right” for the [KMS when the technology dimension is integrated
implementation] to flourish. If the results in with the people and process dimensions (within
these areas are not adequate, the organisation’s particular organisational and institutional con-
efforts [at KM] will be less than desired” (p. texts and environments) in order to arrive at an
217). In order to attain its stated objective, this organisational IS—furthermore, it overlaps and
study first identifies a collective set of CSFs is intertwined with the “use” phase, as well as
from the KM literature, which are used to the operation and maintenance activities (Iivari,
construct a theoretical model and associated 1990; Iivari & Ervasti, 1994). Thus, when ex-
framework. Both the framework and the CSFs ploring the phenomenon of IS implementation
that constitute it are then empirically validated in so defined, researchers will attempt to inves-
the organisations studied; practitioners in these tigate preceding related factors, processes, or
organisations also helped identify additional activities in order to explain or understand how
factors as being of importance. The outcome success in IS implementation is achieved. This
of this endeavour is a refined and extended is the approach adopted in the present study.
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Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007 3
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4 Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007
organizational issues was identified as a major and commitment to, the initiative (Hasanali,
concern in the deployment of KMS. This result 2002). A KMS strategy should also articulate
is consistent with the IT management literature, an organisation’s knowledge sharing objectives,
which advocates organizational and behav- so that they may be conveyed to all members
ioural change management as critical success of staff, not only senior managers and project
factors in the implementation of information members (Mason & Pauleen, 2003); it must
systems” (p. 21); thus organisational factors also provide a clear and unambiguous definition
form the final grouping. These three factor of knowledge (Jennex & Olfman, 2006). The
groupings—strategy, IT, and organisation—will research cited in Table 2 also illustrates that the
help the articulation of a parsimonious model implementation of KM also requires the estab-
of KMS implementation that possesses, what lishment of new roles and responsibilities for
Markus and Robey (1988) term, an “empirical KM within an organisation (Butler & Murphy,
fidelity” with the phenomenon under investiga- 2007; Davenport et al., 1998).
tion—the implementation of KMS.
Information
KM Strategy CSfs1 Technology-Related CSfs
While knowledge is recognized as a critical The emphasis on implementing IT artefacts for
resource for sustained competitive advantages, knowledge creation and sharing has several
successful KM remains a key challenge to or- implications for potential success factors, as is
ganisations (Davenport & Prusak, 1998; Lam indicated in Table 3. Gray and Durcikova (2006)
& Chua, 2005; Wong, 2005). Table 2 illustrates report, for example, that “[a] key limitation
the strategy-based CSFs for KM. According to on the potential effectiveness of any IT-based
Hansen et al. (1999) “a company’s knowledge system is its ease of use…it follows that one
management strategy should reflect its competi- reason why analysts may not source knowl-
tive strategy” (p. 109); thus, Table 2 indicates edge from a repository is that the technology
that KM strategy must be closely aligned to is not sufficiently easy to use—that is, it may
business strategy (Lam & Chua, 2005). It be awkward, slow, or difficult enough to use
also indicates that an effective KM strategy that analysts may believe that the benefits do
should ensure senior management support for, not outweigh the costs” (p. 184). Accordingly,
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Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007 5
Damodaran and Olphert (2000) found that speed artefacts for knowledge sharing. Indeed, secu-
and response times of the system are crucial to rity is low in the hierarchy of success factors,
system success. Thus, KM tools must seam- 12th in fact, for KMS, as reported by Jennex
lessly integrate into the day-to-day routine and and Olfman (2006). Thus in designing a KMS,
activities of employees; if it is difficult to use the issues of security need to be balanced with
and takes them away from their core activities, openness in KMS design and use.
they will not see the advantages of using the The IT/IS function in an organisation
system (Alavi & Leidner, 1999). plays a key supporting role in KMS design,
Stenmark (2002) argues that Web-based development, and implementation (Davenport
intranets offer an excellent IT platform for & Prusak, 1998): However, the development
knowledge sharing. Lam and Chua’s (2005) of such an infrastructure should be business-
empirical findings provide support for this oriented, as researchers maintain that the de-
perspective, as do Butler et al. (2006) who velopment of the KMS should be user-driven
illustrate that Web-based technologies form and based on the business objectives of an
the key components of a core IT artefact for organisation (Damodaran & Olphert, 2000;
knowledge sharing. Mason & Pauleen, 2003). For example, Lam
Gold et al. (2001) argue that trust and and Chua (2005) report that one KMS project
openness are at the core of knowledge sharing failed due to a dearth of technical and business
behaviours; however, as knowledge is a valu- knowledge required to sustain the programme,
able firm-specific resource, security is also the implication here is that it would have been
an important consideration (Alavi & Leidner, a success had there been a high level of IT and
1999; Jennex & Olfman, 2006). In this context, user/business participation throughout.
