Introduction

The finite element is a mathematical method for solving ordinary and partial differential
equations. Because it is a numerical method, it has the ability to solve complex problems
that can be represented in differential equation form. As these types of equations occur
naturally in virtually all fields of the physical sciences, the applications of the finite
element method are limitless as regards the solution of practical design problems.

Due to the high cost of computing power of years gone by, FEA has a history of being
used to solve complex and cost critical problems. Classical methods alone usually cannot
provide adequate information to determine the safe working limits of a major civil
engineering construction or an Automobile or an Aircraft. If a tall building, a large
suspension bridge or an Automobile or a Nuclear reactor failed catastrophically, the
economic and social costs would be unacceptably high.

In recent years, FEA has been used almost universally to solve structural engineering
problems. One discipline that has relied heavily on this technology is the Automotive and
Aerospace industry. Due to the need to meet the extreme demands for faster, stronger,
efficient and light weight Automobiles and Aircrafts, manufacturers have to rely on the
technique to stay competitive. But more importantly, due to safety, high manufacturing
costs of components and the high media coverage that the industry is exposed to,
Automotive and Aircraft companies need to ensure that none of their components fail,
that is to cease providing the service that the design intended.

FEA has been used routinely in high volume production and manufacturing industries for
many years, as to get a product design wrong would be detrimental. For example, if a
large manufacturer had to recall one model alone due to a piston design fault, they would
end up having to replace up to 10 million pistons. Similarly, if an oil platform had to shut
down due to one of the major components failing (platform frame, turrets, etc..), the cost
of lost revenue is far greater than the cost of fixing or replacing the components, not to
mention the huge environmental and safety costs that such an incident could incur.

The finite element method is a very important tool for those involved in engineering
design, it is now used routinely to solve problems in the following areas:

Structural strength design

Structural interaction with fluid flows
Analysis of Shock (underwater & in materials)
Acoustics
Thermal analysis
Vibrations
Crash simulations
Fluid flows
Electrical analyses
Mass diffusion
Buckling problems
Dynamic analyses
Electromagnetic evaluations
Metal forming
Coupled analyses

Nowadays, even the most simple of products rely on the finite element method for design
evaluation. This is because contemporary design problems usually cannot be solved as
accurately & cheaply using any other method that is currently available. Physical testing
was the norm in years gone by, but now it is simply too expensive and time consuming.

What is FEA?

The Philosophy of FEA can be explained with a small example such as measuring the
perimeter of a circle.

If one needs to evaluate the perimeter of the circle without using the conventional
formula, one of the approach could be to divide the above circle into a number of equal
segments. Join the beginning and end points of these segments by a straight line. Since it
is very easy to measure the length of a straight line, the length of each line multiplied by
the number of lines gives the perimeter of the circle.
For the above exercise let us ask the following questions?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What if the circle is divided into only four segments?

Is this method accurate?
If not accurate, How do we approach accuracy?
What is the cost of accuracy?
Can we achieve accuracy at all?

Let us try to answer the questions one by one .

1. If we divide the circle into only four points we shall not get accurate result
2. No, This method is only approximate
3. If we want to approach accuracy, we need to divide the circle into as many
segments as possible
4. If we go on dividing the circle into a fairly large number of equal divisions, the
effort required to calculate the perimeter might be more than the accuracy
required
5. This way we shall approach accuracy. But may not be exactly accurate
The same philosophy applies to FEA as well and we shall observe the same as we
progress.

More about FEA

Finite element analysis was first developed for use in the aerospace and nuclear industries
where the safety of structures is critical. Today, the growth in usage of the method is
directly attributable to the rapid advances in computer technology in recent years. As a
result, commercial finite element packages exist that are capable of solving the most
sophisticated problems, not just in structural analysis, but for a wide range of phenomena
such as steady state and dynamic temperature distributions, fluid flow and manufacturing
processes such as injection molding and metal forming.

FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is loaded and analyzed for
specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A
Design Engineer shall be able to verify a proposed design, which is intended to meet the
customer specifications prior to manufacturing or construction. Things such as,
Modifying the design of an existing product or structure in order to qualify the product
or structure for a new service condition. Can also be accomplished In case of structural
failure, FEA may be used to help determine the design modifications to meet the new
condition.

The basic steps involved in FEA

Mathematically, the structure to be analyzed is subdivided into a mesh of finite sized
elements of simple shape. Within each element, the variation of displacement is assumed
to be determined by simple polynomial shape functions and nodal displacements.
Equations for the strains and stresses are developed in terms of the unknown nodal
displacements. From this, the equations of equilibrium are assembled in a matrix form
which can be easily be programmed and solved on a computer. After applying the
appropriate boundary conditions, the nodal displacements are found by solving the matrix
stiffness equation. Once the nodal displacements are known, element stresses and strains
can be calculated.
Within each of these modeling schemes, the Engineer can insert numerous algorithms
(functions) which may make the system behave linearly or non-linearly. Linear systems
are far less complex and generally ignore many subtleties of model loading and behavior.
Non-linear systems can account for more realistic behavior such as plastic deformation,
changing loads etc. and is capable of testing a component all the way to failure.
The following are the five basic steps involved in an FEA analysis:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Discretization of the Domain

Applications of Field/Boundary conditions
Assembling the system equations
Solution for the system equations
Review of results

Let us understand the above five steps one by one sequentially and see what it really
means to an Engineer.

1) Discretization of the domain :

Here the task would be to divide the continuum under study into a number of
subdivisions called elements. Based upon the geometry, the continuum or the system
under study can be divided into a number of elements. FEA permits us to do so!

If the continuum is a single point it can discretized using point elements

If the continuum is 1D it can be discretized using line elements
If the continuum is 2D it can be discretized using area elements
If the continuum is 3D it can be discretized using volume elements

2) Once the discretization is done, we shall include the known field/boundary

conditions which shall serve as references and help us in solving for the
unknowns.
3) Once the reference or known conditions are imposed, we shall define sets of
equations which are suitable to define the behavior of system. This involves
formulation of respective characteristic ( Stiffness in case of structural) equation
matrices.
4) Once the equations are set up we shall solve the same to know the unknowns and
get insight into system behavior. That is basically the system of matrices which
are nothing but a set of simultaneous equations are solved.
5) Upon the completion of solution, we shall review the results.

When we use a CAE software either developed in house of commercially available, the
first three steps are called as Pre-Processing phase, the fourth phase is called solution
phase and the fifth phase is called Post-Processing phase. Since FEA involves matrix
operations, it was referred to as Matrix methods for Structural analysis, in the initial days
where it was used only for structural behavior simulations.
Despite the proliferation and power of commercial software packages available, it is
essential to have an understanding of the technique and physical processes involved in
the analysis. Only then can an appropriate & accurate analysis model be selected,
correctly defined and subsequently interpreted.
Before proceeding further to learn more, we shall familiarize our selves with the
following:
What is an element?
Element is an entity , into which a system under study can be divided into. An element
definition can be specified by nodes. The shape (Area, length and Volume) element
depends upon the nodes with which it is made up of.
What are nodes?
Nodes are the corner point of an element. Nodes are independent entities in space. These
are similar to points in geometry. By moving a node in space an element shape can be
changed.

What are the basic element shapes?

A point element has the shape of a point and hence has only one node.

A line element has the shape of a line/curve and hence requires minimum of two nodes
to define it.

An area element has the shape of quadrilateral/triangle and hence requires minimum of
four/three nodes to define it.

A volume element can take the shape of a Hexahedron or a Wedge or a Tetrahedron or a

Pyramid. A Hexahedron requires a minimum of 8 nodes to define the shape. A Wedge (
Some times referred to as Penta) requires a minimum of 6 nodes to define its shape. A
Tetrahedron requires a minimum of 4 nodes to define it shape. Similarly 5 nodes are
required to define a Pyramid element.

Why are we saying minimum number of nodes? Can an element have more number of
nodes than the minimum? If so under what circumstances? The answer is an obvious yes!
As shown in the above pictures, there can be higher order elements which have additional
nodes ( At the mid of the element edge). That is when the element does not have a mid
side node on the edge, it is called a Linear element. If it has an additional node at the mid
side it is called a Quadratic or Second order element.
For Linear elements the edge is defined by a Linear function called shape function whose
degree is one. Hence the name linear elements. For elements having mid side nodes on
the edge Quadratic function called shape function whose degree is two is used. Hence the
name Second order or Quadratic element. Similarly elements can have more nodes on the
edges and hence the edge can be defined using higher degree equations. Such elements
are called higher degree elements.
The higher order elements when over lapped on geometry can represent, complex
shapes very well within few elements. Also the solution accuracy shall be more with the
higher order elements. But with higher order elements the computational effort required
is more.

How FEA ala CAE can be used for design validation/guidance/optimization

Design Validation: FEA was being used in the initial days, to evaluate/check the
design against the intended purpose.
In this method attempts were made to simulate a test condition and then study the results
of FEA to assess whether the design meets the requirements or not. If the simulations
reveal that the design might fail, then the Engineer would modify the design to avoid
failure. This method was helping to avoid the design validation through testing of
prototypes. This approach was used by experienced Engineers, who were used to design
the equipment by conventional approaches, but want to avoid testing.

Design Guidance: As the technique has gradually evolved, the engineering

community has slowly started believing in FEA and the tremendous advantages it offers.
Increasingly the engineering community started using this tool to study the characteristics
of a design than to just simulate the test conditions. By this approach, the conceptual
designer can start with a basic shape, evaluate the design, find out the weak/stronger
zones and come out with design improvements at rapid phase. Hence FEA serves to
guide the design engineer to understand where he can remove the material and where the
needs to strengthen the design. This approach enables Engineers to design the
components, who posses only little experience.

Design Optimization: At a later stage, when the FEA tools have become more
powerful, optimization algorithms have been embedded into the tools and thus
improving the power of FEA. An FEA software coupled with Optimization tools, under
a set of imposed conditions searches for the better design variables which can satisfy the
design requirements.

FEA requirements:
Having learnt what FEA can do for Engineers now let us focus on what we need to utilize
this tool effectively.

Engineer: The Engineer who wishes to use this tool to advance his design cycles need
not be familiar with the theoretical basis of FEA. It is sufficient if he has good back
ground in strength of materials ( For Structural Analysis), Heat Transfer and
Thermodynamics (For Thermal analysis) coupled with good analytical/reasoning/design
skills.
Besides to get best results through FEA simulations the Engineer should have:

Knowledge of facilities available in the FE Software being used

Knowledge of limitations in the FE Software being used
Knowledge of the effects of suppressing some geometric details
Knowledge on Usage of special elements to reduce analysis time

Software: The FEA software has to be chosen based upon a number of considerations
like the following:

Kind of designs that needs to be simulated

Flexibility and accuracy of the tool
Ability of the vendor to provide the technical support
Hardware configuration required
Last but not least, the ability of the vendor to continuously supply /enhance the future
versions.

Hardware: The computer system that is chosen to run CAE should be good
configuration to run the tool. Most often based upon the design requirements one would
choose the software tool and the user should ensure that the minimum configuration as
specified by the software vendor is available.
Based upon specific requirements, one can opt for a higher computer configuration than
the minimum specified the software vendor. Most PC versions of FE packages for
professional use (as opposed to academic) run efficiently on MS-Windows with the latest
service packs and also with an Intel type of chips. The platform used is usually a function
of the cost the user is willing to pay for the hardware it will run on.

Typical software capabilities:

The present day CAE /FEA software can simulate the performance of any of the most of
the systems, such as a Juice mixer to the Turbine that generates power to run it, Or a
Circuit Breaker that controls the power out put from the Turbine, Or an Electro magnetic
field that surrounds the Circuit Breaker.
It can also simulate things such as a speeding vehicle slamming against a barrier or a bird
hitting an aircraft engine.
In total any thing that can be converted into a mathematical equation can be simulated
using FEA techniques.

The finite element method is an extremely powerful way of simulating physical

problems. However, with comforting contour plots, one can be easily fooled into
thinking that a superior result has been achieved. The quality of the result is totally
dependent on the quality of the analysis model and how accurately it represents the
physical problem being investigated. Careful planning is the key to a successful analysis.
Usually the most popular principle of GIGO (Garbage in and Garbage out) applies to
FEA as well. If we ill define a system, the results we obtain from such simulations also
shall be erroneous. Hence the user should exercise enough caution while giving/accepting
the inputs for simulations.

Popular CAE software:

There are a variety of commercial CAE software available in the world. No one software
is supposed to have all the capabilities that can meet the complete simulations
requirements of a design. Hence based upon the requirements, some of the firms use one
or more of CAE software. Some firms develop their own customized versions of software
to supplement the those provided by commercial software. Some of the popular
commercially available FEA software are as follows:
Adina
Abaqus
Ansys
MSC/Nastran
Cosmos
NISA
Marc
Ls-Dyna
MSC/Dytran
Star-CD

Brief Over view of Structural Static analysis:

Static Structural analysis is one in which the load/field conditions does not vary with time
and the assumption here is that the load or field conditions are gradually applied (Not
suddenly applied). The most common application of FEA is the solution of stress related
design problems. As a result, all commercial packages have an extensive range of stress
analysis capabilities.
The behavior of the system could be either linear or non- linear as we would discuss in
future.
Typically in a structural analysis the kind of matrices solved are :
[K] * [X] = [F]
Where K is called the stiffness matrix, X is called the displacement matrix and F
is the load matrix. This is a force balance equation. At times, the elements of matrix [K]
are a function of [X]. Such a system is called non-linear system.
From a formal point of view, three conditions have to be met in any stress analysis,
equilibrium of forces (or stresses), compatibility of displacements and satisfaction of the
state of stress at continuum boundaries. The kind of loads that a system can experience
here could be:

Force load applied at one or several points

Pressure loads that can be distributed over one or multiple regions
Inertia loads due to motion as a result of velocity, acceleration or deceleration
Thermals loads due to heating effects
Specified displacements applied at one or more locations

The out puts that can be expected from a software are:

Displacement at one or more points
Strains at one or more points
Stresses at one or more points
Reaction forces
It all starts off with the formulation of the components 'stiffness' matrix. This square
matrix is formed from details of the material properties, the model geometry and any
assumptions of the stress-strain field (plane stress or strain).
Once the stiffness matrix is created, it may be used with the knowledge of the forces to
evaluate the displacements of the structure (hence the term displacement analysis).
On evaluation of the displacements, they are differentiated to give six strain distributions,
3 mutually perpendicular direct strains and 3 corresponding shear strains.

