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CONNECTIONS
by
Kathleen Whelton O'Brien
B.S. Civil and Environmental Engineering
Columbia University, 2007
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
AT THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
JUNE 2010
@2010 Kathleen Whelton O'Brien. All rights reserved.
ARCHNES
MASSACHUSETTS INSTM TE
OF TECHNOLOGY
JUL 15 2010
LIBRARIES
'/ /
Jerome J. Connor
Professor of Civil & Environmental jgineering
.........
Xesis Supervisor
Accepted by
Daniele Veneziano
Chairman, Department Committee for Graduate Students
Abstract
Wood is often limited in structural applications to relatively small structures due to its
lack of homogeneity and low strength compared to steel and concrete. Wood can become
a more versatile material if used with Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP) to form a
composite. This thesis presents the results of an investigation of the increase in yield
strength, ultimate strength, and change in yield mode of wood connections when
reinforced with FRP. Specifically, this thesis investigates the effects of FRP
reinforcement in Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) bolted connections under double
shear loading. The FRP investigated consists of uniaxial carbon fibers embedded in a
two-part epoxy. Sixteen sample wood connections were tested. Eight samples were
reinforced with FRP such that the carbon fibers were parallel to the wood fibers. Eight
samples tested were not reinforced and used as a means of comparison. Three sizes of
bolts and two failure modes were investigated. All materials chosen are readily available
and affordable in the current construction market. Finally, the results of a cost vs.
strength gain analysis are presented.
FRP reinforcement of the glue-laminated wood connections under double shear loading
resulted in an increase in yield strength and ultimate strength of all connections tested
when compared to unreinforced samples with the same properties. The addition of FRP
reinforcement changed the yield mode for some samples. However, it seems that FRP
reinforcement is only cost effective in situations in which a higher ultimate strength is
desired, rather than a higher yield strength or change in yield mode.
Thesis Supervisor:
Title:
Jerome J. Connor
Professor of Civil & Environmental Engineering
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the strong women who came before me and paved my path:
EleanorFrancis Whelton O'Brien
Mary Patricia'Nina Pat'Burke
and
Julie Burke O'Brien
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
BACKGROUND
2.2. FRP
10
11
3.
TESTING PROCEDURE
12
4.
SAMPLE ASSEMBLY
14
5.
MATERIAL SELECTION
15
6.
16
7.
8.
9.
16
17
DATA
21
21
28
DATA ANALYSIS
28
28
30
31
31
31
32
9.4. Comparison of ultimate strength, yield strength and yield mode changes
32
10.
CONCLUSIONS
33
11.
REFERENCES
34
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Parallel and Perpendicular to grain loading
12
13
15
17
Z calculations
Figure 6: Load vs. Displacement, D = 0.375", Unreinforced
19
23
24
25
26
27
Figure 5:
22
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Table
Table
Table
20
20
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
29
30
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
1. Introduction
Often, the use of timber as a structural material is limited to relatively small structures of
three stories or less. Wood has always had the advantage of being more affordable and, if
harvested and processed correctly, more environmentally friendly than concrete and steel.
However, its lack of consistency and strength make it unfeasible for large structures. Much
research has been done to determine ways of reinforcing wood to enhance its structural
performance. Reinforcement methods include steel rods, steel plates, fiberglass and carbon
fiber reinforced polymers (FRP). This thesis will investigate the effects of reinforcing wood
connections in double shear loading with Carbon FRP.
2.
Background
to become a widely used and affordable material. One such type of engineered wood is
Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL).
2.2. FRP
Fiber Reinforced Plastic or Polymer is a relatively new material when compared to timber,
concrete and steel. It began to emerge in the 1950's when material and production costs
were low, allowing for economically feasible production of FRP. FRP was researched heavily
and began to be used more widely towards the end of World War II due to its resistance to
corrosion, strength to weight ratio, low maintenance and life cycle cost. After World War II,
FRP became more common in the automobile and aerospace industry. Much research and
application of FRP was then completed by the aerospace industry during the cold war.
In the mid 1960s, the ship industry began to use FRP for ship construction. FRP was more
advantageous than steel in some applications due to its resistance to corrosion and strength
to weight ratio, though it was susceptible to sunlight damage. In the 1970s, the price of FRP
materials and manufacturing dropped to a price that allowed the automobile and sporting
goods industries to use FRP in their manufactured products.