security is viewed as being a technological issue,
while openness associated with interpersonal or Organisational CSfs
cultural dimensions (Gold et al., 2001). In their KM researchers highlight the important influ-
action research study on KMS design, however, ence that organisational actors have in relation
Butler et al. (2006) clearly focus on “openness” to KMS (Moffett et al., 2003). It is hardly
over security when it comes to developing IT surprising then that Bhatt (2001) reports that
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6 Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007
56% of executives believe that changing people share knowledge within the organisation due
factors such as behaviour are the most critical to reasons such as the lack of trust and knowl-
elements in KMS implementations (cf. Hackett, edge-hoarding mentality” (p. 12). Similarly,
2000). Hislop (2003), for example, states that according to Wong (2005), the development
“personnel issues are now arguably regarded a of trust relationships among staff members is
THE key factor most likely to effect the outcome essential in order to enable knowledge sharing,
of knowledge management initiatives” (p. 3). this in turn means overcoming the scepticism
Alavi and Leidner (1999) argue that culture- surrounding the intentions and behaviours of
based teamwork is a required KM capability; others.
more recently, Wong (2005) emphasises the The importance of user training is empha-
importance of teamwork at various levels in sized across a number of studies (see Table 4);
an organisation, both in the KM implementa- in their analysis of CSFs for KMS, Jennex and
tion team and KMS users. In their study of Olfman (2004, 2006), for example, include
KM practice, Alavi and Leidner (1999) also training in two of the CSFs cited. However,
note the cross-functional nature of KM teams, even if training is provided, Hasanali (2002)
with members of relevant business units and suggests that after the deployment of a KMS,
the IS function; however, in a general context, the central KM group should spend most of its
practitioners in Hackett’s (2000) study illustrate time teaching, guiding, and coaching users on
that the “teaming” of knowledge workers and how to use the KMS.
the existence of a culture of teamwork played Davenport et al. (1998) underline the need
a critical role in KM success—this has been for motivational incentives for KM users. There
a recurrent theme in the literature, as Table 4 is broad agreement in the literature on the need
indicates. for incentives in the implementation of KMS;
Another major cultural factor is that of indeed Jennex and Olfman (2004, 2006) under-
trust: Chua and Lam (2005) observe in one line the need for motivated users who are com-
organisation, for example, that “[s]taff did not mitted to KMS use—the provision of incentives
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Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007 7
and training are important factors in achieving 2001). In addition, certain types of organisa-
this. Accordingly, Wong (2005) points out that tional structures and processes place limits on
“one of the important factors is to establish communications and can create intentional or
the right incentives, rewards or motivational unintentional obstacles (Malhotra & Galletta,
aids to encourage people to share and apply 2003). Gold et al. (2001) state that a modular
knowledge. Giving incentives to employees organisational design can diminish the costs of
helps to stimulate and reinforce the positive be- coordination and adaptation, thereby increasing
haviours and culture needed for effective KM” flexibility; hence Gold et al. maintain that a
(p. 271). Malhotra and Galletta (2003) report, non-hierarchical, self-organising organisational
however, that in some organisations where structure is the most effective for knowledge
formal incentives existed, knowledge sharing sharing. Alavi and Leidner (1999) report that
was not stimulated. The views of practitioners managers worry about managing change around
reported in Hackett (2000) reflect this point, the shift from existing processes to ones that
and while monetary incentives are associated included knowledge sharing: Indeed the change
with centrally led and driven KM initiatives, management around structures and process were
non-monetary incentives and intrinsic rewards listed as “key concerns” in their study. Following
are linked with “skunk works” type projects. this line of reasoning it is clear that changing
Thus, it may be concluded that the application structures and processes, and the management
of incentives, formal or informal, monetary and of that change, is important for the successful
non-monetary, is contingent on the context of implementation of KMS.
the KMS implementation.