Finally six stress distributions are determined via the stress/strain relationships of the
material.
Commercial packages usually go one further and calculate a range of more usuable stress
fields from the six stress components such as the principal stresses and a host of failure
prediction stresses as described by the most common yield criteria (Von Mises/ /Tresca,
etc.). The displacements can be used in conjunction with the element stiffness to
determine the reaction forces and the forces internal to each element (Element Internal
forces).
A point to note is that at least one of the displacements must be known before the rest can
be determined (before the system of equations can be solved). These known
displacements are referred to as boundary conditions and are oftentimes a zero value.
Without these boundary conditions, we would get the familiar singularity or zero-pivot
error message from the solver, indicating that no unique solution was obtainable.

Brief Over view of Dynamic analysis:

Dynamic analysis is one in which the load/field conditions does vary with time and the
assumption here is that the load or field conditions are suddenly applied. The behavior of
the system could be either linear or non- linear as we would discuss in future.
The kind of matrices that would be solved in a dynamic analysis are:
[M] *Double Derivate of [X] + [K]*[X] = 0
This is a simple force balance equation for a dynamic system vibrating without any
external loads. Solving the above set of equations one would be able to extract the natural
frequencies of a system.
Incase if the response of the system is to be obtained, under the influence of external
forces, the above equation would be re-written as:
[M] *Double Derivate of [X] + [K]*[X] = [F]
If
The kind of time varying loads that a system can experience here could be:
Force load applied at one or several points
Pressure loads that can be distributed over one or multiple regions
Inertia loads due to motion as a result of velocity, acceleration or deceleration
Thermals loads due to heating effects
Specified displacements applied at one or more locations
The out puts that can be expected from a software are:
Natural frequencies
Mode shapes
Displacement at one or more points
Strains at one or more points
Stresses at one or more points
Reaction forces
All the above can be obtained with respect to time.

Brief Over view of Thermal analysis:

In thermal analysis we can simulate the condition of a system subjected to individual or
combined effects such as Conduction/Convection/Radiation. All these effects can be
studied whether the system is under steady state ( Do not vary with time) or in Transient
state ( Vary with time).
The out put from a thermal analysis shall be
Temperature
Thermal/Heat Flux
At various zones in the system under study under Steady or Transient conditions the
system response can be studied for thermal effects.
Incase of thermal analysis, the respective heat balance equations are solved.

Brief Over view of Coupled Field analysis:

At times it might be required to study the dual effects a system under goes. That is when
a component is exposed to certain heating environment, it might be required first study
the thermal characteristics of the system and then study the effect thermal heating on the
structural stability.
Hence the structural response is dependent on the thermal behavior. Alternatively if a
component is bent into a different shape using one of the metal forming processes and
then subjected to heating, the thermal characteristics of the component depend on the new
shape of the component which needs to be predicted through structural simulations first.
This is called Thermo-Structural analysis.
Other examples of coupled field simulations are :
When a magnetic field is created, it would mechanically actuate a plunger. If we need to
know the stresses in the plunger due to force, first we need to simulate the magnetic field
to evaluate the force and then evaluate the stress due to the force. The situation becomes
more complex when the magnetic field is simulated due to electricity.
Under such conditions, we need to first simulate the electric field to estimate the
magnetic effects, Then simulate the magnetic fields to simulate the force and Then
simulate the structural behavior.

Brief Over view of Fatigue simulations:

Fatigue/Durabilty studies help in determining the useful operating life of a component
experiencing cyclic loads. Such kind of simulations have nothing to do with FEA. But it
is a usual practice to simulate the stress state of the system using FEA and then use
fatigue calculations to estimate the low/high cycle fatigue life of the components.
Cyclic or repeated loading can cause failure at lower stresses than static loading. This
aspect is central to fatigue performance. Fatigue can be described as a progressive failure
phenomenon that proceeds by the initiation and propagation of cracks to an unstable size.
High frequencies with low amplitudes are characteristic of noise and vibration studies
while the low frequencies with moderate amplitudes represent classical fatigue. Finally,
low frequency with high amplitude is typical of impact fatigue.

S-N data can be used reliably for design only if the test conditions for generating S-N
data match the service conditions for the component. Unless the material fatigue
properties and the effects of machining are well known, the stresses predicted by FEA
probably cannot be used to predict fatigue life. However, the FEA stress data can be used
to redesign fatigues that have known failure problems. The fatigue life cannot be
predicted from stress unless the material's fatigue characteristics are known.

Advantages and limitations of FEA:

Planning the analysis is arguably the most important part of any analysis, as it helps
ensure the success of the simulation. Oddly enough, it is usually the one analysts leave
out. The purpose of an FE analysis is to model the behavior of a structure under a system
of loads. In order to do so, all influencing factors must be considered and determined,
whether their effects are considerable or negligible on the final result. The degree of
accuracy to which any system can be modeled is very much dependant on the level of
planning that has been carried out.
FEA is an approximate way of simulating the system behavior. But the results can be
quite close to actual testing values. FEA can never replace actual physical testing all the
times. This is due to the fact, the information required for FEA simulations, like material
properties emanates from physical testing.
FEA results by them selves can never be taken as complete solution. Usually at least one
prototype testing is necessary before the design guided/validated through FEA can be
certified.
But when effectively used FEA can predict the results/behavior quiet close to reality and
can reduce the design lead times as well as the number of prototypes to be tested. Also
there are some situations like gears in contact, which can not be simulated exactly using
FEA techniques. Under such situations some work around such as simulating the worst
condition that can happen can be followed. Especially in situations like studying the
behavior of a component by changing material, FEA can be very handy as it amounts to
changing few numbers and re-running the analysis to know the component/system
behavior.

Geometric Vs FEA modeling:

All the modeling work one does as part of CAD modeling can be called as geometric
modeling. Geometric model often works as complete representation of actual component
to be made. Especially Cast/Molded parts have features like drafts and some fillets for the
ease of manufacturing. Based upon the type and nature of simulations, FEA model need
not be similar to Geometric model.
Features like drafts and fillets can be conveniently ignored while performing a structural
analysis, if they are not expected to play role in effecting the stress levels. Also most of
the times based upon the requirements it is not un-usual in FEA simulations to model
some portion of a component or system as an equivalent, point or line or an area in 3D
space to bring down the efforts required for simulations without sacrificing the accuracy
of the results.

Geometric VS FE Entities:
When we are building a geometry we have various entities like points, lines, curves,
areas, surfaces, volumes and solids. Incase of FEA we have only two entities called nodes
and elements. We use geometric entities as aids to build the FEA entities. But what we
really need for the simulations is only the FEA entities.

Various types of elements:

Point/Mass: This is the basic element: This is represented by a point in space. This
element can be used to represent the mass as well as inertia of a component(s) or a
portion of a system . Hence this element is also called as a mass element. Mass elements
are used to define concentrated mass in a model.

Beam/Bar element : These elements are represented by lines. This element is

formed by connecting two or more nodes as shown in picture below. These elements can
be used to simulate the beam/bar behavior in a 2D or 3D space.

Shell Elements: These elements have the shape of a quadrilateral or triangle.

Hence a minimum of 3 or 4 nodes are required to form this element. This element is as
shown in figure below. These elements are used to represent thin solids like sheet metals
whose thickness is very small when compared to their overall dimensions.
Always the shell elements are generated at the mid-surface of the solid which it is
supposed to represent. That is the shell elements represent the mid-surface of the solid.

Plane elements: These elements are used to simulate the in-plane behavior of the
component whether plane stress or plane strain. These elements also have the same shape
as shell elements.

Solid elements: The shape of solid elements can be a Hexhedron, Wedge,

Tetrahedron or a Pyramid as per requirements. These kind of elements are used to
represent the true 3D shape of the component/system. These kind of elements have the
advantage of showing the system behavior across the thickness exactly. Figures below
show the configuration and the number of nodes required for each element.

Special Elements:

Most finite element packages have a range of special

elements for modeling boundary conditions and connections. The main ones are outlined
here.

Surface elements: These elements are used to represent the surface effects such as
surface tension, pressure, insulation and convection. These elements are over laid on the
free surface of other elements like shell or solid elements as the case may be. Hence the
shape can be a line (In case of Plane elements) and a quadrilateral/triangle incase of a
shell or solid element.

Super element: The super element can be considered to be a heavy nucleus formed
by combining a number of similar elements ( Line or Shell or Solid). Hence the number
of nodes for a super element is arbitrary ( But a minimum of two are required). Like wise
the shape is also arbitrary. The super elements takes the combined shape of all the
elements from which it is formed and retains the nodes of all the constituent element on
the periphery.

Composite Element : A composite element is similar to a shell element in shape.

This is used to simulate the composite material behavior where in the material is formed
by joining together multiple layers of different materials, each layer with different
lamination angles.

Axi-symmetric: For components whose geometry can be generated using surface of

revolution and which are uniformly loaded around the circumference, it is enough if we
just analyze one slice of the component at any angle. Elements used to simulate such
behavior are called Axi-symmetric elements. These elements are similar in shape to Plane
elements.

Depending upon the software, there are certain rules as to how these elements need to be
crated.It is important to note that most of the FEA software vendors have specific
limitations on the use of axi-symmetric elements, some define the axis of symmetry to be
the global x-axis, where others define it as the global y-axis, such a limitation usually has
a further limitation that no nodes can have a negative coordinate value.
Some FE packates have a special class of axi-symmetric element that allows non axisymmetric loads and boundary conditions. For these elements, each load is defined as a
series of harmonic functions written in the form of a Fourier series. These special type of
axi-symmetric element are usually referred to as harmonic elements.

Boundary/Infinite Elements: When analyzing things like electro magnetic

radiation, one can not model until into deep space and hence have to limit our selves into
a finite domain without compromising on the likely results. Under such situations, the
boundary of the component under study is surrounded by elements called infinite
elements. Usually the solution to these infinite elements is based upon a new technique
called boundary element technique.
In a Boundary element analysis, it is sufficient if one just models the boundary of the
domain instead of modeling the whole domain. But the major disadvantage of this
method is one needs to know the behavior of the system under the influence of unit
load/condition. Hence boundary element method has always to be preceded by a Finite
Element analysis.

Rigid Elements: Rigid elements are generally used to model rigid parts of a
structures without having to assign the computationally expensive usual elastic elements.
They are useful in dynamic analysis to account for distributed mass and inertia. They are
also regularly used in kinematic type simulations away from any areas of interest in the
model.

Link Elements: Link element is like a line element in shape. It is formed by

connecting two nodes. The link elements can be used to connect nodes together so that
they undergo the same displacements. There is usually one master and one slave. Some
packages have the capability of connecting model edges, it still carries out the procedure
on a node by node basis, but the process it automated.

Spring element: Spring element is like a line element in shape. It is formed by

connecting two nodes. Spring elements for linear/nonlinear support or semi-rigid
connection modeling. They are generally used for elastic support or for a specified
connection behavior.

Contact Elements: These are special case of spring elements. That is a contact
element is nothing but a compression only spring element with some additional features.
These elements are used to simulate the contact between the different surfaces in a
system. Based upon the situation, the element can take various shapes. These elements

are used to define a contact between two surfaces. On the creation of the elements, a set
of slave nodes and master nodes are defined. Contact occurs if either group of nodes
attempts to penetrate the other. Friction properties can usually be applied to the element.
As with gap elements, they are usually NOT recommended for use with higher order
elements. Element connecting between two nodes is called a GAP element.
Gap elements are used to model point-to-point contact conditions. The elements have a
large stiffness when active and a small (but non-zero) stiffness when in an inactive state.
The element becomes active when it comes within a specified proximity of a specified
object in the analysis.. The active state can usually accommodate both compression and
tension. An initial opening and pre-load force and a friction coefficient can usually be
specified. A nonlinear analysis is required when using gap elements for the open/closed
gap behavior to exist in the model. Gap elements can be used in linear static solutions but
will only function as springs with the Compression Stiffness in the axial direction and the
Transverse Stiffness in the transverse direction.
There are also other forms of elements called as surface to surface contact or surface to
ground elements. The shapes of these elements are as shown below. The surface type o
contact elements give more accurate results. But they are computationally more
expensive.

The Apex of the surface to contact element shown below becomes the ground, if
these elements are used as surface to ground elements

Degrees of freedom: The mobility or the characteristic behavior

at each node
which is used best to represent the behavior of a system is called the degree of freedom.
Each node of an element is only capable of accepting a load/conditions pertaining to its
mobility/Characteristic. In general the Translation degrees of freedom for a structure in a
particular global direction is represented by U with a suffix indicating the axis. Similarly,
in general, the rotation degrees of freedom for a structure in a particular global direction
is represented by R/Rot with a suffix indicating the axis
For example if a node has only four degrees of freedom say Ux and Uy (Translations in
Global X and Y directions) and Rx and Ry (Rotations in Global X and Y directions), the
FE model can not be used to study the behavior of system subjected to load acting in
Global Z direction and a moment acting along the Z direction.

Degree of Freedom for a Mass element: The mass element which is

represented by a point in space has six degrees of freedom in space. That is it has 3
translations and three rotations. How ever based upon the software there could be other
variants of this element which have less than six degrees of freedom.

Degrees of freedom for a Beam or Bar Element: Usually a beam

element has six degrees of freedom. That is it has 3 translations and three rotations. A bar
element usually has only one degree of freedom. However based upon the type of
software, these can vary.

Degree of freedom for shell elements: The shell elements have usually six
degrees of freedom. However, there is a variant of shell element called membrane
element, which can not capture bending. This membrane element has only three
translation degrees of freedom (Ux, Uy and Uz along the Global X, Y and Z directions
respectively.

Degree of freedom for Plane elements: A plane element is a special

derivate of shell element which confined to X-Y plane only unlike shell element which is
in 3D space. The plane element has only translation degrees of freedom( Ux and Uy).

Degrees of freedom for Solid Element: The solid element has three degrees
of freedom which are translations along the three global axes (Ux, Uy and Uz).

Degrees of freedom for surface elements: The surface effect elements are
always over laid on the edges/surface of the respective elements and hence share he
nodes of those elements. Hence the nodes of these elements do not have any special
degrees of freedom and hence inherit the degrees of freedom of the nodes of the
respective elements.