In the 1980s Dr Urs Maier from the Swiss national laboratory began researching the
bonding of FRP to concrete beams and decks and used FRP to wrap concrete columns. Soon
after, Japanese engineers, who deal largely with seismic loads, began to use FRP
commercially. FRP works well with concrete in seismic areas because it can be placed in
areas where the concrete may undergo large tensile stresses in a seismic event and prevent
the structure from failing, since concrete alone has very little tensile strength.
While research of FRP composite structures is popular, "a rational design model must be
based on sound mechanics which not only precisely reflects the concerned failure
mechanism but also predicts the capacity with reasonable accuracy" in order for the
material to become more integrated into common construction practices (Chen 2003).
Others have suggested that the US construction industry is more conservative than that of
Japan's and is therefore less willing to experiment with FRP, since FRP has a tendency to
fracture in a brittle manner (EdgeFRP).
2.3.1.Steel As Reinforcement
In the 1950's, 60's, and 70's much research was done to measure the effects of reinforcing
wood with steel. Wood was reinforced with steel rods, steel plates, and steel wire adhered
to wood with epoxy resins. The majority of this researched showed measured improvement
in the performance of the steel reinforced member. However, the increase in cost was often
great, and therefore very few of the schemes researched were ever put into practice.
However, this research led to the commercial use of plywood reinforced with steel plates.
This arrangement is still used today in truck bodies, railway cars, heavy duty shelving, and
elevators. One particular application consists of balsa wood as a core, sandwiched between
aluminum. The balsa/aluminum composite was used on the exterior of jets during and after
World War II.
2.3.2.FRP As Reinforcement
In addition to steel reinforcement, engineered wood can also be strengthened with the use
of Fiber Reinforced Polymers or Fiber Reinforced Plastics (FRP). FRP reinforcement of
wood materials has been used in multiple academic investigations including thin FRP as
external reinforcement for tensile loads, internal reinforcement for shear loads, and at
connections for additional connection strength and ductility. Many tests have taken place
since the 1960's investigating the effect of FRP on wood design. In the 1960's, FRP was often
made with fiberglass strands. Currently, there is more of an interest in FRP consisting of
Carbon fibers, though fiberglass is still used.
determines whether FRP reinforced wood products become commercially feasible (Bulleit
1984). The addition of FRP into the manufacturing process adds time and labor costs.
Additionally, reinforcement material itself can be expensive. The composite materials that
contain high-grade wood tend to be less viable commercially. If the wood substrate is made
of poorly graded wood material, such as plywood, the composite as a whole becomes
cheaper and more available to industry. Hence, many shipping and transportation
industries use plywood and steel composites.
It is important to keep in mind that one of the key advantages to using timber in place of
other construction materials is its superior affordability and sustainability. Including FRP
in the wood structure will likely deplete its affordability and sustainability features.
However, if the increase in strength of the composite allows for less material or less cost,
then the FRP may actually further enhance the affordability and sustainable aspects of the
structure. This thesis will revisit the strength gain vs. cost increase issue, but will not assess
the increase in environmental impact.
3.
Testing Procedure
Testing was designed to examine the influence that FRP reinforcement has on a bolted
wood connection's yield strength, ultimate strength, and failure mode. Connections were
modeled as three wood members bolted together. The scope was limited to parallel to grain
double shear loading with unidirectional FRP reinforcement oriented so carbon fibers were
aligned with the grain. The loading was parallel to the grain and carbon fiber of the
members as portrayed in the left image of figure 1.
Sixteen samples were made. Each consisted of three 1 34" X 7 %" x 12" LVL members bolted
together as seen in figure 2. Lumber dimensions are nominal.
,
"
.........
........
...........
:- ::.........................
....
. ...
. ..........
...........................
.............
..............................................................................................
..........
Eight of the samples were reinforced with FRP. Eight were not reinforced. The ones that
were reinforced with FRP were reinforced such that each face undergoing shear load had
FRP attached. The outer members had FRP reinforcement only on the interior face. The
middle member had FRP placed on each side of the member. See figure 2.
" diameter bolts spaced two inches apart, centered about the midspan of
the connection such that the bolts are an equal distance from the loaded edge of the sample.
The third connection consists of one %" diameter bolt centered about all three wood
members. The calculations for the bolt designs correspond with the desired failure modes
and are discussed in Section 6.
4.
Sample Assembly
Materials used in the samples were chosen based on strength, availability and cost.
Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) was chosen as the wood material due to its wide
availability, relative low cost, and high strength. The largest size commercially available was
used. Each specimen consisted of three 12" long pieces cut from 12'long boards.