Organisational structures are intended to A Model and framework of
rationalise and make efficient individual func- Knowledge Management
tions or units within an organisation; however,
rigid structures and processes encourage indi- System Implementation
vidualistic behaviour in which locations, divi- Based on forgoing arguments, a theoretical
sions, and functions are rewarded for “hoard- model (Figure 1) is proposed to guide the
ing” information and inhibiting successful KM conduct of the present study. Both it, and its
across the organisation (McDermott & O’ Dell, associated framework (which is constituted
by the CSFs in Tables 2-4 that describe each
Organisational
Factors
KMS Implementation
Strategic Factors Success
IT-related Factors
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8 Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007
of the model’s high-level constructs) are based argued to determine KMS success. Benbya
on observations drawn from extant research on (2006) indicates that KMS effectiveness (i.e.,
KM and KMS. The model captures the manner the success construct) is indicated by knowledge
in which KMS implementation success may be quality, usage, and perceived benefits; similar
directed and effected by: (1) strategic factors, measures are proposed by Jennex and Olfman
(2) IT factors, and (3) organisational factors. (2006) viz. perceived benefit and use/user sat-
The interaction of these groups of factors is isfaction leading to net benefits. The primary
Table 5. Organisation code, key informant roles sector and KMS characteristics
Organisation KMS Characteristics
Key Informant Roles Industry Sector
Code (see legend below)
Information Management
A E-service and KM Co-Coordinator II, III, IV
and Storage (IMS)
IT helpdesk Manager and Local
B Mobile Technology (MT) II, III, IV
KM Manager
C Learning and Leadership Manager Mobile Technology (MT) II, III, IV
D IT Development Manager Professional Services (PS) II, III, IV
Knowledge and Information
E Manager Professional Services (PS) I, III, IV
Assistant Information Manager
F KM Group Manager Professional Services (PS) I, III, IV
Development Manager
G Pharmaceutics (P) I, II, III, IV
Automation Manager
Knowledge Management Supervi-
H Pharmaceutics (P) II, III, IV
sor
Knowledge Management Consult-
ing Community Leader Global Consulting and
I I, II, III, IV
Communications Manager for Outsourcing (CGO)
Learning and Knowledge
Global Consulting and
J Senior Partner I, II, III, IV
Outsourcing (CGO)
Knowledge Management Program
K Manufacturing Sector (M) I, II, III, IV
Manager
Section Manager and manager
L of KM initiatives in the Product Manufacturing Sector (M) I, II, III, IV
Development Department
I. Highly accessible Intranet-based KMS that integrates knowledge
among general communities of practice
KMS Characteristics Leg- II. Highly accessible Intranet-based KMS that integrates knowledge
end (Adapted from Benbya, among specific communities of practice
2006; Jennex & Olfman,
2006) III. Knowledge creation and sharing using task/process
IV. Knowledge creation and sharing generic/infrastructure ap-
proaches
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Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007 9
objective of this study, therefore, is to validate the characteristics of each organisational KMS
the three groups of CSFs that affect the success- using criteria adapted from Benbya (2006) and
ful implementation of KMS and the strategic Jennex and Olfman (2006).
change surrounding the introduction and use Given the exploratory and interpretive
of such systems. nature of the study, and the use of the CSF
method, each interview was semi-structured,
RESEARCh APPROACh with structure being provided by the application,
In order to examine the factors that affect the as an interview guide, of the research framework
implementation of KMSs in several organisa- of “collective” CSFs presented in Tables 2-4. As
tions, an interpretive field study approach was the KM practitioners interviewed were gener-
adopted (Walsham, 1995). The application of ally familiar with the CSF concept, or similar
this approach was informed by the CFSs con- approaches such as key performance indica-
cept and method (Butler & Fitzgerald, 1999; tors and so forth, its use permitted a common
Rockart, 1979). ground to be established between researchers
Twelve organisations that had successfully and researched (Butler & Fitzgerald, 1999). It
implemented KMSs were purposively selected is consistent with interpretive field research to
to participate in this interpretive field study have social actors narrate their own perspec-
and application of the CSFs method: these tives of the phenomenon of interest (Walsham,
included EMC², Deloitte, Motorola, KPMG, 1995). Researchers therefore encouraged KM
Siemens Corp., Pfizer Corp., IBM, Hewlett practitioners to identify additional CSFs or
Packard, Schering-Plough, Analog Devices modify those in the framework. Each interview
Inc., Accenture, and two world-renowned con- was taped and up to two hours in duration.