Degrees of freedom for Super-Elements: As discussed previously, a super

element is a combination of a group of elements. Hence the nodes of the Super Element
has the same degrees of freedom as the nodes of the independent element that makes up
the Super Element would have.
Degrees of Freedom for Composite element: Geometry wise a composite element is
similar to a shell element. Hence the degrees of freedom of the shell element are same as
those of shell elements.

Degrees of Freedom for Axi_Symmetric elements: The Axi-Symmetric

element is a special derivative of plane element which represents the behavior of a
component or system in a Radial and Hoop Plane. Hence this element has two degrees of
freedom in Radial and Hoop directions (Ur and U ).

Degrees of freedom for Boundary/Infinite Elements: Usually like the

surface elements, the Boundary/Infinite elements form the exterior of the regular
elements and hence the inherit the degrees of freedom of those elements.

Degrees of freedom for Spring Element: The spring element can have any
where between 3 to 6 degrees of freedom based upon the element configuration.

Degrees of freedom for Contact elements: Since contact elements are

formed between two surfaces formed by the nodes of the constituent elements, they
inherit the degrees of freedom of the adjacent elements.

Geometry transfer from CAD to CAE tools:

Usually CAD tools

are very robustly built to capture the geometry of a component without any deviation
from geometry. CAE tools are built to give most possible accurate solutions within very
less solution time. Efforts are being put in by CAD vendors to integrate some of the CAE
capabilities into the CAD software. Similarly efforts are being put in place by CAE
vendors to integrate some of the CAD capabilities into the CAE software. However,
keeping aside the tall claims of these vendors any CAD or CAE software is far from
reaching the ease with which the other can enable solution. The modeling features
available in CAD software can represent a complex curve with a higher degree
polynomial since it capabilities are optimized for this purpose. Where as the modeling
capabilities in a CAE tool are primitive and CAE tools can not be used to create a highly
complex geometry.
Hence the usual practice is Engineers often model the geometry in any of the CAD tools
and export them to CAE software through IGES/ACIS/STEP/DXF format. Most of the
times the transfer may not be 100% and some of he geometry could be lost in the process
of transfer. Engineers would then repair the geometry to make up for the loss and then
generate the FE Mesh(Finite elements) using the capabilities provided by pre-processing
modules of CAE software.
The present trend is to use the dedicated translators developed fro seam less geometric
data transfer between CAD and CAE tools. However in this process also some loss of
data can be observed at times. Here the mode of operation could be using some of the
tessellation techniques convert a higher degree curve or surface into a number of lower
degree curves/surfaces that can be understood by CAE tool.

Associativity between Geometry and Finite Elements:

When Finite Elements are created using the capabilities in CAE tool, most of the times,
the Finite elements have reference to the geometry. That is the elements or nodes can be
considered to be attached to the geometry without being independent. Hence to apply
boundary conditions or loads, the nodes or elements can be selected by selecting the
geometry. Otherwise, the loads or boundary conditions can be applied to the geometry
which in turn can be transferred to the nodes/elements.
This method of applying boundary conditions shall be an effective and user friendly way
of applying the same. Hence usually associativity is highly desirable in most of the cases.

Units and consistency:

Almost all the CAE software are independent of the system of units to be used unless
other wise specified. Hence it is the responsibility of the user to ensure that he uses
consistent and appropriate units as applicable. CAE software can not take care of the
units.
If a model is drawn in mm for example and the material properties are defined in SI units,
then the results will be out of scale by factors of 106 . The same units should be applied in
all directions, otherwise results will be difficult to interpret, or in extreme cases the
results will not show up mistakes made during the loading and restraining of the model.

Physical properties of Elements and their significance:

Before solution to a problem can be obtained using CAE tools, it is a must for the user to
define the physical properties required for each element. The physical properties can be
defined independently for each individual element or they can be defined for a set/group
of elements, provided the set/group of elements have same properties.
Usually the physical properties required for an structural element should be such that,
coupled with the nodal/elemental information one should be able to calculate the volume,
mass, moment of inertia and polar/mass moment of inertia for each element.
However based upon the CAE software, certain additional physical properties also can
be input to get certain type of results as out puts apart from the regular out puts.
In general, If 2D elements are being used, the thickness property is required. 1D beam
elements require area, Ixx , Iyy , Ixy , J, and a direction cosine property which defines the
direction of the beam axis in 3D space. Shell elements, which are 2D in nature (2D
elements in 3D space), require orientation and neutral surface offset parameters to be
defined. Special elements (mass, contact, spring, gap, coupling, damper etc.) require
properties (specific to the element type) to be defined for their use.

Physical properties required for a Mass element: Since the mass

element is represented by a point, one needs to input the mass as well as the moment of
inertia in all applicable directions (As per degrees of freedom).

Physical properties required for a Beam element: The beam element is

represented only by a line. Hence from the element data only its length can be calculated.
Hence to calculate the volume, mass, moment of inertia and polar/mass moment of inertia
for each element we need to specify the area, moment of inertia along the local axes of
the elements as physical properties.

Physical properties required for a Shell element : The shell element

is represented by a Quadrilateral/Triangle. Hence from the element data only area can be
calculated. Hence it is enough if the thickness of the element is input as physical
properties.

Physical properties required for a Plane element: Unless other wise

stated, plane stress or plane strain problems are solved for unit thickness. Since Plane
elements are Quadrilateral/Triangle in shape no physical properties are not required for
these elements. However thickness can be assigned as a physical property for the Plane
stress element.

Physical properties required for an Axi-Symmetric element: Care

should be taken while defining the Axi-Symmetric elements based upon the
specifications given in the respective CAE software. No other physical properties are
required for Axi-Symmetric elements, since the analysis is typically performed for a
typical slice in Radial-Hoop plane.

Physical properties required for a surface Effect elements: Since

these elements are used to simulate the surface effects, specific properties as detailed in
the respective software specifications should be input.

Physical properties required for Super elements:

Since Super
elements are formed by combining the regular elements, they inherit the physical
properties of the constituent elements from which the Super element is formed. Hence no
separate physical properties are required for these elements.

Physical properties required for Boundary/Infinite elements: The

inputs required for these elements are problem dependent and have to be input as per
respective CAE software specifications.

Physical properties required for Spring elements: The stiffness of the

spring is required to be input as the physical property for the spring element. Incase if the
spring element is a non-linear one, Force Vs deflection curve is to be input.

Physical properties required for Contact elements: Normal/Tangential

stiffness values are to be input as physical properties for contact elements.

Material Properties and their significance:

Material properties play a vital role in deriving the characteristic/stiffness matrix of the
element. Material properties coupled with the physical properties and geometry
information of the element one can completely derive the stiffness/characteristic matrix
for the system/component under study.
Some of the material properties can differ significantly with respect to temperature.
Hence all the CAE software tools/Solvers have provision to read/accept and process
material properties based upon the temperature.

Material properties required for a Linear Static stress analysis:

The material properties required for a Linear Static analysis are the Youngs Modulus
and Poissons ratio. Density is required if the inertia effects are to be simulated. If
thermal strains/stresses are to be simulated, Co-efficient of thermal expansion needs to be
specified as the material property.

Material properties required for a non Linear Static stress

analysis:
Apart from the material properties required for a Linear Static analysis, details of material
stress strain curve are required. Incase of contact elements, the friction between the
contacting surfaces should be defined as one of the material property.

Material properties required for Dynamic analysis: The material

properties required for a Linear Static analysis are the Youngs Modulus and Poissons
ratio and density. Damping co-efficient or mode based values of damping are required if
the system need to be analyzed for response under time varying or shock or frequency
based or random loads.
If non-linearities are present in the material, then material stress strain curve also needs
to be input. Incase of problems involving simulation of contact behavior with friction,
then co-efficient of friction between the two surfaces needs to be input as a material
property.

Material properties required for a Thermal analysis: If only a steady

state thermal analysis needs to be performed, only thermal conductivity needs to be input.
If a transient thermal analysis needs to be performed, to account for the heat/thermal
capacity, density as well as specific heat needs to be input as material property.

Pre-Processing:
The preprocessor stage in general FE packages involves the following:
Specifying the title: This is giving name for the problem. This is optional but very useful,
especially if a number of design iterations are to be completed on the same base model.

Setting the type of analysis: To simulate the conditions properly, correct type of analysis
method/solver/tool need to be used, e.g. structural, fluid, thermal or electromagnetic, etc.
(sometimes this can only be done by selecting a particular element type).

Creating the model: The model is drawn in 1D, 2D or 3D space in the appropriate units
(M, mm, in, etc..). The model may be created in the pre-processor, or it can be imported
from another CAD drafting package via a neutral file format (IGES, STEP, ACIS,
Parasolid, DXF, etc.).
Defining the element type: This may be 1D, 2D or 3D, and specific to the analysis type
being carried out (you need thermal elements to do thermal analyses).
Mesh Generation: As discussed previously, Mesh generation is the process of dividing
the analysis continuum into a number of discrete parts or finite elements. The finer the
mesh, the better the result, but the longer the analysis time. Therefore, a compromise
between accuracy and solution speed is usually made. The mesh may be created manually
or generated automatically as the ones shown below in the pictures. In the manually
created mesh, you will notice that the elements are smaller at the joint. This is known as
mesh refinement, and it enables the stresses to be captured at the geometric discontinuity
(the junction).

Manual meshing is a long and tedious process for models with any degree of geometric
complication, but with useful tools emerging in pre-processors, the task is becoming
easier. Automatic mesh generators are very useful and popular. The mesh is created

automatically by a mesh engine, the only requirement is to define the mesh density along
the edges of the model. Automatic meshing has limitations as regards mesh quality and
solution accuracy. The currently available Automatic brick element (Hexa) meshers are
limited in function as they can mesh only few regular shapes like cubes etc., but are
steadily improving. The present popular method of mesh generation is by simply
selecting the mesh command on the preprocessor list through Graphical User Interface
(GUI).
Often the creation of mesh (Finite Element generation) can consume significant amount
of time in the total cycle time required for a CAE simulation. It is very difficult to create
all the elements by manually picking the nodes. Even to do this, the nodes should be
present. To aid the process of meshing certain kinds of algorithms are built into each
software. Each software has certain capabilities and hence certain kinds of meshing
operations can be done with ease based upon the software.
Usually meshing capabilities of most of the CAE tools are poor. Hence Engineers
generally employ various kinds of third party tools for pre-processing ( Mesh and
Boundary/Field condition simulations) which are capable of writing the FE data
(Elements and Nodes) into the format readable by respective CAE solvers.

Apart from the above the pre-processing stage also includes specification of material
properties, Physical properties and applications of loads and Boundary conditions.

Meshing Requirements:
Meshing Requirements for 1D: 1D element can be manually created by
picking of nodes or using the meshing capabilities in a CAE tool they can be generated
overlaid on lines.
Most of the software require specification of a third node to represent the local XZ cross
section of the element. The length direction of the element represents the local XDirection. If the third nodes is not defined for these elements, a default direction based
upon the software specification is assumed. Except for the definition of the third node,
there are no practical problems that can be encountered while creation of these elements.

Meshing requirements for 2D: 2D (Plane) element creation can be done either
by manual picking or using the meshing capabilities available in the CAE software. In all
most all the cases, the latter method is preferred.
Care should be taken to get good quality mesh. The number of triangles should be kept as
minimum as possible. Availability of clean areas generated in CAD software can reduce
the effort required for mesh generation.

Meshing requirements for 3D: 3D element generation can be done either

manually or using the meshing capabilities available in CAE software. The process of
generation for 3D mesh requires quiet good amount of effort and planning. Especially the
Solid mesh generation is very complex and if careful planning is not done, it might be
quiet tiresome process.
If possible in the initial stages of design to get a feel of the system behavior, automatic
mesh generation techniques can be employed to reduce the cycle time.

Meshing Algorithms: Based upon the CAE software, the meshing algorithms can
vary to great extent. All CAE softwares may or may not support all the algorithms

Structured Vs un-Structured mesh: Shown below in the picture is an

example of a Structured Vs un-Structured mesh. All types of volumes may not be suitable
to generate a mapped mesh using CAE software. Hence the user needs to work on the
geometry to make it ready for mesh (Mesh renderable). Hence generation of Structured
mesh consumes more time than that required for a un-Structured mesh.
But a Structured mesh always gives better results as it allows for smooth flow of system
behavior.

Mesh density: User should take precaution to generate more number of elements
(Fine mesh) at regions of interest ( Where accuracy in results is required). As matter of
precaution Engineer can not go on putting more number of elements at all zones as it
amounts to more solution time and also more disk space interms of disk space required
for results storage.
Hence more number of elements needs to be generated only at locations/regions required.

Improving the Accuracy:

Quadrilateral Vs Triangle elements: Consider a triangle element Vs Quadrilateral
element with the same base length. When a lateral load is applied, the area of the triangle
element remains constant where as the area of quadrilateral element changes.
Hence a triangle element is not sensitive in capturing the shear effects compared to a
quadrilateral element. Hence it is desirable to have a Quadrilateral dominant mesh in a
FE model.
Hexahedron Vs Tetra/Wedge/Pyramid elements:
As discussed above, when
transverse loads are applied the change in volume is more pronounced incase of a
Hexahedron element when compared to a Tetra/Wedge/Pyramid elements.
Hence Hexahedron elements give better results when compared to Tetra/Wedge/Pyramid
elements. Hence it is desirable to have minimum or no Tetra/Wedge/Pyramid elements in
a FE model.
Higher the number of elements, higher shall be solution accuracy. The solution accuracy
also can be improved by adding mid side nodes to the edges of the elements ( This
amounts to increase in the number of nodes without increasing the number of elements).
The effect of increase in number of elements/nodes in the FE model over solution
accuracy is as shown below:

Also meshing approach used also can cater to improve the solution accuracy, which are
as follows. Usually the first of these approaches is usually followed to get good results.

H-Adaptivity: This approach involves in manually determining the number of

elements required to get good results at each location. The Engineer performing the
analysis needs to have sufficient experience in determining the correct mesh density
required for such an approach.
This is called Hierarchical adaptivity. This is due to fact the engineer judicially (Assigns
Hierarchy) decides the regions that need fine mesh (more elements) and coarse mesh
(less elements).