The FRP used consisted of Sikawrap Hex 230C and Sikadur 300. Sikawrap Hex 230C is a
uniaxial carbon fiber fabric. Biaxial carbon fiber fabrics are available, but are more
expensive. Sikadur 300 consists of two liquid parts that are mixed on site to create the
epoxy that adheres the carbon fibers to the substrate.
The two parts of Sikdur 300 were mixed on site and applied to the appropriate sides of the
12" long LVL members. As described above, the middle board of each sample had FRP
applied to both sides, and the outside boards of each sample had FRP applied only to the
sides facing the interior board. A thin layer of FRP was applied to the appropriate side. Next,
an approximately 11" X 6
" square of Sikawrap Hex 230 C was laid on top of the epoxy.
Next, a resin roller was used to imbed the carbon fibers into the epoxy. The resin roller is
ribbed to allow for epoxy to seep through the fabric while the carbon fibers are being rolled
into the epoxy. See figure 3.
5.
Material Selection
The American Wood Council (AWC) is the preeminent authority on wood building in the
United States. The AWC establishes the National Design Specifications (NDS) that are widely
used as standards for building. The NDS dictates the design of timber structures, including
beam and column dimensions, connection details, and wood type selections.
To select the wood members for the analysis, a survey was conducted of a number of local
lumber yards. It was determined that the most widely available type of glulam was
laminated veneer lumber (LVL). In order to perform tests on the strongest glulam available,
the largest commercially available board was purchased. Sixty feet of 1
" X7
purchased.
Once the wood type and size was determined, the FRP material was determined. The FRP
used was also chosen to be one that was commercially available. Sika Corporation is one of
the largest distributors of FRP and therefore was used. Sika offers FRP in both laminate and
fabric form. The laminates are available in carbon and fiberglass. Only fabric FRP was
considered since it is easier to drill through. Laminates are better used for exterior
applications when dealing with concrete or timber that has already shown signs of
underperformance. Carbon laminates are often used on tension surfaces of concrete that
has begun to show signs of cracking beyond a reasonable amount.
Carbon fibers were chosen over fiberglass fibers because of their superior strength. Glass
fibers are more ductile, but for the purpose of strengthening the wood connection, the
superior strength of carbon fibers was more important. Sikawrap Hex 230C was chosen.
Mode I,
Mode IIJ,
Mode IV
of material resisting the load as the middle piece and therefore will not crush first. For the
side pieces to crush first, they would have to be significantly thinner than the middle piece,
or be made of a significantly weaker material. Therefore, failure mode Im was investigated,
and failure mode Is was not. For similar reasons, only failure mode IV was investigated and
failure mode IIls was not.
To predict the load at which the sample will yield, the allowable connection capacity in
pounds, Z, is calculated.
Z = f'*A
where f = yield stress of material to yield, and A = area of material carrying load.
Each yield mode has a quantity Z associated with it. The allowable connection capacity for
each yield mode is calculated and the yield mode with the lowest value for Z dictates the
design.
For each connection design, the wood dimensions, wood properties, and dowel type were
consistent. Steel bolts were chosen for the dowel type due to their strength, low cost, and
ease of installation.
For the steel to fail first in the unreinforced connections, the value for Z IV would have to be
the lowest value of the Z calculations for that section. The calculations for the various Z
values are shown in figure 5.
z2kD4F. 4
(2 + R4R4
2FF
ia3(1 + R)j
whereZ
* - \+R
(1 + RJ
RI *R+)
k,
+2
(+ + 2t )DO
2 2F,(2 + R)D
H,
P.t
Figure 5: Z calculations
A spreadsheet was created to calculate allowable Z values for each failure mode. Results are
listed in table 1 and table 2.
Calculations for Im Failure Mode
Variables
D
0.5
1.75
in
in
Fem
1s
Fes
5600
psi
1.75
in
5600
Fyb
psi
psi
Rdfor Im,Is
45000
4
Rd For III,, IV
3.2
Re
k3
1
1.304767527
Im
Z=
1225
lbs
is
Ills
IV
Z=
Z=
Z=
2450
1332
1432
lbs
lbs
lbs
lm
Control
1225 lbs
Table 1: Calculations for Failure Mode Im
Rdfor Im,Is
Rd for Ills, IV
Re
0.375
1.75
5600
in
in
psi
1.75
in
5600
45000
4
3.2
psi
psi
k3
1.176688715
Im
Z=
Z=
919
Is
1838
lbs
lbs
III,
Z=
901
lbs
IV
Z=
806
lbs
Control
806
lbs
Table 2: Calculations for Failure Mode IV
It is noted that the only parameters of the wood material used in the calculations were
specific gravity and the dimensions of each member. It was determined that failure mode IV
would be observed if the bolt diameter was 0.42" or less. Therefore, a
3/8
(0.375") diameter
under the assumption that it would demonstrate a higher load capacity, and would allow for
a comparison of unreinforced to reinforced samples under a greater load, still within
realistic connection scenario limits.