sultancy/professional services organisations. This study’s theoretical model and CSF
It must be noted, however, that some of these research framework also guided the data analy-
organisations achieved less in the way of suc- sis, with CSFs acting as “seed categories” to
cess in terms of subsequent use of their KMS. analyse the “content” of each interview tran-
Important selection criteria were that each of script and all documentation: This permitted the
these organisations are recognised leaders in CSFs for each organisation to be identified in
KM within their respective industry sectors; context. Indeed, having interviewees directly
furthermore, all had successfully implemented validate the a-priori “collective set” of CSFs for
intranet-based KMS based on Web technologies KMS implementation, while also nominating
more than one year preceding the study. A recent additional organisation-specific CSFs, greatly
study by Benbya (2006) adopted similar selec- aided the data analysis phase: Hence, CSF-
tion criteria in purposively selecting organisa- related themes were readily identified in the
tions for study. Purposive sampling was also data. The subsequent comparative analysis of
applied in each organisation to choose the most interview transcripts and company documenta-
knowledgeable subject-matter experts (Patton, tion confirmed a collective set of CSFs for the
1990). Thus 15 interviews were conducted with organisations studied (cf. Butler & Fitzgerald,
KM practitioners, with interviewees being 1999; Patton, 1990).
purposively chosen using the key informant
approach (Patton, 1990)—see Table 5. While fIElD STuDy fINDINgS
organisational anonymity was a requirement for As indicated, the 12 organisations participating
some of the organisations participating in this in this study had all successfully implemented
research, the researchers adopted an approach KMS, but some had subsequent problems with
to effectively anonymize all—Table 5 lists the KMS use, as the following sections indicate.
organisation code employed, while also indicat- That said, the KMS could not be described as
ing the sector in which the organisations operate. failures. Table 6 provides an analytic matrix
In addition the table provides a brief analysis of listing the collective CSFs for all 12 organisa-
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Collective CSFs/Companies A B C D E F G H I J K L Total
Sectors IMS MT MT PS PS PS P P GCO GCO M M 6
Strategic Factors
Having a close alignment of KM Strategy with Corporate Strategy X X X X X X X X X X X 11
is prohibited.
Possessing a comprehensive definition of and communicating KM Objectives X X X X X X X X X 9
Having a diverse, cross-functional KM Team X X X X X X X X X X 10
Adopting a suitable Taxonomy of Knowledge X X X X X X 6
Having an Adequate KM budget X X 3
Field Study Findings
IT-related Factors
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Introducing non-monetary incentives and rewards X X X X X X X X 8
Changing organisational structures and processes X X X X 4
Total CSFs per Org 9 10 12 12 10 14 15 14 10 10 9 14
Table 6. Collective CSFs found to influence KMS implementation in the organisations studied-
Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007 11
tions (entries A-L), which emerged from the actively communicate the goals and benefits
research data. The factors are grouped under of KM to the target groups. The e-service and
the related high-level headings of strategy, IT, KM Co-Coordinator of Company A stated, for
and organisation. The organisational sectors are example, that “you must have clear objectives
also identified to help comparison (the legend and goals before you implement the system or
for each is presented in Table 5). An X signifies else it will not work. Employees must be able
whether the CSF was manifested during the to see the clear goals and benefits of a KMS.”
KMS implementation process in the organisa- Company A scheduled team meetings and coffee
tions (A-L) studied. The following sections room sessions to communicate KM goals, while
provide a descriptive analysis of these CSFs and also advertising KM on their intranet and making
the influence they exerted on KMS deployment users actively involved in the KM process. The
and use in each of the organisations. Information Manager of Company E echoed this
Some 23 collective CSFs are presented view and stated: “There has to be a vision, a
in Table 6—hence, an additional 7 CSFs were goal, and you have to see the benefits that you
identified in addition to those cited in the litera- can get out it. If we do x, y, z, and implement
ture and appearing in Tables 2-4. The difference it this way then we will get a, b, c out of it.”