P-Adaptivity: This approach involves in adding mid side nodes to the edges of
elements to increase the solution accuracy. This is equivalent to increasing the
Polynomial order of the equation representing the edge of the element. Hence the name
P-Adaptivity. Computationally this kind of approach consumes lot of solver time.
Usually when one wants to follow this approach there are capabilities available in certain
CAE software which determine the degree of polynomial required to get good results.
Usually Polynomial order is limited to 9. These kinds of solvers are usually used by inexperienced Engineers.

R-Adoptivity: This is called relocation adoptivity. Under this approach the Engineer
generates he mesh that he thinks is he best for analysis requirements. Later based upon
set of algorithms, from the results of analysis the software relocates the nodes to adjust
the mesh density. This way the mesh shall be coarsened/refined at locations wherever it is
required.

Mesh Generation:
In order to carry out a finite element analysis, the model we are using must be divided
into a number of small pieces known as finite elements. Since the model is divided
into a number of discrete parts, FEA can be described as a discretization technique. In
simple terms, a mathematical net or "mesh" is required to carry out a finite element
analysis.
If the system under investigation is 1D in nature, we may use line elements to
represent our geometry and to carry out our analysis. If the problem can be described
in 2 dimensions, then a 2D mesh is required. Correspondingly, if the problem is
complex and a 3D representation of the continuum is required, then we use a 3D
mesh.

Mesh Density : The art of using FEM lies in choosing the correct mesh density
required to solve a problem. If the mesh is too coarse, then the element will not allow a
correct solution to be obtained. Alternatively, if the mesh is too fine, the cost of analysis
in computing time can be out of proportion to the results obtained. In order to define a
relevant mesh, some idea of the parameter distributions (stress, temperature, pressure,
etc.) within the component is required. If the answer is known, then a good mesh can be
defined. A fine mesh is required where there are high parameter gradients and strain and
a course mesh is sufficient in areas that have result contours of reasonably constant slope.

Few points to be noted from the above quarter model of a plate with hole are:
For the coarse mesh the number of elements are very less
The mesh does not capture the round hole accurately
It would have been sufficient if we would have just increased the number of
elements around the hole than increasing the number of elements all around like
in the Fine mesh
Since, linear element was used we were not able to represent the hole correctly
in the Coarse mesh
If we would have used, higher order elements in the Coarse mesh model, we
would have captured, the hole geometry properly

A Good Mesh : A good or appropriate mesh is one that enables accurate resolution
of the underlying physical phenomena, yet is coarse enough to allow a fast solution time.
Linear elements require a finer mesh than parabolic (quadratic) ones, which in turn
require a finer mesh than cubic elements. It follows that any user of a finite element
package must have some knowledge of underlying physical phenomena and the manner
in which it behaves. We must be able to identify regions of high gradients (rapidly
changing fields of stress, temperature, pressure, etc.).

Element Distortion
Every element is defined in terms of the basic shape of a parent element. Due to the
geometry of a component, elements may become distorted in an effort to force a mesh
within the boundary of the model. When elements are distorted from their parent
shape they become less accurate. As the distortion is increased, the solution error
becomes greater. Therefore, the user should attempt to keep the elements as near to
the basic parent element shape as possible when creating a mesh.

Structured & Unstructured Meshes

Structured meshes are characterised by regular connectivity. All interior chord nodes
(nodes on the extremity of the element) of a structured mesh are connected to the
same number of element edges. The mesh generated by a structured grid generator is
typically all quadrilateral or hexahedral. Each interior chord node is connected to four
elements in 2D, and so are called tetrad nodes, since they have a valency of four. In
3D, the interior nodes are octavalent, i.e. connected to eight elements.
Unstructured meshes allow any number of elements to meet at a single chord node.
They have been developed mainly because they can be created using automatic
meshing engines. Triangle and Tetrahedral meshes are most commonly thought of
when referring to unstructured meshing, although quadrilateral and hexahedral
meshes can also be unstructured.

Mesh requirements
The Finite Element Method (FEM) has certain requirements on a mesh:
The mesh must be valid, (no holes, self-intersections, or faces joined at two or
more edges).
The mesh must conform to the boundary of the domain.
The density of the mesh must be controllable, to allow trade-off between accuracy
and solution time.
The grid density will vary depending on local accuracy requirements, but any
variations must be smooth to reduce or eliminate numerical diffusion/refraction
effects.
There are some requirements on the shape of elements. In general, the elements
should as equiangular as possible in equilateral triangles & regular tetrahedron.
Highly distorted elements (long, thin triangles, squashed tetrahedron) can lead to
numerical stability problems caused by round-off errors. This requirement is
modified for boundary layers, where highly stretched elements are desired and
facilitated in the FEM formulation. The min-max-angle property is still required
in this case.

Element Limitations

Triangles/tetrahedrons can fit irregular boundaries and allow a progressive change of

element size without excessive distortion, and are therefore well-suited for FEA
modeling. There are fully automatic methods for generating triangular/tetrahedral
meshes. However, linear tetrahedron are not that good for FEM (too stiff) and a high
density of elements is required to yield acceptable results, which leads to increased
solver time. Quadratic quadrilateral/hexahedral elements are much better, but it is
difficult to automatically generate all-hexahedral meshes. Quadratic tetrahedra have
as good FEM properties and can be generated using automatic meshing algorithms.
In general the FE-Method is a calculated approach, the solution cant be as exact as
the analytic result. Be aware of the fact that convergence can be obtained for the
deformations of a structure, but the stresses can still be inaccurate up to 30%. The
precision of an analysis depends mainly on the size and position of elements, the type
of element (triangular or quadrilateral based) and also the element formulation (linear,
quadratic, plane stress, axi-symmetric etc.).

Element mesh Parameters:

Usually there are certain parameters that

determine the quality of the results. The Engineer has to ensure that these parameters are
maintained to the minimum required levels in the FE model for obtaining good results.
These are called mesh quality parameters which are as discussed below:
1) Warpage: This is applicable to only Hexahedron and shell elements only.
Any three nodes on any face of the Hexahedron element define a plane. If
the fourth node on the same face is away from the plane beyond a certain
angle, the results of analysis obtained by using these kind of elements
shall be erroneous. Similarly for a shell element also if the third node is
out of plane by a certain angle error due to warpage can occur.
2) Maximum Angle: If the obtuse angle between two edges in a Quadrilateral
is more than a prescribed limit, then erroneous results can be the outcome
of an analysis.
3) Minimum Angle: If the acute angle between two edges in a
Quadrilateral/Triangle is less than a prescribed limit, then erroneous
results can be the outcome of an analysis.

4) Aspect Ratio: If the ratio of maximum to minimum length in an element is

more than a prescribed limit, the results of the analysis can be erroneous.
5) Jacobian: The differential of the matrix obtained during the formulation of
a stiffness matrix is called the Jacobian. If the element is formed with a
poor shape, this differential can be come negative resulting in a negative
stiffness matrix. Hence care should be taken to avoid poor shaped
elements to avoid Jacobian with low values.

6) Shell Normals: As we have learnt earlier shell elements are used to

represent the mid-surface of the solid. That is each shell element has a top
surface and bottom surface over it. Hence care should be taken while
generating the elements such that the surface normal of each face of
element in a model point to the correct direction.
The direction of surface normals drawn fro the face of the shell element
determine the top or bottom surface of the element. That if we take two
adjacent element s each with four nodes and of them if one is generated by
picking the nodes in clock-wise-direction and for the other if we generate
it by picking the nodes in the counter clock-wise-direction, then the
surface normals for both the elements point in opposite direction.
Although both the elements represent the a portion of the same solid, this
kind of definition for elements assumes that the top or bottom surface for
these two elements are in opposite direction for these two elements.
Also the surface loads like pressure or convection co-efficients are to be
applied on the surface of the solid. Hence if two elements have different
shell normals it amounts to application of pressure or convection coefficients on the top surface for one element and on the bottom for the
other.
Also while reviewing the results of analysis ( Post processing) most of the
CAE tools provide for an option to view the results at the top, mid or
bottom surface. Hence if the shell normals are different for different
elements, when we want to review the results at the top surface for all
elements, In reality we shall be reviewing the same at bottom surface for
some of he elements.

Linear Steady State Solutions:

Introduction: Despite the fact that all physical phenomena are non-linear and time
dependant to some degree, linear static analyses remain the most useful and prolific form
of FE analyses carried out today. The reason for its widespread use is that linear analyses
are fast, oftentimes sufficiently representative of the physical phenomena and the ease
with which the analysis can be performed.

The meaning of Linear Static: Linear analyses deal with problems in which the
structural response is linear. Therefore, if the applied forces are doubled, then the
displacements and internal stresses also double. Problems that fall outside this domain are
usually classified as non-linear.
Static or steady state analyses are those where the solution is independent of time. Inertial
forces are either ignored or neglected and so there is no requirement to calculate actual
time derivatives. Problems that require inertial terms to be evaluated are usually
classified as dynamic and/or transient analyses.

Linear static analyses are usually sufficient for situations where loads are known and the
instance at which peak stress occurs is obvious. When performing a linear static stress
analysis, the analyst applies static loads (forces, pressures or prescribed displacements) to
the model.

Assumptions of Linear Static Analyses: As with all types of analyses, linear static ones
are based on a set of assumptions. The main assumptions are listed here:

All deformations and strains are small.

Structural deformations are proportional to the loads applied. This infers that
the loading pattern does not changed due to the deformed shape and no
geometric stiffening occurs due to the application of the load.

All materials behave in a linear elastic fashion. Hence, the material deforms
along the straight line portion of the stress-strain curve (no plasticity or
failures occur). Highly localized stress concentrations are usually permitted as
long as gross yielding does not take place.

Loads are all static. This means that the loads are applied to the structure in a
slow or steady fashion and in a way that makes them time independent (are
assumed to be constant for an infinite period of time).

No boundary condition varies with time or application of load.

Limitations of Linear Static Analyses: There is a point when linear static analyses are
not sufficient to represent the real behavior of the system being modeled. As mentioned
previously, all physical phenomena are non-linear and dynamic to some degree, some are
negligibly non-linear/transient and some are grossly non-linear and time dependent. The
decision to go NL and/or Transient should be based on careful consideration of the
physics of the problem at hand.
Some suggested considerations are:

If any of the above linear static assumptions are clearly violated.

If there is a very low factor of safety applied to the components being

designed.

When non-linear behavior cannot be estimated from the linear results.

If system behavior is unclear (e.g. in buckling analyses).

Linear Static Analysis:

As explained earlier, in a linear static structural analysis the following equations are
solved:
[K] * [X] = [F]
where [K] is the stiffness matrix, [X] is the displacement matrix or it is some times
referred to as the unknowns matrix and [F] is the force matrix.
With the help of information about nodes, physical properties and material properties the
stiffness matrix for individual elements is calculated and assembled to form the global
stiffness matrix.
Then the known displacements are substituted in the displacement matrix. Also the force
matrix is also updated as per the loading conditions. This form a complete set of
simultaneous equations which upon solving give out the displacements at each node as
results.
The displacement values are then differentiated to evaluate the strain values. Then the
strain values are multiplied by the Youngs modulus to get the stress values.
The same is explained using bar element as follows:
As discussed previously the bar element has only one degree of freedom say, Ux. That is
it can take either tension or compression.
If the length of the bar element is L: and if A is its area of cross section, the
deflection under unit load is given by EA/L where E is the Youngs modulus of the
material.
Then the stiffness matrix for the element 1 is given by : EA/L

Similarly for the second element the same is given by : EA/L

The stiffness Matrices for the two elements are as shown below:

Upon assembly the global assembled stiffness matrix is given as:

Let us assume that one end is fixed ( At node 1 as shown in figure above). Then the
matrix of unknowns shall be as follows:

Also the force matrix shall be as follows:

Under equilibrium the system can be represented by a set of simultaneous equation

involving matrices as follows:

From the matrix or system of equations the following can be inferred:

Number of nodes is: 3
Each node has one degree of freedom (DOF)
The size of the global stiffness matrix is : Number of nodes * Number of DOF at
each node
Hence the size of the matrix is 3X3
In a similar lines if we consider a Beam element having 6 DOF ( 3 Translations and
Three Rotations at each node), for the same problem:

Number of nodes is: 3

Each node has 6 degree of freedom (DOF)
The size of the global stiffness matrix is : Number of nodes * Number of DOF at
each node
Hence the size of the matrix is 18X18

For system involving large number of elements with more degrees of freedom, this can
result in substantially huge matrices. Hence it becomes almost impossible to calculate the
solution manually for any system.
Since the solution methodology involves large number of matrix operation FEA was
called as Matrix methods for structural analysis by Structural Engineers. As time
progressed the methodology was well developed to take care of non-structural systems as
well.

Loads:
Some type of load is usually applied to the analysis model. The loading may be in the
form of a point load, a pressure or a displacement in a stress (displacement) analysis, a
temperature or a heat flux in a thermal analysis and a fluid pressure or velocity in a fluid
analysis. The loads may be applied to a point, an edge, a surface or a even a complete
body. The loads should be in the same units as the model geometry and material
properties specified. In the cases of modal (vibration) and buckling analyses, a load does
not have to be specified for the analysis to run (Only for Linear analysis).

The following is the description about some of the loads that can be applied:

Force/Moment Load: A force of specified value is applied at a node to simulate

the load that is experienced by a point in the structure/component. Force or Moment of
required value can be applied along any of the three global directions.

Pressure Load: Pressure load is used to simulate the distributed loads that act on a
structure/component. Pressure loads always act normal to surface. As discussed
previously, shell normals play a very important role in deciphering the direction of load
application. Also each Hexahedron element has 6 faces. Hence care should be taken
while specifying the correct face of Hexahedron element to simulate the correct load.

Thermal Loads : If a component is heated it expands freely, if there is no

obstruction to it. That is it results in thermal strain. When the component is obstructed
from expanding it results in compression loads and hence development of compressive
stress values in the component.
If temperatures are known at each point ( node) in the component or system, the value
can be specified directly. But most of the times we know only temperature at few points
in the system besides having information about the other thermal conditions of the
system.
Under such conditions, we can perform a thermal analysis, predict the temperatures at
each node and then apply these temperatures as thermal loads.

Inertia Loads: Inertia loads such as equilibrium forces in a shaft rotating at a

constant angular velocity or the self weight of the component or system due to gravity
can be simulated in FEA by invoking the respective options.