There are a variety of academic papers that propose mathematical models to predict the
effects of FRP reinforcement. However, the vast majority of these papers have been focused
on the use of FRP with concrete, not wood. Of the smaller number of papers that focus on
FRP with wood, none deal specifically with carbon fibers and LVL wood. Therefore, the
response of the FRP reinforced samples was not predicted.
7. Data
D= 0.375", Unreinforced
40M
200
OA
001
D = 0.375", Unreinforced
Yield Mode
Sample 1
5,691
Sample 2
5,152
Sample 3
4,766
Sample 1
2,640
Sample 2
2,370
Sample 3
2,400
Sample 1
Mode IV
Sample 2
Mode IV
Sample 3
Mode IV
D= 0.375", Reinforced
s00
:v;=
4000
2000
1000 t-
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Displacenent Qn)
D = 0.375", Reinforced
Yield Mode
Sample 1
6,180
Sample 2
7,611
Sample 3
6,955
Sample 1
3,290
Sample 2
3,840
Sample 3
3,580
Sample 1
Mode IV
Sample 2
Mode IV
Sample 3
Mode IV
1.2
D=.5", Unreinforced
gooo
amo
7=O
5OCO
3=L
2000
2000
0.2
0A
0.6
0.8
nahe...ftg.a)
D = 0.5", Unreinforced
Yield Mode
Sample 1
7,848
Sample 2
6,945
Sample 3
8,353
Sample 1
3,300
Sample 2
3,040
Sample 3
3,633
Sample 1
Mode Im
Sample 2
Mode Im
Sample 3
Mode Im
1.2
1A
D = 0.5", Reinforced
Chant Area.
120c0
10000
soo0
2000
0.2
Q4
04
0.8
hOKanemet 1n)
D = 0.5", Reinforced
Yield Mode
Sample 1
12,797
Sample 2
10,151
Sample 3
11,772
Sample 1
3,155
Sample 2
3,410
Sample 3
3,530
Sample 1
Mode IV
Sample 2
Mode IV
Sample 3
Mode IV
1.2
IA
D=0.75", Unreinforced
10000
tam
7000
son
4000
3000
2000
1000
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
ObpiaoemAi
025
D = 0.75", Unreinforced
Sample 1
7,694
Sample 2
8,601
Sample 1
6,330
Sample 2
7,240
Sample 1
Mode Im
Sample 2
Mode Im
Yield Mode
0.3
0J35
-BM
= 0.75", Reinforced
uNo0
100W t
---.
________________
.....
MWuo
00""
am0
Amo
2000
0.05
0.25
a.02
o0essMent
M
Figure 11: Load vs. Displacement, D=0.75", Reinforced
D = 0.75", Reinforced
Sample 1
9,370
Sample 2
9,803
Sample 1
6,960
Sample 2
7,710
Sample 1
Mode Im
Sample 2
Mode Im
Yield
Mode
0.7
$/SF
5.65
$/SF
LVL Wood
3.5
$/ft
8. Data Analysis
PUR
D = 0.375"
6,915
3,570
32.91%
44.53 %
D = 0.5"
11,b73
3,365
D = 0.75"
8,148
6,785
9,587
7,3351
9.2.Yield Strength
The most significant increase in yield strength due to FRP reinforcement occurred in
the 0.375" diameter bolt samples. The 0.375" diameter samples were designed so that the
unreinforced sample would yield in mode IV. When designing the 0.375" diameter sample, it
was assumed that the FRP reinforcement would not have a large impact on the outcome of
the yield strength since the bolt is the first member to yield. The FRP reinforcement should
only strengthen the wood substrate and not impact the yield strength of the bolt. However,
the experimental data shows that the FRP reinforcement does in fact increase the yield
strength of the sample connection.