arises from claims/observations made by KM However, in the KM practitioner in Company
practitioners on the existence of additional L viewed that their KMS implementation was
CSFs (four strategic CSFs) and the need to not aligned to any corporate goal and stated that
refine and elaborate on particular CSFs (three as a result KM became largely decentralised
additional CSFs emerged from the analysis on with many divisions undertaking their own KM
IT participation and involvement in IT-related initiatives. This decentralisation resulted in each
factors and incentives and rewards in the or- division setting their own goals for KM and
ganisational factors). This approach is wholly following their own guidelines; he explained,
consistent with the application of an interpretive “the local initiatives for KM did not centrally
research approach involving the CSFs method co-ordinate for the maximum benefit across the
(see Butler & Fitzgerald, 1999). organisation. Each division went about making
their own provision and meeting their own needs
Strategic CSfs in terms of KM, as a result on a global level
Practitioners in all but one of the organisations KM has yet to take off. Currently, it is like ten
studied (Company L) indicated that it was vital small companies working in one company.” In
to have KM strategies aligned with corporate 9 of the 12 organisations the objectives of the
business strategies; the reason why Company L KMS implementation were explicitly defined,
differed is due to the application of the KMS to whereas in the cases where there was poor
operational processes. The practices of defining, communication of benefits (Companies B and
aligning, and communicating KM benefits and D, for example) practitioners recommended
goals were present in each of the organisations increased awareness to improve system use
studied, except Company L. In the majority and success.
of firms, KM objectives were formally linked Five of the organisations established new
to corporate goals: for example, innovation, roles and responsibilities to monitor and support
attaining competitive advantage, and so on. In KMS content. Practitioners considered these
Company D, for example, the main objective roles as a “must have” for KM success. The new
of KM (capturing solutions to reoccurring roles created within the organisations studied
problems) was linked to the corporate goal varied little, mainly in titles assigned to key per-
of preventing the “reinvention of the wheel.” sonnel (e.g., Knowledge Manager, Knowledge
Organisations adopted similar approaches (e.g., Champion, etc.). In addition, the responsibility
meetings, coffee mornings, workshops, user assigned (e.g., maintenance, support, and so
involvement, and establishing KM slogans) to on) to these roles seldom varied between the
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12 Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007
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Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007 13
approaches that incorporated simulated test designing the system. They were involved in
environments, user involvement, deploying testing and prototyping the system. Once the
Web technologies, and returning appropriate and system was running they were involved in
accurate results. In Company E, for example, giving any feedback on the system.” Many of
the design phase involved users testing for ease the organisations established user groups or
of use in simulated test systems. A number of steering groups for their respective KM project.
the systems also replicated their organisational Company F, for example, established an organi-
structures to provide categorisation for the sation-wide KM team where employees were
knowledge repository. In addition, organisations rotated on a constant basis through user groups
developed KM roles to monitor data input and to gain extensive feedback. Company E set up
categorisation. The importance of this activity a global team to monitor user feedback and to
was commented upon by a KM practitioner in interface with developers user requirements.
Company G, who stated that “the knowledge The Assistant Information Manager in Company
returned must be precise, current and accurate to E stated that the system “has to come from the
be of any use to employees”—thereby ensuring users, it has to be what they like and need.” The
accurate and appropriate results. KM Practitioner from Company A identified the
The dual requirements of security and open- outcomes related to a lack of user involvement:
ness were also identified by three organisations he stated that his firm did not get sufficient users
as important factors in the design of a KMS. involved in the design and development of its
Users “must have access to as much knowledge KMS, consequently, key functionality was not
as possible but only access to knowledge that added to the system. This practitioner argued
is relevant to their needs” (KM Practitioner, that this was a major reason users did not see
Company C). In the case of Companies A, B, any benefit from using the system.
C, D, E, F, G, I, J, and L, KM practitioners The IT function’s role varied across the
stated that access to the knowledge repositories organisations studied: For example, three or-
and sub-systems belonging to other functional ganisations identified that they had strong IT
units or departments was typically achieved support throughout the duration of the project;
by obtaining permissions and access rights Companies B, C, and E had minimal IT involve-
from the departmental head though e-mail or ment; while the role of the IT function evolved
telephone. over the course of the project for the remaining
User participation and involvement in six organisations. According to the KM Group
KMS implementation was seen as crucial, Manager in Company F, the IT function was
with 11 out of the 12 companies highlighting brought in at different stages when required
it as a critical factor, both in defining user re- to support the KM decision-making process.