Boundary conditions:
If you apply a load to the model, then in order to stop it accelerating infinitely through the
computer's virtual ether (mathematically known as a zero pivot), at least one constraint or
boundary condition must be applied. Structural boundary conditions are usually in the
form of zero displacements, thermal BCs are usually specified temperatures, fluid BCs
are usually specified pressures. A boundary condition may be specified to act in all
directions (x,y,z), or in certain directions only. They can be placed on nodes, points, areas
or on lines. BC's on lines can be in the form of symmetric or anti-symmetric type
boundary conditions, one allowing in plane rotations and out of plane translations, the
other allowing in plane translations and out of plane rotations for a given line. The
application of correct boundary conditions are a critical to the accurate solution of the
design problem. At least one BC has to be applied to every model.
These boundary conditions serve as reference point while solving for the unknowns.
Hence care should be taken in a model to ensure that all DOF are constrained ( Not
necessarily at the same place) so that a proper reference is established for solution. If this
is not taken care, the solution might diverge or we might get junk results.
We can either specify a restraint (specify a zero displacement in a direction) or also
specify a finite value of known displacement to simulate things like pre-stressing.

Solvers:
The FE solver can be logically divided into three main parts, the pre-solver, the
mathematical-engine and the post-solver. The pre-solver reads in the model created by
the pre-processor and formulates the mathematical representation of the model. All
parameters defined in the pre-processing stage are used to do this, so if you left
something out, chances are the pre-solver will complain and aborts the solution process.
If the model is correct the solver proceeds to form the element-stiffness matrix for the
problem and calls the mathematical-engine which calculates the primary unknown result
(displacement, temperatures, etc.). The results are returned to the solver and the postsolver is used to calculate derived results (strains, stresses, heat fluxes, velocities, etc.) for
each node within the component or continuum. All these results are written to a file
which may be read by the post-processor.

Frontal Solver : The advantages of a Frontal solver is that it requires only a very
small RAM in the computer. Even very large problems can be solved on a computer
having very limited RAM as low as 16 MB.
The element numbering sequence is very important for this solver. The maximum RAM
required for an analysis depends upon the maximum wave front length. At any point of
time only few equation remain in the RAM ( Core memory). Frontal solvers were widely
used in the initial days since the computing power available was less. If the total number
of degrees of freedom in a problem is n the number of multiplications involved are the
order of n3 .
The disadvantage of the Frontal solver is that it requires huge disk space for storing of
matrices during solution. Also the process of solving includes generation of upper or
lower triangle matrix and subsequent solution by Gaussian elimination method. This way
each row in the stiffness matrix is inter linked to other row for row operations.
But in case if the behavior of a system is to be studied under multiple loading conditions,
the solution time shall be almost similar to that required for a single solution. This is due
to the fact the stiffness and the unknown matrices (Left hand side) remain same for all
kinds of loading and only the right hand side ( Force matrix) shall be changing each time.
Hence different force matrices can be solved simultaneously for the same left hand side
to get quick solution in case of multiple loads.

Iterative solver: If the computer RAM is abundant this is the most ideal solver. The
run time using this solver is not effected either node numbering scheme or element
numbering scheme adopted in the problem.

The disadvantage of this solver is it requires very high RAM. This solver keeps all the
equation s in the RAM at any point of time. This does not involve any row operations for
the stiffness matrix. Hence all the rows have independent existence. Hence incase if
multiple processors are available the rows can be passed onto them for solution. This
makes this solver IDEAL for super computing.
For multiple load cases, he solution needs to be run multiple times for the same set of
boundary conditions. . If the total number of degrees of freedom in a problem is n the
number of multiplications involved are the order of k*n2 . Here usually k is less than
n/4. That is why iterative solvers are minimum 4 times faster than the Frontal solvers
for the same problem.
But convergence problems might arise if the elements are of bad quality or the problem
has too much variations in the stiffness values across various zones.

Sparse Direct Matrix Solver : Disk space wise and run time wise this solver lies
in between the Frontal and Iterative solvers. Node numbering scheme is important for
optimum run time using this solver.
The RAM requirements are also moderate for this solver since only either upper half or
lower half of the matrix needs to be stored in the RAM. Multiple load cases can be solved
with ease like incase of frontal solver.

Post Processing:
As discussed previously the process of reviewing the results with the help of CAE tool is
called post processing. In this stage, the results of the analysis are read and interpreted.
They can be presented in the form of a table, a contour plot, deformed shape of the
component or the mode shapes and natural frequencies if frequency analysis is involved.
Other results are available for fluids, thermal and electrical analysis types. Most postprocessors provide an animation service, which produces an animation and brings your
model to life.

If the results are available only in the form of numbers at each nodal location in the
component or system, it becomes very difficult for the engineer to interpret the same and
take some decisions. Contour plots are usually the most effective way of viewing results
for structural type problems. Hence the usual trend is to show the results also in the form
of colored contours. Each color represents a range of values for the region enclosed by it.
This approach gives a good insight into the state of the system on a Macro level. If one
wants the exact value at a particular location, he can refer to the actual numbers. This
makes the process of judgment very easy and user friendly. Slices can be made through
3D models to facilitate the viewing of internal stress patterns.

All post-processors now include the calculation of stress and strains in any of the x, y or z
directions, or indeed in a direction at an angle to the coordinate axes. The principal
stresses and strains may also be plotted, or if required the yield stresses and strains
according to the main theories of failure (von mises, St. Venant, Tresca etc.). Other
information such as the strain energy, plastic strain and creep strain may be obtained for
certain types of analyses.

Nodal Vs Element results:

The solution in FEA also involves differentiation and integration besides matrix
operations For elements having more than 4 nodes, direct differentiation or integration is
not possible using numerical methods. Hence another approach called Gauss quadrature
method is employed to perform numerical integration.
By this process, the displacements/strains/stresses are not exactly calculated at the nodal
location but at points inside the element called Gauss points. Hence the results obtained
at these points are called elemental results.
But often it is a usual practice to interpret the results at nodal locations. Hence to
calculate the same, the results at the gauss points are extrapolated to evaluate those at the
nodal location. If a number of elements share a single node, the result value at that node

shall be the average value of result obtained by extrapolating the Gauss point results for
all the elements. That is why these nodal results are some times referred to as Average
Nodal Results.
If mesh density is not managed properly, the element stresses and the average nodal value
can be quiet different. User should ensure good mesh density to ensure minimal variance
between the elemental and nodal results.

Plot paths: Plot paths are another way of deciphering the FEA results. Most of the
CAE post processing tools provide this capability. This is a good means of studying how
a result displacement/stress/strain varies along a direction of interest.

Deformation Scaling factors: Most of the times the displacement values

in the component or system or so low when one want to know as to what pattern the
component has deformed. Hence in most of the pre-processing tools, the displacements
are magnified by scaling them to a higher value and the component is shown in the
deformed state.
This provides for a better way of visualizing the deformation pattern of the
component/system. However, the color bands or the printed values of the displacement
shall be the actual values.

Sources Of Error:
There could be many reasons for obtaining poor results. Few of the contributing factors
could be as follows:

Problems With Units :In many cases, problems with units are easy to detect. To ensure
that the units employed are appropriate
Check the FE model for the correctness of results before the solution
Review the deformed model shape to ensure it is roughly what you expected.

Incorrect Loading :There are two main ways of loading the model incorrectly, namely
errors with units and oversights in the application of loads. The first is common with the
event of pushbutton analysis packages, this type of error is usually easy to detect.
Loading oversights are much more subtle and often impossible to detect. For example, if
a bending moment is required and is formed by applying a force at the end of the moment
arm, then a direct force is created as well as the bending moment. This is a common
mistake in torsion problems.
Another common oversight is to apply a static steady state load value where there will be
much higher loads experienced due to impluse. For example, if large boulders are loaded
onto a truck trailer, they probably will not be lowered in gently. Therefore, the impulse
loads experienced by the trailer chassis will far exceed the static load of the boulders,
especially when the trailer is almost full.

Element Polynomial Order : For the same mesh density (same number of elements),
parabolic elements provide better results because they represent the a models curved
boundaries more accurately, as well as producing better mathematical formulations
However, parabolic elements require much greater computational resources than linear
elements (usually takes about double the time to solve a parabolic element mesh than it
does to solve a linear element mesh of the same problem, with the same mesh density
being employed).
Also, Solution accuracy depends primarily on how well the assumed variation of stress
within an element fits the actual variation of stress within an element fits the actual
variation in a structure. Linear pyramid (tetrahedral) elements often provide inaccurate
results, especially for bending type problems. However, accuracy can be improved
dramatically by choosing parabolic elements instead.

Well shaped linear brick (hexahedral) elements can provide accurate results. The
elements perform at their best as regular prisms (cubes). Automatic hexa (brick) meshers
meshing complicated geometry, however will introduce distorted or transitional elements
in unexpected zones, thus considerably affecting the accuracy of the results. Parabolic
pyramid elements provide results at least as accurate as linear brick elements and are less
sensitive to distortion to poor orientation in the model.

Both 20 noded brick and 10 noded pyramid elements provide good stress results for
reasonable meshes with a comparable number of nodes, while 8 noded bricks and 4
noded pyramids require many more elements for solids with curved boundaries to
achieve the same geometrical and stress accuracy.

Over Simplification: Oftentimes suppression of small details is a good way of reducing

the time to solution. However, there are times when small details should not be removed.
If a small detail is located directly on the load path within a structure, then it may have a
considerable effect on the stress results. Details should be included in cases where their
removal would cause a considerable reduction in the neutral axis of bending. The shorter
the neutral axis, the stiffer the structure.
Sharp discontinuities can greatly increase stress, if there are particular areas of interest in
a model, then the finer details should be included.
The usual rule of thumb is to start with a simple representation of the component, analyze
it and see if it is behaving as expected. If it is, then more detail can be added in stages,
repeating the analysis each time to gain an appreciation of the amount of detail that is
required. However, attention should be given to the effect of detail exclusion before any
analysis is carried out.
Also in initial stages of design validation use automatic mesh generation and then for
freezing the final design use a refined and manually prepared mesh.
Descretisation Errors : Discretisation error results from
approximation of the
component with a finite number of finite elements, as well as the size and shape of the
elements. If the mesh is coarse, the elements will not be able to capture the behavior of
the structure and is said to suffer from descretisation error. On the other hand, if the mesh
is too dense, solution time will be too high. An ideal mesh would use just enough
elements to arrive at correct results.
To explain descretisation error, lets consider the analysis of a rectangular plate with a
central hole. If the engineer meshes the model with straight sided triangular elements, the
circular hole will be approximated by a series of connected straight lines. In a coarse
mesh, using a small number of elements, the discretisation error will be greater than in
the case of a finer mesh, using a large number of smaller elements. The only trade off

against using a very dense mesh, is that the analysis will take a considerable time longer,
due to the extra nodes that are required to be solved for.

An alternative is to refine the mesh at the local details. This requires specialist knowledge
on how the results will vary over the model domain.

Computed values such as stress and strain, are evaluated at locations on the element
known as Gauss points. These points are always well inside element boundaries. Values
at other positions are interpolated or extrapolated. If this is done across a boundary
between two elements, then it should be reasonably accurate, but extrapolating to the
edge of an element on the edge of a structure, where the stresses will probably be at the
highest and of most interest, can lead to significant errors in rapidly changing stress fields
if the mesh density or the element order is too low.

The best way of ensuring that your mesh is sufficiently refined is to plot the results with
node and element averaging switched off. A problem will materialize in the form of a
discontinuity (or step) of the solution parameter between elements (the contours will be
stepped across the element boundary rather than smooth as they should be).
The analyst should be aware of derivative type solutions. In a displacement analysis, the
stress is obtained by differentiating the displacement results. Therefore, if the element is
parabolic, then a linear variation of stress will be obtained. It is important that this is kept
in mind when defining the mesh density and grade. Remember that derivatives always
require more elements to converge. Heat flux in thermal analyses are also derivative
based results.

Formulation Error :Formulation error results from the use of elements that do not
precisely describe the behavior of the physical problem. Elements which are used to
model physical problems that they are not suited, are sometimes referred to as illconditioned or mathematically unsuitable elements for the problem in hand.
For example a particular finite element might be formulated on the assumption that
displacements vary in a linear manner over the domain. Such an element will produce no
formulation error when it is used to model linearly varying physical problem (linear
varying displacement field in this example), but would create a significant formulation
error if it used to represent a parabolicly or cubicly or logarithmically varying
displacement field. Formulation error can be reduced by selecting the proper element
type and mesh.

Numerical Errors: Numerical error occurs as a result of calculation procedures and

round off errors. Therefore, this problem mainly concerns the FE developer. The user can
also contribute to the numerical accuracy. In an analysis session, it is usual procedure for
the pre-processor to create an input file for the actual program that solves the problem.
Some of these keyword files are generated automatically by the software, and is hidden
from the user. In the case of high level analyses, most keyword files are user generated,
and it is possible to send the data to the solver with a reduced number of decimal places,
without even realizing it. Hence the solver solves a problem that does not represent the
geometry or loading conditions of the physical model, or the intentions of the user.

Multiple Load cases:

This situation arises if the same component or system is to be analyzed for results under
different types of load and boundary conditions. For the same model if boundary
conditions are different then the matrix of unknowns shall be different for each case.
Similarly if the loads are different for each case the Load matrix shall be different. But
the stiffness matrix remains the same.

Loads/Boundary conditions in local co-Ordinates:

Unless
otherwise specified the applied forced loads or the displacement boundary conditions act
along the direction parallel to the global axes.
At times we might have to apply a net force acting in a direction which is at an angle to
any of the global axes. Or at times we need to apply a force acting radially out/in wards.
Under such circustanges we either need to resolve the loads into components along the
global axes and apply them.
Alternately most of the CAE software provide an option of creating a local co-Ordinate
system, into which the nodes at which the loads are to be applied can be moved. Then the
loads can be applied in the local direction (Parallel to the local axes).

Temperature dependent material properties:

Most of the
material soften upon heating. Hence the material properties change to some extent. Hence
in simulations involving temperature effects the material properties need to be input as a
property of the system. Based upon the temperature assigned at a node, the software picks
up the relevant material property.

Specified Boundary conditions:

At times we shall not have any idea of

a load that a system is subjected to. But we might know how much a point in the system
has deformed under given conditions, like a cantilever beam end getting deflected by
certain amount.
Under such a situation instead of specifying the load, we can specify the known value of
displacement and the solver can still solve the problem and get the results.

