The Atomic Nucleus

Chapter 12

The Nucleus

Atoms consist of a nucleus and electron shell.

A nucleus consists of nucleons: protons and
neutrons. As the mass of a nucleon is about
2000 times the mass of an electron the nucleus
carries practically all the mass of an atom.
A nucleon consists of three quarks (and gluons).
1 fm(femtometer, Fermi) = 10-15 m is the typical
length scale of nuclear physics.
1 MeV(mega-electron volt) = 1.602 x 10-13J is
the typical energy scale of nuclear physics.

Discovery of the Neutron

Reasons why electrons cannot exist within the nucleus:
1) Nuclear size
The uncertainty principle puts a lower limit on its kinetic energy
that is much larger that any kinetic energy observed for an electron
emitted from nuclei.

Discovery of the Neutron

2) Nuclear spin
If a deuteron consists of protons and electrons, the deuteron must
contain 2 protons and 1 electron. A nucleus composed of 3 fermions
must result in a half-integral spin. But it has been measured to be 1.
If 14N contains 14 protons and 7 electron in its nucleus (each with
spin ), that is, 21 particles of spin , its nuclear spin could not be
an integer. However, spectrum of nitrogen shows that spin quantum
number is 1.

Discovery of the Neutron

3)

Nuclear magnetic moment:

The magnetic moment of an electron is over 1000 times larger than
that of a proton.
The measured nuclear magnetic moments are on the same order of
magnitude as the protons, so an electron is not a part of the nucleus.
B electron

proton

e
2 me

9.27 10

e
2m p

5 10

27

24

J /T

J /T

The magnetic moment of the electron is 2000 times larger than a

protons. The measured nuclear magnetic moment are of the same
order of magnitude as the protons. In model where electrons are in
nucleus, we would expect nuclear magnetic moment to be of the
same order as that of the electron

In 1920 Rutherford suggested that a neutral

particle, called neutron might exist.
He suggested neutron being possibly a
proton and a electron tightly bound together
this idea was abandoned, since the spin of
neutron is .

Nuclear Properties

The nuclear charge is +e times the number (Z) of protons.

Hydrogens isotopes:

Deuterium: Heavy hydrogen. Has a neutron as well as a proton in its

nucleus.
Tritium: Has two neutrons and one proton.

Atoms with the same Z, but different mass number A, are called
isotopes.

Nuclear Properties

The symbol of an atomic nucleus is

.
where Z = atomic number (number of protons)
N = neutron number (number of neutrons)
A = mass number (Z + N)
X = chemical element symbol
Each nuclear species with a given Z and A is called a nuclide.
Z characterizes a chemical element.
The dependence of the chemical properties on N is negligible.
Nuclides with the same neutron number are called isotones and
the same value of A are called isobars.

Nuclear Properties

Atomic masses are denoted by the symbol u.

1 u = 1.66054 1027 kg = 931.49 MeV/c2

Both neutrons and protons, collectively called nucleons, are

constructed of other particles called quarks.

Sizes and Shapes of Nuclei

Rutherford concluded that the range of the nuclear force must be

less than about 1014 m.
Assume that nuclei are spheres of radius R.
Particles (electrons, protons, neutrons, and alphas) scatter when
projected close to the nucleus.
It is not obvious whether the maximum interaction distance refers
to the nuclear size (matter radius), or whether the nuclear force
extends beyond the nuclear matter (force radius).
The nuclear force is often called the strong force.
Nuclear force radius mass radius charge radius

Sizes and Shapes of Nuclei

The nuclear radius may be approximated to be

R = r0A1/3

where r0 1.2

1015 m.

We use the femtometer with 1 fm = 1015 m, or the fermi.

Sizes and Shapes of Nuclei

If we approximate nucleus shape as spherical then
V

4
R3
3

4 3
r0 A
3

= (volume of one nucleon) (number of nucleons)

If we assume that the volume of the nucleus is simply equal to the total
A nucleons. Nuclei are not compressible.
The nucleon number density, nucleon/volume is

A nucleon
volume

A
4 3
r0 A
3

fm

4 3
r0
3

fm

0.14 fm

Sizes and Shapes of Nuclei

The nuclear mass density, mass / volume is
Au
m

4 3
r0 A
3

fm

4 3
(1u )
r0
3

fm

= (1 u) (1.66 x 10-27 kg/u ) (0.14 fm-3)

= 2.324 x 10-28 kg/fm3 = 2.324 x 1017 kg/m3
The nucleus is about 1014 times more dense than density of ordinary
liquids or solids. (Remember water density is 103 kg/m3).
Nearly all of the mass of the atom is concentrated in a region of radius
about 10-5 that of the atom. (Remember radius of atom is of the order
of 1 ). Note these densities are independent of A:
Nuclear density is approximately constant.

Atomic Binding Energy:

Suppose we have a proton and an electron ar rest
separated by a large distance. The total energy of this
system is just the total energy of the two particles:

mp c

me c

Now we bring the two particles together to form hydrogen

atom in its ground state. In this process, several photons
are emitted, the total energy of which is 13.6 eV. Total
energy of this system is the rest enegry of the hydrogen
atom M H c 2 plus 13.6 eV.

Atomic Binding Energy:

According to conservation of energy

mp c2

me c 2

13.6eV

mp c

M H c 2 13.6eV
2

me c

MHc

The mass energy of the combined system (hydrogen atom)

is less than the mass energy of its constituents by 13.6 eV.
This energy difference is the binding energy of the atom.
The energy required to remove an electron from hydrogen
atom, 13.6 eV, is called the ionization energy or binding
energy.