quirements and in creating awareness among The IT function also performed the “taken for
users. Many of the organisations achieved user granted role” of ensuring that the technological
involvement through the establishment of the infrastructure was in place to allow efficient
cross-functional KM teams and by assigning sharing and access to knowledge. In contrast,
responsibility to key users to link back feedback in Company K, the IT function was involved
and developments to the business. Significantly, in an early stage matching the technology with
it emerged from the findings that the stronger users’ needs. The role of the IT function included
the user participation and involvement was in introducing the technological capabilities in
the analysis, design, and testing of KMS the terms of managing organisational knowledge,
higher the degree of KM success (cf. Cavaye while also limiting the user requirements to a
[1995] for evidence of this in traditional IS). certain degree. According to the Automation
For example, the Communications Manager for Manager in Company G, the IT function was
Learning and Knowledge in Company I pointed involved from the start and contributed to each
out: “Users were involved in giving input in stage of the KM design, implementation, and
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14 Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007
support process: Also, the IT function was ac- to little or no participation, or having IT lead
tively involved in the decision-making process the KMS project.
and had a strong presence on the KM team.
Equally at Company H, the IT function played Organisational factors and
a lead role in the design and development of its Their Impact
KMS. A KM team was set up and was led by Creating a knowledge sharing culture was seen
a software programmer and a financial man- by all KM practitioners as being imperative to
ager. The various departments submitted their embedding knowledge sharing in employees.
requirements and both the software programmer KM practitioners repeated mantra-like that:
and the financial manager had the final say in “People made it happen: They have the knowl-
the design of the system. The Development edge, and they make the decision to share their
Manager in Company G supported the case knowledge” (KM Practitioner Company F).
for a strong IT presence. He explained: “If The researchers found that all organisations
knowledge management was mainly driven were progressing to team-oriented and high-
by IT then, it would not adequately capture trust cultures prior to the introduction of KM.
the user requirements. However if IT is not KM practitioners saw this as a fundamental
part of Knowledge Management, then you are cultural change and the key to knowledge
probably going to see the wrong infrastructure, sharing, regardless of the need to implement
poor development, and poor roll out.” a KMS. KM practitioners from companies A
As indicated, three of the respondents sup- and K, however, noted that knowledge sharing
ported the view that the IT function should play appeared to be problematic across and between
no part in the KM decision process (Companies teams—this issue was linked to the absence of
B, C, and E): these KM practitioners stated that KM-related roles in their organisations. This
the IT function was, and should be, restricted finding points to the importance of new roles
to the delivery of the IT infrastructure and in and responsibilities as one of the key drivers of
supporting KMS users. However, even though knowledge sharing cultures; it also highlights
each of these respondents stated that the IT the importance of the link between KM strategy
function played little or no role in the design and organisational dimensions.
process, it was reported that the IT function had User training was highlighted by eight of
a representative on the KM team. This would the organisations as a vital factor in KMS imple-
indicate that the IT function, even though not mentation. Several organisations implemented
visibly seen in the KM decision process, would comprehensive programmes and conducted KM
have been consulted when required and IT pro- workshops, held training courses, provided
fessionals were background contributors to the online tutorials, and formed open discussion
decision-making processes. It is clear then that groups to deliver user training. The leader
the IT function played a supporting role in KM of the Knowledge Management Consulting
in all 12 organisations, but in the pharmaceuti- Community of Company I explained: “User
cal sector (Companies G and H) IT played an training is imperative, it’s key. It’s got to be
important role in the decision-making processes comfortable for users and one way of making
surrounding KMS implementation. Many of it comfortable is training. If is doesn’t integrate
the KM practitioners viewed the IT function well with people, then you got to have more
as being directed by the KM strategy, while training.” Additionally, the Information Man-
feeding into this strategy with IT architecture ager in Company E stated since “the system
plans, technical advances and knowledge of is continuously being improved all the time;
any previous systems implementations. Table 6 employees have to be trained to use the system
indicates that what worked best in the majority to gain maximum benefit from the system.” The
of organisations was an evolving, but strong KM practitioner from Company B viewed the
participation, by the IT function, as opposed lack of success of this company’s KMS as being
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Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007 15
directly related to absence of formal training is accessed) and the employees are rewarded
and indicated that the user training associated based on the usage count of the knowledge they
with the implementation of this firm’s global have entered. The pharmaceutical organisations,
KMS was minimal. They expected that the users which had well-established knowledge sharing
would learn through a trial and error approach, cultures, did not use monetary incentives and
the only user training delivered was a one-day rewards. The Development Manager in Com-
demonstration by a knowledge manager to all pany G stated, “sharing knowledge is part of our
employees. He believed the lack of user train- organisational culture, there is no need to use
ing has led to users finding it difficult “to do rewards or incentives. It now has become part
simple tasks such as logging solutions or finding of their daily routine.” The Automation Manager
knowledge.” He noted that as a result of people in Company G commented that “[knowledge
not being able to use the system, “they became sharing] is part of their day-to-day job like any
frustrated with the system and could not see other role they have to carry out.” Also the lo-
the benefit from using the system.” He added cal KM Supervisor in Company H stated that
it was not uncommon to meet employees say- KM “is part of employee’s job description. It is
ing, “I never knew the system could do this.” embedded in their role to record and share the
He explained that as a result the system had knowledge about their experiences.”