Coupling and Constraint equations:

At times we need to enforce certain conditions like the following:
3 times displacement in X-direction at nodes a plus 2.5 times displacement in Xdirection at node b is equal to 0.8 times the displacement in X-direction at node c.
Such a condition is called a constraint equation and can be represented as follows.
3*Ux(a) + 2.5*Ux(b) = 0.8*Ux(c)
This way we can conveniently enforce a relation like joint behavior between various
locations in a FE Model. These constraint equations can also be used to tie together
regions of dissimilar mesh. Under such conditions these equations ensure displacement
continuity between the nodes.
One of the special cases of constraint equation where in we specify a condition that the
displacement at a particular location is equal to other location is called coupling degrees
of freedom.
That is we can specify an equation such as : Ux(a) = Ux(b)
In all the above situation care should be taken while defining to identify the dependent
and independent nodes. The dependent nodes moves freely under the influence of the
load or applied conditions and the independent node has to follow the dependent node as
per the specified relation through constraint equation.
Hence care should be taken to ensure that an independent nodes defined in one set is not
a dependent nodes in the other equation.

Connecting dissimilar Element Types:

When performing analyses of complex components or systems, the issue of connecting
dissimilar mesh types often arises which is referred to as mesh transition.. When used
correctly, transitioning can provides major cost savings while retaining quality of results.

Many structural applications of the finite element method contain long slender regions,
thin zones and complex chunky portions. Long slender regions are best represented with
beam elements, thin zones can usually be modeled using shell elements, and chunky
portions are best represented as three-dimensional elements. In order that each region is
represented by an appropriate element type, some sort of scheme is required to form a
link between the meshes of dissimilar dimension.

Transitioning schemes fall into two main categories. The first category are transitions
from one element type to another that are of the same dimension (e.g both are shell or
solid elements). The second type of transition is where element of different dimension are
joined (e.g. a shell to solid transition).

Transition Elements : Transition elements, which are also known as interface elements,
have been developed for both similar dimension and mixed dimension transitions.

Interface elements for similar dimension transitions can come in two main types, those
that have a one to one relationship and those that have a one to many relationship. The
most common one is the one to one, it is used for coupling elements that have edges with
different numbers of nodes. This type has been used mainly to couple elements with
different orders of interpolation. An example of a one-to-one transition element is shown
below:

It should be noted that the element on the right has only two nodes on one side, this is to
facility the proper coupling of eight noded quadrilaterals to four noded quadrilaterals on
the left. The formulation of the transition element will ensure that kinematically
equivalent nodal forces are applied to the elements on either side of it. These types of
transition elements can be cumbersome to use as they need to be oriented in a specific
manner and so usually require that the mesh is created manually.

Mixed dimensioned transition elements are used in regions where there is a mismatch
between element dimensions. The image shown here indicates a transition from where
the shell and solid are stitched together. The advantage of this type of transition is that
small 3D local details can be evaluated in structures that are otherwise thin-walled in
nature. Notice how there is a mismatch between the element densities, there are four
elements across the width in the shell side while there are seven elements on the solid
side of the transition.

Rigid Links :Rigid linking elements, otherwise known as kinematic elements, are
another way of connecting different element types within the same finite element model.
Rigid Link elements enforce kinematic relationships between the displacements at the
interface nodes.

Rigid links elements ususally come in two forms, 2D and 3D. Planar rigid links are
intended to connect plane stress, plane strain, beam, and axisymmetric solid elements.
The rigid linking formulation connects two nodes and produces constrained
displacements that satisfy kinematic relationships. 2D rigid link elements usually have
the requirement that the model must lie in the global XY plane.

The 3D variant of the rigid link element can be arbitrarily oriented in 3D space. It is
designed to connect three dimensional elements such as beams, shells, and solids. Again
the rigid linking connects two nodes and produces constrained displacements that satisfy
kinematic relationships, but it is more general than the planar type.

There is usually one master node and there can be one or more slave nodes in each
kinematic element. When the master node moves in space, the rigid linking mechanism
enforces the slave nodes to move with it, that is they maintain a constant relative distance
and orientation to the master node. As the slave nodes maintain constant proximity, the
nodes associated with the rigid element cannot deform relative to each other. This
restricts them from undergoing load based deformations and so a stress disturbance is
observed in the region where the link was applied. Therefore, kinematic elements should
really only be used in areas of a model where the stress quantities are not required.

Commercial CAE software have implemented an improved version of rigid links that
allows warping of the cross-section. They also allow linear contractions between nodes
that comprise the coupling element, this means that the stress disturbances are reduced
considerably.

Welding: Whenever two different pieces are to be welded together, mathematically it

amounts to transfer of the force experienced by one piece to the other. Hence to simulate
welding, one can use wither coupling of the nodes or generate elements called rigid
elements between two nodes where force transfer should take place due to welding.
The rigid elements are similar to beam elements but have very high stiffness ( That is
comparable to the that of adjacent regular elements) with zero mass. This element with

the very high stiffness would be able to transfer all the energy to the adjacent nodes.
CAE tools provide for definition of such rigid elements.

Sub-Modeling:
At times we are interested in a studying the behavior of a large model without losing
accuracy of the models at some critical locations. But if the local regions need good
results the mesh there needs to be very fine. Achieving the required kind of mesh
transition might result in large number of elements where in the computer resources
might not be sufficient to solve the problem at one go.
Hence under such situations a multi pronged approach called sub-modeling is employed.
Sub-modeling is based on St. Venant's principle, which states that if an actual distribution
of forces is replaced by a statically equivalent system, the distribution of stress and strain
is altered only near the regions of load application. Therefore, if the boundaries of the sub
model are far enough from the stress concentration, reasonably accurate results can be
calculated in the sub model.
Sub modeling allows the user to study a localized part of a model with a refined mesh
based on the solution from an initial, global model with a coarse mesh. The sub model is
analyzed as an independent simulation. The only link between it and the global analysis
is the transfer of the values of variables to the relevant boundary nodes of the sub model.
Sub model boundaries do not have match element boundaries in the global model, the
evaluation of the nodal values in the sub model can be determined by interpolating
between results in the coarse model. Most of the CAE software are capable of doing this
automatically.
Under this approach, first a coarse model is made and analyzed for behavior. Then a
piece of the model containing the region of interest is chosen. The boundary of the model
are chosen such that the results remain more or less same irrespective of the mesh
density.
The FE mesh for such a model is then refined to the level of accuracy required and then
the boundary conditions are applied at the cut boundaries. Since the number of nodes at
the cut boundary are more compared to those in the initial model, the results in the
original model are transferred to the boundaries of the cut model by interpolation. Loads
any present in the region are gain applied and then the solution is re-run to get accurate
results at regions of interest. The approach can be repeated for multiple regions of
interest.
Sub models can usually be used with all types of analysis procedures, including nonlinear
and dynamic analysis models.
This fast analysis technique is also known as the cut-boundary displacement method or
the specified boundary displacement method. The cut boundary is the boundary of the
sub model which represents a cut through the coarse model. Analysis results calculated

on the cut boundary of the coarse model are specified as boundary conditions for the sub
model.

Super Elements advantages/Dis-advantages:

As discussed previously super elements are formed by combining different elements.
Hence in situation where hardware resources are in-sufficient to solve a large problem,
some of the elements are combined to make super elements and thus reduce the number
of elements present in the model.
Thus solution is carried out for the model with reduced number of elements ( With super
elements). Under such situations analysis results shall be available initially for the super
elements only and not for the individual elements which make it up. Once the solution is
obtained, an expansion run is required to transfer the results available to the individual
elements.
The solution for FE models involving super element is done through Frontal solver.
Hence the run time required for an analysis using a super element shall be high as well as
the disk space requirements. Also the solution involves multiple phases such as creation
of super element, followed by solution which in turn is followed by expansion runs to get
solution for the individual elements that make up the super elements.

Hyperelestic materials: The characteristics exhibited by material like

rubber
are quiet different from those exhibited by materials like steel. The behavior of rubber
like mateial can be best simulated y using material models such as Mooney rivilin or
Neo-Hookean models.
To aid such simulations one needs to input the uni-axial compression or tension test
results for the material along with the material properties, for the material.

Anisotropic/Orthotropic Materials: Isotropic materials are those which

have same material properties in all the directions. Ani-Isotropic materials have different
material properties in different directions. Orthotropic elements have different properties
along the material axes directions.
Composites are example of anisotropic materials and certain plastics exhibit ortho-tropic
behavior. CAE tools enable solution to such problems as well. When analyzing such
materials, one needs to input the material orientation axes using a local co-ordination
system. Also the material properties need to be defined along the three material axes.

Symmetry in FEA Models:

Symmetric properties can be described as a harmony of proportions or a transformation
that leaves all relevant parts of the structure intact. Any symmetric properties in an
analysis should be exploited to the full if at all possible, as it can drastically reduce
solution times and hence facilitate more effective use of resources. In general, it is
important that loads and boundary conditions are symmetric in nature to allow for
symmetry to be used in the model. There are four major ways that symmetry can be
exploited in the model, these are discussed in turn below.

Planar symmetry : This is the most common type of symmetry found in finite element
models. Reflective symmetry is a condition where the same pattern is seen to be mirrored
in a plane. The image shown below indicates that the model is doubly symmetric, one
plane in the horizontal direction and another in the vertical direction. As this is a 2D
model the symmetric planes are comprised of lines. Planar symmetry can occur in 3D
also, the plane of symmetry would be defined by a surface.
It is important to apply a symmetric constraint to all new edges and surfaces that are
created due to taking advantage of the symmetry property. In this case, the vertical
constraint is to prevent any horizontal movement, while the horizantal constraint would
be to prevent any vertical movement. Had this been a 2D mesh in 3D space, further
conditions would have to have been applied, i.e. constrain the model from rotation about
the planar axes.

Axisymmetry or Rotational Symmetry:If a shape can be defined by rotating a crosssection about a line, then it is said to be axi-symmetric. If the loads and boundary
conditions are also axi-symmetric in nature, then an axi-symmetric analysis may be
carried out.

Axi-symmetric elements are 2D planar in nature, and are used to model a revolved 3D
part in 2D space. Each element deforms as if it were a solid ring rotated about the axis of
revolution. Axi-symmetric elements are available most finite element packages and in a

range of element shapes and types. No special boundary conditions have to be applied to
these elements to achieve the symmetry condition.

Cyclic Symmetry : Cyclic symmetry is the geometric repetition in the form of cyclic
sectors. The structure is composed of a series of identical sectors that are arranged
circumferentially to form a ring. The image shown below is of a wheel model. The
cyclic portion is cut out, leaving the remainder to illustrate that it comprises eight
cyclic portions.
In order that the cyclic constraint be achieved, the new surfaces that comprise the
cyclic boundary must be constrained in the circumferential direction. This is achieved
by assigning the surfaces a cylindrical coordinate system and subsequently
constraining the circumferential freedom, which is usually dof 2 (the theta direction).
Some FE packages have this transformation already built in to their functionality, you
simply specify the lines or surfaces that are to be applied the cyclic constraint, it
carries out the transformation automatically.

Few Comments about exploiting Symmetry : It is important to note that taking

advantages of symmetric properties may have a detrimental effect in frequency
(modal) or eigenvalue buckling problems. The reason for this is that the symmetric
model will not be able to predict non-symmetric mode shapes. Therefore, if a
symmetric analysis is carried out, only the mode shapes that also have the same
symmetric properties will be resolved.

In cases were only minor details disrupt a structure's symmetry, you can oftentimes
ignore them or treat them as being symmetric, in order to gain the benefits of using a
smaller analysis model. The gain in model simplification usually outweighs the cost in
reduced accuracy when un-symmetric features are deliberately ignored. Such modeling
practices should be carried out carefully.

Non-Linear Analysis:
Non-Linear Analyses : In order to explain non-linearity in stress analyses, lets examine
the nature of linear solutions. Many assumptions are made in linear analyses, the two
primary ones being the stress/strain relationship and the deformation behavior. The stress
is assumed to be directly proportional to strain and the structure deformations are
proportional to the loads. A fishing rod is an example of a non-linear structure made of
linear material. A stress analysis problem is linear only if all conditions of proportionality
hold. If any one of them is violated, then we have a Non-Linear problem.

Most real life structures, especially plastics, are non-linear, perhaps both in structure and
in material. Most plastic materials have a non-linear stress strain relationship. The nonlinearity arising from the nature of material is called 'Material Non-linearity'.
Furthermore, thin walled plastic structures exhibit a non-linear load-deflection
relationship, which could arise even if the material were linear (fishing rod). This kind is
called geometric non-linearity.

All non- linearities are solved by applying the load slowly (dividing it into a number of
small loads increments). The model is assumed to behave linearly for each load
increment, and the change in model shape is calculated at each increment. Stresses are
updated from increment to increment, until the full applied load is reached.
In a nonlinear analysis, initial conditions at the start of each increment is the state of the
model at the end of the previous one. This dependency provides a convenient method for
following complex loading histories, such as a manufacturing process. At each increment,
the solver iterates for equilibrium using a numerical technique such as the NewtonRaphson method. Due to the iterative nature of the calculations, non-linear FEA is
computationally expensive, but reflects the real life conditions more accurately than
linear analyses. The big challenge is to provide a convergent solution at minimum cost
(the minimum number of increments).

While simulating the structural behavior there could be various kinds of non- linearities
which are as follows:
Geometric Non-Linearity: At times the deformation of a component in a direction can be
more than three times its dimensions in a particular direction. Such problems fall under
the category of geometric non-linearity.
Such problems instead of solving in a single go, have to solved in multiple phases each
time updating the shape of the component from the results of the previous step. Here
instead of applying the load in one single step, shall be applied in multiple steps

incrementally so that deformed shape at the end of each step shall be input geometry for
the next step.

Material non-linearity: At times the stress at a location in FE model shall be more than
the yield. Under such a situation, the stress strain behavior of the system shall be no
longer linear and the system has to follow the stress strain curve of the material. Under
such situation also, the solution instead of running in a single go is run in multiple steps.
At the end of each step, the solver checks for the plastic strains while trying to follow the
material stress strain curve. Here also the stiffness matrix at the end of a step shall be
input for the next step.
Contact non-Linearity: Contact problems are non-linear in nature because unlike in the
regular problems where in the stress increases linearly with the increase in load value, the
stress value in a contact problem may not increase or if it increases, it may not be
proportional to load. This is due to the fact the load bearing area (Contact Area) increases
with the increase in load.
Like other non-linear analysis here also the load is applied in steps to capture the gradual
engagement of the contact regions.