Atomic Binding Energy:

In general:
Batomic

mN c 2

Zme c 2

M Ac 2

Where mN is the mass of the nucleus

MA is the mass of the atom
me is the mass of an electron

Nuclear Binding energy

Nuclear binding energies are calculated in the same way.
Consider, for example, the nucleus of deuterium, 2H, which
is composed of one proton and one neutron. The
binding energy of deuterium would be

Bd
where

mp c2

mn c 2

md c 2

mn is mass of the neutron

mp is mass of the proton
md is mass of the deuterium nucleus

Nuclear Binding energy

To write this equation in terms of atomic masses, (since
they can be measured much more precisely than nuclear
masses, using mass spectrometer) we write

Bd
where

(m p

me )c 2

mn c 2 (md

me )c 2

mp + me is atomic mass of hydrogen

md + me is atomic mass of deuterium

Bd

mn c 2

M (1 H )c 2

M ( 2 H )c 2

For Deuteron

Bd

1(1.008665u ) 1(1.007825u) 2.014102 u c 2

0.002388u c 2

Convert this to energy using u = 931.5 MeV / c2.

Even for heavier nuclei we neglect the electron binding energies (13.6
eV) because the nuclear binding energy (2.2 MeV) is almost one million
times greater.

Nuclear Binding Energy

The binding energy of a nucleus
is the difference in mass energy
between a nucleus
and its components Z protons and N neutrons. It
is the energy required to separate the nucleus into free neutrons and
protons.

Where

N is # of neutrons
Z is # of protons
mn is mass of neutron
M(1H) is atomic mass of hydrogen
M(AZX) is atomic mass of atom X

Nuclear Binding Energy

If binding energy is positive then nuclei is said to be stable
against dissociation into free protons and neutrons.
The energy required to remove one proton (or neutron)
from the nuclide is called the proton (or neutron) separation
energy.

Find the total binding energy B and also the binding energy
per nucleon B/A for 5626Fe30 and 23892U146
For 5626Fe30 :

N = 30 and Z = 26

B = [ 30 (1.008665 u) + 26 (1.007825 u) - 55.934942 u) ]c2 X (931.5 MeV /u.c2)

= [30.25995 + 26.20345 - 55.93494] (931.5 MeV)

= 492.25MeV

B
A

492.25
56

8.79 MeV / nucleon

For 23892U146 :

N = 146 and Z = 92

B = [146 (1.008665 u) + 92(1.007825 u) - 238.05078 u]

X (931.5 MeV/u.c2)
= [147.26509 + 92.7199 - 238.05078] (931.5 MeV)
= 1801.7 MeV

B
A

1802
238

7.57 MeV / nucleon

Similarly
20
10

B ( Ne10 )
B
A

161
20

161 MeV
8.05 MeV/nucleon

The binding energy of a nucleus against dissociation into any other

possible combination of nucleons. Ex. nuclei R and S.

Proton (or neutron) separation energy:

The energy required to remove one proton (or neutron) from a nuclide.

A 1
Z

X c2

A 1
Z

mn c 2
mn

m
A
Z

A
Z

X c2
c2

Zme c 2

Zme c 2

Binding Energy Per Nucleon

Use this to compare the relative

stability of different nuclides.
It peaks near A = 56.
The curve increases rapidly,
demonstrating the saturation
effect of nuclear force.
Sharp peaks for the even-even
nuclides 4He, 12C, and 16O
tight bound.

Nuclear Stability

The line representing the stable nuclides is the line of stability.

It appears that for A 40, nature prefers the number of protons
and neutrons in the nucleus to be about the same Z N.
However, for A 40, there is a decided preference for N > Z
because the nuclear force is independent of whether the particles
are nn, np, or pp.

As the number of protons increases, the Coulomb force between

all the protons becomes stronger until it eventually affects the
binding significantly.

The work required to bring the charge inside the sphere from
infinity is

Nuclear Stability

For a single proton,

Since each of the Z protons in the nucleus feel repulsion of the other
Z-1 protons, the total Coulomb repulsion energy in a nucleus is

For heavy nuclei, the nucleus will have a preference for fewer
protons than neutrons because of the large Coulomb repulsion
energy.

Most stable nuclides have both even Z and even N (even-even

nuclides).
Only four stable nuclides have odd Z and odd N (odd-odd nuclides).

The Liquid Drop Model

Treats the nucleus as a collection of interacting particles in a liquid drop.

The total binding energy, the semi-empirical mass formula is

The volume term (av) indicates that the binding energy is approximately
the sum of all the interactions between the nucleons.

The second term is called the surface effect because the nucleons on
the nuclear surface are not completely surrounded by other nucleons.

The third term is the Coulomb energy in Eq. (12.17) and Eq. (12.18).

The Liquid Drop Model

The fourth term is due to the symmetry energy. In the absence of

Coulomb forces, the nucleus prefers to have N Z and has a quantummechanical origin, depending on the exclusion principle.
The last term is due to the pairing energy and reflects the fact that the
nucleus is more stable for even-even nuclides. Use values given by
Fermi to determine this term.

where = 33 MeVA3/4.
No nuclide heavier than
has been found in nature. If they ever
existed, they must have decayed so quickly that quantities sufficient to
measure no longer exist.