functionality which many users were unaware Change to organisational structures and
of and did not use. processes did not arise in this study as a barrier
All 12 organisations offered either mon- to, or critical factor for, KMS implementation.
etary or non-monetary rewards for knowledge However several KM practitioners reported
sharing. In the pharmaceutical organisations, that the logical design of their KMS reflected
monetary incentives were not formally instituted closely the structure of their organisation. The
to promote KMS use; however, knowledge KM Group Manager of Company F explained:
sharing was incorporated into each employee’s “Our Knowledge Management System mir-
roles. It is significant that both professional rors where the knowledge is physically stored
services organisations (Company D and F) were in the organisation by aligning the layout of
attempting to move away from incentives and the Knowledge Management System to the
establish knowledge sharing as a core element organisational structure.” Also, the knowledge
in job descriptions. In contrast, KM practitio- taxonomy of Company F’s KMS maps readily to
ners from Companies A, C, I, and K revealed core functions in their organisational structure
that rewards were offered to employees who (e.g., tax, finance, etc.). The IT Development
actively share knowledge. The Leader of the Manager of Company D pointed out that his
KM Consulting Community in Company I company designed their KMS around audit, tax,
supported the use of monetary rewards and management consulting, and financial advisory
stated “you will always need rewards. Rewards consulting, which reflects this company’s logi-
and incentives will make it a bit more interest- cal structure and key processes. The Learning
ing, in what’s in it for me, and what they are and Leadership Manager in Company C stated
going to get out of it for participating.” It is the organisational structure is mirrored in the
significant that organisations which had poorly design of the system: He explained that “our
developed knowledge sharing cultures (e.g., knowledge management strategy embraces
Company A, C, I) relied heavily on the use of structure by how the knowledge is captured
incentives and rewards. The e-service and KM and shared. Different functions have different
Co-Coordinator in Company A stated that they knowledge needs and this must be represented
have established monetary rewards based on in the Knowledge Management System.” The
“the usage of knowledge.” These companies Automation Manager in Company G com-
established a “usage count” within the system, mented that designing a KMS on the basis of the
(e.g., metering how often a knowledge item organisational structure “gives clarity on where
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is prohibited.
16 Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007
to find knowledge.” These observations give CSF concept: business and IT capabilities are
support for the use of a knowledge taxonomy the organisational routines that ensure success
that can be mapped onto an organisation’s in the few key areas where “things must go
structure. right” for a KMS implementation. The modi-
fied model presented in Figure 2 posits that if
A REfINED ThEORETICAl an organisation is seeking to implement a KMS
MODEl AND fRAMEwORK successfully, then organisational routines (i.e.,
dynamic capabilities) must be in place to ensure
fOR KMS IMPlEMENTATION that each of the CSFs are achieved: The failure
It is outside the scope of this article to present to succeed in these key areas may result in the
a fully working theory of KMS implementa- failure to implement a KMS, and/or generate
tion. Following Teng and Galletta (1991), it user dissatisfaction with the KMS that influ-
presents a “pre-theory” framework to guide ences its subsequent use and effectiveness. This
research activities enroute to theory develop- constitutes the model’s variance theory predic-
ment. As Chervany (1973) argues, empirical tion. The realization of the CSFs are posited
investigations of IS-related problems require as empirical indicators of related strategic, IT,
“a research framework that identifies variables and organisational capabilities (independent
(or propositions) to be examined and provides variables); the dependent variable of interest,
a structure for correlating and synthesizing KMS success, may be measured by knowledge
independent research studies” (p. 181). The quality, usage, and perceived benefits (i.e., KMS
CSFs/capabilities model presented here (see effectiveness, Benbya [2006]) or by measures
Figure 2) attempts to meet these prescriptions proposed by Jennex and Olfman (2006) viz.
and is now formally proposed. perceived benefit and use/user satisfaction
In reflecting on the findings, it was apparent leading to net benefits.