Newton Raphson Method: As discussed earlier in a non-linear analysis, the

loads are applied in a incremental manner instead of applying in a single go. Also the
elements of the stiffness matrix are a function of the displacement matrix.
Hence such equations of equilibrium can not be directly solved and hence we need the
aid iteration techniques to achieve solution to such problems. Newton Raphsom method
is the widely used technique to arrive at the solution for the non-linear problems.
Concept of time: We have discussed that the loads in a non-linear analysis are applied in
a incremental manner. Hence while simulating such behavior we specify the load as a
function of time. The time is jut used to define the pattern in which the load should be
increased for the model.
The time specified here is completely a Pseudo time and can not be mistaken with the
real time that is used to apply time varying loads in a transient analysis.

Stepped Vs Ramped load: While applying loads to FE models with respect to

time( Either in transient analysis or for a non-linear analysis with Pseudo time), two
approaches can be used. In one approach the load can be increased slowly with the time
in a linear manner. Such a loading is called Ramped load.
In the other approach, at the beginning of each step the load can be increased and kept
constant till the end of that time step. Such a loading pattern is called stepped load.

Forced Vs auto time stepping:

In a non-linear analysis the engineers often have the flexibility to choose the number of
loading steps. Choosing more than the required number of steps than those required for
solution accuracy might lead to more solution time. Hence to avoid such a situation, most
of the CAE tools have built in automatic time stepping algorithms which can decide upon
the number of steps in which a load should be applied so that the solution time can be
reduced without losing accuracy.
But at times the automatic time stepping algorithms can falter and fail to capture a certain
behavior in a non-linear analysis.
Hence a combination of forced and automatic time stepping algorithms should be used to
get optimum solution time coupled with good results.

Line Search / Arc Length method:

Usually certain number of iterations through Newton Rapshosn method are required to
achieve converged results in a non-Linear analysis. Solution would have converged at
some nodes during a certain iteration. But to achieve convergence for all the nodes
subsequent iterations might be required.
The line search algorithm attempts to find the solution for the un-converged nodes,
without going for the further iteration there by saving time.
Also when we force a particular time stepping pattern in a non-linear analysis we may not
be able to achieve solution convergence. Hence to achieve convergence, the load that is
being applied in each step might need to be decreased. If an Arc length algorithm is
activated, it takes care of such requirements.

Thermal Analysis:
Thermal analysis is used to determine the temperature distribution, heat accumulation or
dissipation, and other related thermal quantities in an object. The nodal degrees of
freedom (primary unknown data) are the temperatures. The primary heat transfer
mechanisms are conduction, convection and radiation. In addition, less dominant
phenomena such as change of phase (melting or freezing) and internal heat generation
can occur.

Conduction: Conduction describes the temperature within the solid body, but does not
account for how heat will flow to and from the component. In order to carry out analyses
using a conduction model alone, temperatures must be described as part of the boundary
condition description. Heat flows (otherwise known as heat flux) are at times specified
along boundaries in addition to temperature as boundary conditions.

Radiation: Radiation type boundary conditions are applied if there is a significant

temperature difference between bodies in an enclosed space, or if there is a far field heat
source/sink.
This heat transfer mechanism occurs exclusively at the surface and is a function of the
fourth power of the absolute temperatures (Kelvin), the emissivity of the bodies and a
value known as the Stefan- Boltzman constant. The emissivity is dependent on surface
properties such as the colour and finish. Radiation type boundary conditions are highly
non-linear due to the difference between fourth order absolute temperatures. A further
complication is due to incidents where the surfaces of two adjacent radiating bodies are
not flat and parallel to each other. This case is overcome by introducing a shape factor
(otherwise known as a view, angle or interception factor) to the solution.

Convection: The convection heat transfer mechanism is due to the temperature gradient
between a fluid and a solid. This mechanism is complex as a boundary layer usually
exists within the fluid adjacent to the solid boundary. The heat flux is a function of the
temperature difference, T, and a heat transfer coefficient, h.

The heat transfer coefficient is dependent on many factors such as fluid pressure,
velocity, density, specific heat (ratio of specific heats if the fluid is compressible),
viscosity and conductivity. It is also dependent on surface properties such as roughness
and geometry.

Steady state Thermal analysis: In a steady state thermal analysis we can estimate the
temperature at various location in the FE model which could be under the individual or
combined influence of Conduction, Convection and Radiation.

Here it is assumed that the conditions of the system do not vary with time. In this kind of
analysis one can specify the temperature at know points as boundary conditions. Also the
heat transfer rate at known surfaces in the form of convection heat transfer co-efficients
along with the ambient temperatures can be specified.
The outputs that can be obtained through this analysis are temperatures values at various
nodes and the thermal flux values at each node. By careful formulation of the problem,
the heat transfer rate through various zones or the same through different modes of heat
transfer (Conduction/Convection/Radiation) can be estimates.
Transient thermal analysis: In a transient thermal analysis, the behavior of the system
with respect to time ( Under the influence of time varying conditions can be studied).
The results that can be obtained in a Transient thermal analysis are similar to those
obtained in a Steady state thermal analysis. But the results can be obtained over a range
of time.

Coupled field Analysis

: Analysis where in the results of one analysis form

as input for the other analysis are referred to as coupled field analysis. Due to the
complex nature of the physical processes being modeled, it is not unusual to conduct
coupled analyses as part of a design program. Fluid-structural, fluid-thermal and fluidacoustic analyses are most common types. Thermal- Structural is the most commonly
performed analysis.

Some of the CAE software has the ability to perform the coupled field analysis
automatically where as some do not have that capability. However in both cases the
Engineer can run one simulation, obtain out put results and apply them as inputs for the
other analysis.

Thermal stress analysis :

In most of the equipment like Engine

Components, the stresses due to heating effects are more pronounced than their
mechanical counter parts. But as discussed earlier we need to know the temperature at all
the nodes to be input as thermal loading. But one may not know the temperature profile at
all the nodal points.

Hence to perform a stress analysis under thermal loading, initially a thermal analysis is
run and the temperature results obtained are transferred to structural model as thermal
loads.
Along with the thermal loads ( In the form of temperature) other mechanical loads also
can be applied for structural model to study the behavior under combined loading.

Modal Analysis:
Vibration usually becomes a concern when the amplitudes grow large enough to cause
either excessive stress, or if it disturbs the people in, on or near the surroundings. As far
as most structures are concerned, vibration will disturb the people around the structure
long before stress becomes an issue. There are many items of equipment (balances,
microscopes, cameras, transmission equipment etc.) that are very sensitive to vibration.
Modal analyses are important in machines where there is likely to be cyclic out of
balance forces, such as in rotating machinery (engines, electric and pneumatic motors,
generators, industrial equipment, etc.) and fluid flow applications (due to alternating
vortex shedding). The chief aim of any vibration analysis is to ensure that the system is
not subject to a dangerous resonant condition during the range of operation.
The equation for equilibrium for a dynamic system without any external forces is given
by:
[M]*Double differential [X] + [K]*[X] = 0 where,
[X] is the displacement matrix
[K] is the stiffness matrix
and [M] is the mass matirx

But in a simple harmonic motion with a frequency the acceleration is given by :

Double differential [X] = -2 [X]
Hence the equation of equilibrium can be re-written as :
[M]* -2 [X] + [K]*[X] = 0
Multiplying through out by [M]-1,The above equation can be re-written as (Since [M]*
[M]-1 = [I] ):
[K]* [M]-1 *[X] - -2 [X] = 0
Re-arranging we get ,
{[K]* [M]-1 - 2} * [X] = 0
The above equation is similar to a matrix for which a characteristic equation with
(Where = 2). When such a equation is solved we get the values of . Such a

problem in matrix terminology is called as Eigen value problem. Hence modal analysis is
also to referred to as Eigen value analysis.
The square root of Eigen values is nothing but the natural frequency of the system. A
coarse mesh is sufficient for a modal/dynamic analysis compared to a stress analysis.

Figure showing the Mode Shapes for a Spring Mass System

Figure showing the Mode Shapes for a real life Component

Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors:

When a characteristic equation is solved for Eigen values, the number of Eigen values
obtained are equal to the number of rows/columns of the stiffness matrix. Hence when
each Eigen value is input, there could be different values for the [X] matrix. These
values for the [X] for each value of are called Eigen Vectors.
The Eigen values represent the natural frequencies and the Eigen Vectors represent the
mode shapes for the corresponding natural frequency. The mode shape represent the
relative displacement at each location when excited near resonant frequencies.

Boundary Conditions for Modal Analysis:

Theoretically, a Modal analysis can be performed without applying any boundary
conditions. However suitable boundary conditions can be applied based upon the actual
state of the system. Modal analyses results are very sensitive to the way in which
boundary conditions are applied. Hence physical boundary conditions should be
simulated as closely as possible.
In all eigenvalue problems (buckling or vibration), symmetry of geometry, material
properties, loading and boundary conditions does not guarantee symmetry of
displacements. Therefore, it is advisable to try to implement a full 3D analysis where
possible and only use symmetrically idealized models with great care.

Mesh Requirements for Eigen value analysis : Since Eigenvalue

problems are less sensitive to mesh density compared to other analysis types, coarse
meshes can be used for the 3D model, so long as the mesh is graded and refined towards
nodes which carry loads and boundary conditions. One should not be using overly coarse
meshes, as it will result in a stiffer structure with resulting higher modes of vibration than
is actually the case.

Consistent Vs lumped mass matrices: The mass matrix that is used for the
Modal analysis can be in two forms.
In one of the forms, the total mass is just lumped at all the nodes of the element
proportionately based upon the distance of the node from the C.G of the element. Under
such conditions, the mass matrix shall be a diagonal matrix and it becomes very easy to
compute the inverse of the mass matrix and also matrix multiplication wise.
Where as in the other form, the mass is distributed in tune with the polynmial used to
define the edge of the element. Mass matrix obtained using such an approach is not a
diagonal matrix and hence the effort required to inverse the mass matrix or multiplication
of inverted mass matrix with stiffness matrix requires considerable effort.
But the results obtained by consistent mass matrix are more accurate and
computationally more time consuming.

Different kinds of solvers for Modal analysis : There are various kinds of
solvers used for Modal analysis. Of them Lancozos method and Sub-Space iteration
method are most popular.
Of these two Lancozos method is more robust and can generate Eigen values even for
meshed with bad quality.

Modal Analysis with Pre-Stressing effects:

At times when component like fan blades of a Helicopter elongate while in
operation(Rotating). Hence the geometry of the same gets changed while in rotation. For
such components the natural frequencies should be evaluated with the geometry that shall
exists under actual conditions of operation.
Hence to simulate the geometry under the operating conditions, a stress analysis needs to
be performed. Based upon the results of the analysis, the geometry under operating
conditions can be determined, the new deformed geometry can be saved and can be used
as input geometry for the Modal analysis to extract the natural frequencies.

Modal Analysis with Cyclic Symmetry:

Components like gear tooth and splined shaft are cyclically symmetrical. That is one
sector when rotated, around the center of circle appropriate number of times can generate
the whole component. Under such circumstances, engineer can analyze one sector of
component and still shall be able to compute the natural frequencies for the entire
component. This way, by solving for a single slice of the component within a very less
time, we shall be able to simulate the natural frequencies for the entire component.

Modal Analysis with Damping:

So far we have discussed the situations where in the natural frequencies are evaluated for
system ignoring the damping within the system. But if the system is composed of
components like rubber bushes and bearings, the damping values can not be ignored.
Under such conditions, the stiffness matrix shall not be symmetric one. Also the regular
solvers like Lancozos or Sub-Space can not be used to evaluate the natural frequencies.
A complex Eigen value solver needs to be employed for the same. For such an analysis,
the damping in the material needs to be input as one of the material properties.

Block Diagram for Damped Free Vibrations

Reduced methods:
At times an experienced engineer shall be sure that a information about mode shapes, in a
particular mode or direction. Hence to decrease the computational time, even before the
analysis can be performed to evaluate the natural frequencies, Engineer can instruct the
software not to calculate the natural frequencies that shall have mode shapes in a
particular direction.
This way the computational time can be reduced considerable without studying for the
mode shapes and natural frequencies which are of not importance to the Engineer.
If Super elements are used in a dynamic analysis, the CAE software shall be ignoring
some modes and mode shapes automatically and this results in a reduced modal analysis.
Also at times if the engineer can not decide upon the un-wanted modes, the CAE
software based upon certain logic can eliminate some modes and mode shapes.

Dynamic Response Analysis:

When the natural frequencies of a system are very close to the operating conditions, or
very close to the excitation frequency surrounding it, the component can get into
resonance and can fail in total.
Hence one of the remedies could be to try and avoid the natural frequency by
strengthening the component locally based upon the mode shape.
But due to design constraints, strengthening the component locally may not be possible.
Also in reality, at resonance the displacement may not be infinite due to the presence of
damping. Hence a response analysis aims at determining the response of the system under
time/frequency based loads.
When the stress/strain/displacement response is less than the allowable limit the
component need not be strengthened or re-designed to avoid resonance.
Dynamic response analysis can be performed in two ways. One is a direct method where
in the time varying loads are applied directly and the solution is achieved using time
integration solvers. The other method is an indirect method where in, to perform the
response analysis is always followed by a modal analysis. The two approaches give the
same results.
In a direct method, non- linearities in the structure can be accounted for where as in a in
an in-direct method the same can not be accounted for.

Frequency response or Harmonic analysis : In such an analysis, a load

which may not be significantly high but which varies sinusoidally with a frequency, is
applied to the system and the system response is studied for such loads.
The output for such an analysis shall be the applied frequency Vs the response of the
system in terms of displacement/Strain/Stress.
Block Diagram for Harmonic Analysis

Transient Dynamic analysis: In such an analysis, the response of the system

when subjected to a time varying load of high intensity for a short duration is studied.
The output for such an analysis shall be the applied Time Vs the response of the system
in terms of displacement/Strain/Stress.
Block Diagram for Transient Analysis

Shock or Spectrum analysis: In such an analysis, the response of the system

when subjected an excitation through the support can be studied.
The output for such an analysis shall be the applied Time Vs the response of the system
in terms of displacement/Strain/Stress.
Block Diagram for Shock Analysis

Random Vibration analysis: This analysis is similar to the shock analysis. But
the loads applied are not realistic. Probabilistic loads arrived at methodically shall be
applied and the system response is studied for the same.
The output for such an analysis shall be the applied Time Vs the RMS response of the
system in terms of displacement/Strain/Stress.