As stated in section 6.2, the NDS calculation method only calls for the specific gravity
and dimensions of the wood members to determine the failure mode, which ultimately
determines the yield strength. Since the strengthening of the wood with FRP resulted in a
higher yield strength, it seems that the unreinforced yield mode was not only due to the bolt
yielding, but also due to wood crushing. It seems as though the NDS method may
oversimplify the actual behavior of the connection.
9.3.Yield mode
The FRP reinforcement changed the yield mode of the 0.5" bolt diameter samples.
The change in yield mode is not surprising. It suggests that the FRP reinforcement added
enough strength to the wood material to overcome the yield strength of the bolt.
9.4. Comparison of ultimate strength, yield strength and yield mode changes
The FRP reinforcement had a significant effect on the 0.375" bolt diameter samples. For
these samples, both the ultimate strength and yield strength increased by more than 30%
with the addition of FRP reinforcement. However, by increasing the bolt diameter by 0.125"
to 0.5", an even greater increase in ultimate strength was achieved and the yield mode also
changed, though the yield strength stayed similar (since the wood strength stayed the
same). In this case, it would be much cheaper to increase the bolt diameter (which would
add less than a dollar to the connection cost) than to add FRP reinforcement, which would
add $12.70 to the connection cost.
In the 0.5" diameter bolt samples, the FRP reinforcement did not change the yield strength
by much (less than 2%), but it did significantly change the ultimate strength and changed
the yield mode. In this case, unlike the case of the 0.375" bolt diameter, an increase in bolt
diameter by even 0.25" could not achieve the same increase in strength as the FRP. In fact,
with an increased bolt diameter and additional FRP, the connection could not achieve the
same strength. This implies that the FRP reinforcement can contribute strength to a wood
connection that cannot be realized by simply adding bolt diameter.
From the samples tested in this analysis, it is shown that FRP reinforcement is best used in
wood connections designed to fail in mode IV, and using a bolt diameter as close to the
calculated diameter as possible. If the connection is overdesigned with significant extra bolt
diameter than is needed, then the connection may fail at a lower load than if less bolt
diameter and FRP is used.
The costs analyzed in this thesis do not account for the addition of labor in applying the FRP
reinforcement. For a more detailed analysis that would include this cost, more research
would have to be done. While the labor needed does not require complicated machinery or
training, it does add an additional step to the building sequence and could therefore add
significant costs.
10. Conclusions
If used intelligently, steel bolts and FRP reinforcement can be combined to achieve greater
ultimate strengths than steel bolts alone in glulam double shear connections. The yield
strength changes most significantly if members are designed to fail in Mode IV. A cheaper
way to increase the yield strength of these connections is to add to the steel bolt diameter,
so the yield mode changes to wood crushing.
For connections designed to yield in Mode Im,if the bolt diameter is close to the lower limit
for such a yield mode, FRP reinforcement can achieve ultimate strengths approximately
45% greater. Typically, connections are designed for yield strength, not ultimate strength.
Therefore, the addition of FRP to these types of connections should not be used to increase
the design strength, but should be used in designs where the structure may be vulnerable to
loads that are infeasible to design for with a wood structure. For example, if there is a small
family home designed in a seismic area, or an area subject to natural disasters, it may be too
expensive to do a thorough engineering of the design such that the structure would
withstand any possible load. However, by adding FRP to the connections, the ultimate
strength of the structure could be greatly increased, therefore allowing for a much safer
structure in the event of an earthquake or natural disaster. The FRP reinforcement should
not be included in the design strength, but could add a relatively inexpensive layer of
security to the structure. The cost would be on the order of $13 per connection.
For connections that are designed with excessive bolt diameter and are designed to fail in
mode Im,the addition of FRP does not add a significant amount to the ultimate strength,
yield strength or change the yield mode.
Of course, more research would be needed to better understand the effects of FRP on
wooden connections. FRP is an ever evolving technology that has been well implemented in
the aircraft and ship industries. As FRP technologies evolve, and the cost continues to drop,
it can be further integrated into the civil structural engineering industry.
11. References
J. G. Teng. "Fibre-reinforced
FiRP Panel Reinforced Glued Laminated Wood Beams. Tuulatin: Western Wood Structures,
2010. Print.
Gilham, Paul C., and Thomas Williamson. "New Opportunities for Fiber Reinforced GluedLaminated Beams." Structure Magazine April (2007): 57-59. Print.
Windorski, Daniel, Lawrence Soltis, and Robert Ross. "Effect of Fiberglass Reinforcement on
the Behavior of Bolted Wood Connections." Wood Design Focus 8.3 (1997): 19-24.
Web.