that the link between CSFs and KMS success
was mediated by the abilities of organisations
and organisational actors to realize the factors. CONCluSION
This is an important observation in terms of the The evidence provided from KM practitioners
proposed model’s (Figure 1) explanatory power. participating in this study indicates that the key
Hence, following Wheeler (2002), this article to the successful deployment of a KMS draws
proposes to extend the model presented in Figure on a range of closely related factors that operate
1 by proposing the strategic, IT-related, and at all levels and functions within an organisa-
organisational factors as indicators of strategic, tion. Nevertheless, there is evidence from the
IT, and organisational dynamic capabilities (see findings that the successful implementation of
Figure 2). Twenty CSFs are included in Figure a KMS does not guarantee ongoing success in
2, down from the 23 presented in Table 6, as 3 the use of the KMS. Indeed, user satisfaction
“repeating” CSFs were consolidated (i.e., those with an implemented KMS may be associated
dealing with IT participation and involvement with a lack of success in pre-implementation
and incentives and rewards). In a general con- activities; for example, one of the organisa-
text Kangas (1997) argues that organisational tions studied decided not to undertake formal,
“capabilities are developed by combining and intensive user training, with poor outcomes for
using resources with the aid of organizational subsequent KMS use.
routines, which are a specific way of doing what The findings of this study permitted the
the organization has developed and learned” theoretical model presented in Figure 1 to be
(p. 972). The following broad definition of refined and extended to that illustrated in Figure
business and IT capabilities is drawn from 2. It is significant for the model’s validity and
Eisenhardt and Martin (2002) conceptualization the practical relevance of its associated frame-
of dynamic capabilities and Rockart’s (1979) work (Tables 2-4 and 6) that it was the focus of
debate in each of the 15 interviews conducted.
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Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007 17
Strategy Factors
Organisational Factors
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18 Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007
KM practitioner feedback helped confirm and 1998). This is to be expected, as Butler (2003)
identify “collective” CSFs for the successful illustrated that “wicked problems” that beset
implementation of KMS. The empirical data the development of traditional IS also impact
suggested the inclusion of additional factors not Web-based intranet systems. Thus, researchers
delineated in the original model; accordingly, into KMS implementation should, perhaps, look
these were presented in Table 6 and integrated beyond the KM literature for solutions to endur-
into the refined model in Figure 2. It is signifi- ing problems in business and IS practice; that
cant that the CSFs identified herein confirm and said, it is also clear that the implementation of
extend those reported in recent studies (see, a KMS brings its own particular challenges for
for example, Jennex and Olfman, 2004, 2006; business and IS practitioners. The challenge for
Lam and Chua, 2005), while also capturing IS researchers will be to progress research into
those reported in reviews of “traditional” IS the design, development, implementation, and
implementation (see Kwon & Zmud, 1987). use of KMS from the foundations provided by
The refined model presented in Figure 2 may, the cumulative body of research in the IS field
therefore, be employed to guide future research and not fall prey to the temptation to reinvent
(i.e., be tested and confirmed/elaborated) and the wheel in a research context.
inform practice (highlight important factors to
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is prohibited.
Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 19(4), 1-21, October-December 2007 21
Tom Butler, PhD, is a senior lecturer in business information systems, University College Cork, Ireland. Before
joining academia, Butler had an extensive career as an IT professional in the telecommunications industry.
While his previous research was primarily qualitative, interpretive and case-based in nature, being centred
on IT capabilities and the development and implementation of information systems in organizations, since
2003 he has been focusing on applied R&D in IT-enabled knowledge management systems. His research
has been published in international journals such as the Information Systems Journal, Journal of Strategic
Information Systems, the Journal of Information Technology, the Journal of End-User Computing, and in
the proceedings of major international conferences such as ICIS, ECIS, AMCIS, and IFIP 8.2 and 8.6.
Ciara Heavin, MSc, is a college lecturer in business information systems at University College Cork,
Ireland. She is currently completing a PhD in the area of knowledge management. Her main research
interests focus on knowledge creating and sharing activities in software SMEs and on the development of
business enterprises in the IT sector in Ireland.
Finbarr O’Donovan, MSc, is a business analyst with Glanbia Plc., a multinational dairy processor and
food ingredients enterprise. His research interests are in knowledge management, while in his role as
an IS practitioner he is currently focusing on the Sales and Logistics Execution areas of SAP within his
organisation.
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is prohibited.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.