Buckling analysis:
Buckling is a critical state of stress and deformation, at which a slight disturbance causes
a gross additional deformation, or perhaps a total structural failure of the part. Buckling
failures do not depend on the strength of the material, but are a function of the component
dimensions and modulus of elasticity. Therefore, materials with a high strength will
buckle just as quickly as low strength ones.
If a structure has one or more dimensions that are small relative to the others (slender or
thin-walled), and is subject to compressive loads, then a buckling analysis may be
necessary. From an FE analysis point of view, a buckling analysis is used to find the
lowest multiplication factor for the load that will make a structure buckle. The result of
such an analysis is a number of buckling load factors (BLF). The first BLF (the lowest
factor) is always the one of interest. If it is less than unity, then buckling will occur due to
the load being applied to the structure.
Buckling analysis aims at determining, Eulers critical loads required to buckles a column
or structure. There are two methods of performing a Buckling analysis. Of them one is a
Eigen value analysis which calculates the buckling modes through linear techniques. The
analysis is also used to find the shape of the buckled structure. The other method
requires a Geometric non-Linear analysis to be run to determine the buckling load. In the
non-linear method it is tough to calculate the Buckling loads of higher mode since the
mesh distorts almost after the first Buckling load is evaluated ( At times the mesh may
get distorted even before the first Buckling load can be calculated).
In buckling mode of failure, soon after the column fails, the stiffness characteristics of the
structure changes and hence more or additional load is required to cause further failure by
buckling. Hence there can be multiple Buckling load factors for a structure.

Linear Buckling : This method is very conservative. This is similar to Eigen value
analysis to estimate the natural frequencies. In this method a load is applied at a certain
location and the Buckling analysis gives the load factors as solution.
That is the applied load multiplied by the Buckling load factors obtained gives the Eulers
critical load required to buckle a column or structure. A negative factors indicate that the
direction of the load should be reversed. If more than one load is to be applied to evaluate
the Buckling load factors then they should be applied in the same proportion as they
would be in reality so as to get the accurate factor.Like in case of dynamic analysis there
shall be multiple Eigen values and associated Eigen vectors for the case of Buckling also.
The second, third and so on Buckling factors represent the higher buckling modes and
their behavior while failing under buckling mode.
An important note is that the eigenvalue method does not take into account of any initial
imperfections in the structure and so the results rarely correspond with practical tests.
Eigenvalue solutions usually over estimate the buckling load and give no information

about the post-buckling state of the structure. Sudden buckling simply does not occur in
the real world.

Non-Linear Buckling: In this method of calculating the Buckling load, a

geometric non linear analysis is run with a sufficiently high load, where buckling can be
detected by the change of displacement in the model. Once the run completes or
terminates, a force Vs Stiffness curve is drawn from the results. Geometric non-linearity
arises when deformations are large enough to significantly alter the way load is applied,
or load is resisted by the structure. The load at which the stiffness of the component or
structure changes suddenly shall be Buckling load required to fail the same by Buckling
mode.
The approach to a non-linear buckling solution is achieved by applying the load slowly
through a number of small loads increments. The model is assumed to behave linearly for
each load increment, and the change in model shape is calculated at each increment.
Stresses are updated from increment to increment, until the full applied load is reached.
The solution becomes an iterative procedure rather than one of matrix factorization alone,
and consequently is computationally expensive.

An interesting variation arises in the case of automotive applications. In the case of front
end collision, the hood is expected to crumple (buckle) in order to absorb the energy of
collision, as well as to save the passenger compartment. In such cases, we are not
designing against, but for buckling.

Planning a Finite Element Analysis

Introduction: The well known and accepted rule of the sooner you try to finish the
longer it shall take principle applies to CAE simulations as well. Hence, The planning of
an analysis is the most important part of the finite element design process.
Planning is as natural to the process of success as its absence is to the process of failure.
A planning check list is a dependable means of ensuring that nothing has been
overlooked. It will also provide a permanent record of the analysis plan and serve as a
reference for future work

Initial stage: Before planning for a simulation, try to assess what contribution the
analysis will provide to the overall design objective. Ensure that the scope of the analysis
is sufficiently detailed in any specifications, as it will avoid problems at a later stage.
Details such as the source of geometry (file type), loading data, outputs required and time
frame should be carefully considered.
Before deciding on how detailed a FEA model will have to be in order to give adequate
resolution of results, gloss over the theories relating to the design problem at hand. Many
problems have closed form solutions, or closed form solutions can provide very close
approximations. Hand calculations and simple computer tools will provide indispensable
information.
It is worthwhile forming very simple parameterized analyses. By varying the parameters
(thickness, number of supports, etc.), it will become obvious what parameters are
dominant in regard to structural response. Isolating the leading parameters early in the
design cycle will facilitate an efficient and fruitful outcome. This process is known as
design optimization.

It will be worth spending some time over relevant documentation on the physical
phenomena being studied.

If the stress varies linearly through the thickness of thin-walled regions,

shell elements can be used. If it varies parabolically, then at least three
solid, second order elements are required through the thickness in order to
resolve a representative state of stress (stress varies linearly in parabolic

displacement

elements).

If the overall displacement is greater than the characteristic dimension

(shell thickness, beam depth, etc., then a large displacement analysis is
required (a geometrically non-linear analysis).

If the stress varies in two directions only, then a plane stress analysis is
suitable. If strain is constant through the thickness, then plane strain
analysis is appropriate.

If there are any rotating parts, then a frequency analysis may be required
to ensure that they do not fail prematurely due to whirl fatigue.

If there are cyclic forces, then a full dynamic analysis may be required. If
the number of loading cycles is greater than 20,000 you may need to
consider fatigue.

If individual loads vary, then some sort of time integration scheme will
need to be adopted.

If there are long and slender members or thin sheets that are subject to
compressive loads, then a buckling analysis is required. If the fundamental
buckling load factor is less than unity while the yield stress of the material
has been exceeded, then a geometrically and material non-linear analysis
will be required. It is very important to know in advance the type of
expected buckling (global or local, bifurcation or snap-through).

If a frequency or buckling analysis is being carried out, then a full 3D

analysis will be needed to identify non-symmetric modes (these occur
regularly in most types of structures).

If the region of interest is local, then a sub-model may be appropriate as it

would save considerable time to achieve a solution.

If there are complex components that are not of immediate interest, then
they may be condensed out as a super element. Their effect will be
included in the overall structural response, but will reduce analysis times
considerably. Sub-structuring is also useful where there are repetitions of
geometry in the model. The repeated geometry can be meshed and substructured out. This super element can then be copied as required, hence

forming

the

bulk

of

the

structure

using

super

elements.

Long slender regions can be represented by beam elements. If they are

connected to regions of complex geometry, loading or boundary
conditions, then a join can be made between beams and 3D elements using
either full coupling algorithms or kinematic coupling (rigid links)
techniques.

If the geometry, loading and boundary conditions are axi-symmetric, then

axi-symmetric elements can be used effectively (except in a frequency or
buckling analysis).

If there are non- linearities in either materials, loads, boundary conditions

(contact), displacements (large deformations), then the loads will need to
be applied in a number of steps, i.e. a non-linear analysis.

Large gradients in stress levels will require a high mesh density to capture
the behavior appropriately.

Model Preparation :Planning the creation of an analysis model saves time as it can help
you avoid making mistakes that may take long time to correct, or even prevent the total
re-modeling of the problem. The following precautionary measures can be adopted:

Convert everything into primary units of force, length, mass, temperature,

time and angle and make sure that all values of density, pressure, velocity,
acceleration, conductivity, coefficient of expansion, heat flux, Young's
and Shear modulii, etc., are consistent with this system.

Imported geometry from CAD systems or neutral geometry format, tend to

contain multiple copies of points and lines. On importing any models from
a CAD system or neutral geometry format, be sure to merge all coincident
points and collinear lines. This will ensure that the mesh generated in the
model is fully connected and thus avoids the issue of dealing with zero
pivots in the solution stage.

Refine the mesh towards any sharp discontinuities in geometry such as at

corners and around holes. This will reduce the discretisation errors
experienced due to high gradients in stress or heat flux.

If one is unfamiliar with the way in which load is distributed , then it is

advisable to avoid mixing of different element types. Incorrect element
transitioning can lead to serious errors that will result in the need to
rework the model.

If using shell quadrilateral elements, try to ensure that the elements are all
oriented in the same global direction. As stresses can only be shown on
one side of the shell at a time, if some shells have surface normals that are
pointing inwards and the rest point outwards, the stress patterns what we
see through post-processor may not be correct.

On applying material properties, it is useful to generate a shaded material

plot and check that all parts of the model have been assigned the correct
properties.

Remember that distributed loads are not evenly divided among the nodes
of higher order (quadratic or higher) element edges or faces. Midside
nodes carry most of the load while the chord (corner) nodes carry much
less or even negative loads. Therefore do not apply distributed loads to
higher order element nodes manually. If applying them via the preprocessor GUI, check to ensure that constant loading is not being applied
to all nodes. The unequal loads applied at the nodes is known as
kinematically equivalent loading.

If using axi-symmetric elements to model a revolved component that

contains voids in the plane (e.g. modeling a wheel that has bolt holes on a
pitch circle diameter). Then the region with the voids can be represented
with plane stress elements. Although this will only approximate the true
behavior, it will be more representative than simply using axi-symmetric
elements.

In cases where elements were created manually, it is possible that some

elements were not defined, thus creating voids that are not intentional or
appropriate. A shrunken element plot is useful to identify regions where
there are elements missing.

A free edge plot can be used to identify what element edges form an
external boundary. It can help identify locations where internal parts of the
structure are not joined. Holes or discontinuities in the mesh can arise
where different parts of the model were mesh separately. Node merging or
equivalencing can be used to correct such problems, all coincident nodes
are effectively replaced by one single node.

A plot of loads and constraints on the model will provide a check against
errors that were made at the time of user input. This check will save you
running the analysis for the wrong loading scenario.

Results Interpretation:
Before accepting the results of a simulation, it is worthwhile carrying out a number of
simple checks to ensure that your solution is appropriate and representative. FEA
provides an approximation to the problem being considered and so any results should be
treated with due caution. It is important to establish best practices for checking FEA
models in an organized manner, and should include the contribution and response of team
wherever possible.

The Simulation Report :Most solvers have some means of outputting annotations that
indicate the state and progress of the analysis into a file. This fils is commonly filled with
numerous warning messages, most of them irrelevant, but some may be important. It is
worth browsing through this file with a text editor and make a note of all relevant
warning/error messages. Some of the common messages that can be see in these files:

Nodes are coincident, but not connected.

A node is not connected to any element.

Poisson's ratio is not within the usual range of 0 to 0.5.

The Shear Modulus has not been specified, a value of (0.39 * Young's
Modulus) is assumed.

Two or more elements share a node, but have incompatible DOFs.

An element has a very high aspect ratio, dihedral angle or level of

distortion.

The state of the System Matrix :Some solvers yield details of the system matrix. The
pivot ratio is common output, large values indicate that accuracy is poor. This may be
due to insufficient or incorrect boundary conditions being applied or due to the lack of
element continuity. If the ratio of maximum to minimum element stiffness is given, its
ideal value is unity. a very high value indicates that material properties may be applied
incorrectly or that element constants such as thickness or beam properties are defined
incorrectly (probably in the wrong units).

Logical Checks: At times the analysis Engineer might not be knowing the exact value to
be expected from the analysis ( Quantitative results). But he can always check the results
qualitatively in the following ways:

Does the structure deform in the mode you would expect ?

Do bending loads result in compression and tension on the right sides of a

body ?

Do spinning objects move radially outwards ?

Does gravity pull downwards ?

Are there any hoop stresses in your axi-symmetric model ?

Do heated objects expand, and cooled objects contract ?

Equilibrium Checksum: If the model solved satisfactorily, global equilibrium will be

achieved. The sum of reactions should equal the applied and inertia loads. The lack of
global equilibrium can indicate a considerable problem with solution accuracy. One
likely cause for this discrepancy is wrong application loads in a global coordinate system
when it was intended to be applied in the local coordinate system. Another error in model
definition could be that part or all of a load was applied to constrained nodes, leading to
some or all of the load being ignored.

The Ballpark Check: For the verification of results, it is best to attempt to estimate the
results with a simpler solution, preferably before an analysis result is available. Your
approximate solution should be in the same order of magnitude as the FEA solution.
Simple approximations may be values obtained from analytic theory, empirical equations
or other sources such as tables.

Node Averaging :During an analysis, the stresses within an element are determined at
points interior to the element known as Gauss points. The values at the nodes are
determined by extrapolating the Gauss point stresses to the boundary. Therefore, there
can be multiple values of stress for the same node. In order that a smooth and continuous
plot is obtained, post-processors average the stresses at each node.

Most post-processors generate contour plots with node averaging switched on as default.
It is worthwhile switching off node averaging, as the un-averaged plot can give good
indication of the discretisation error in the model. When averaging is switched off, the
contour plot may look jagged in places, highlighting that the stresses change considerably
across inter-element boundaries. This indicates that the true stresses were not captured at
that location due to the low level of discretisation (coarse mesh). In this case, it is
worthwhile refining the mesh in the affected regions and re-running the analysis.
Some post-processors have facilities to estimate the discretisation error in a solution. The

estimation is usually made on some sort of algorithm centered around the relative energy
error within each element. Some software goes further and carries out adaptive solutions,
by refining the mesh in one of two ways, increasing the number of elements (hrefinement) or increasing the polynomial order of the elements in question (prefinement).

Linear Vs Non-Linear: Based on the results of the analysis, it may become more
apparent that a linear solution is not representative of the problem being solved. Common
indications that a linear analysis is insufficient are:

The maximum stress is greater than its yield value.

The magnitude of the displacements are greater than the characteristic

dimension of the structure (plate thickness, beam depth, etc.).

If any gaps over close, causing inter penetration, then a contact analysis is
required.

The axial loads influences the stiffness of the structure.

If the behavior is inconsistent with assumptions, it is possible that nonlinear behavior is occurring.