Professional Documents
Culture Documents
An Overview of
Commercial Explosives
Chapter 2
An ( hetTiew of ( 'ummaciul/,\p/o.lil't'S
commonly used wmmncial explosives with spcdal reference to the emulsion explosive.
Black powder was invented by the Chinese about 2000 years ago and then it spreaded
to Arabian countries and Europe. The first documented proof of nitre, the basic
ingredient of black powder was found in the scripts written by Arabian author, Abd
Allah in l3'"century. In 1242, Roger Bacon published a formula for black powder.
The first documentary proof of the use of black powder for breaking the rock in
mines is by Kasper Weindl at Royal Mines ofSchemnitz at Ober-Biberstollen, Hungry.
The use of black powder for rock breaking continued until the invention of dynamites
by Alfred Nobel in 1866.
Ascanio, an Italian chemist discovered the Nitroglycerin in 1846. It was highly sensitive
to shock. Alfred Nobel invented Dynamite in 1866 by mixing nitroglycerin with
kieselguhr and named it "Nobels Safety Podwer". In 1875, Nobel formed gelatin
dynamite by dissolving nitrocellulose in nitroglycerin. Since dynamite was more
powerful than black powder, it had a higher detonation velocity and was more effective
in rock breakage; soon it replaced the black powder and dominated the market of
commercial explosives. It played an important role in rock blasting.
In mid 1950s, industrial explosives entered a new development period- the modern
blasting era of blasting agents. J. R.Glauber synthesized ammonium nitrate in 1659
for the first time and named it Nitrum Flammans. In 1955, H. B. Lee and R. L. Akre
exploited the economic potential of ammonium nitrate as a blasting agent and
carbonaceous fuel sensitizer. The solid fuels, like coal, used initially were later on
replaced by fuel oil. Fertilizer grade ammonium nitrate was replaced by ammonium
I 'Jwprer
:!
( 'hllf'lt'f" }
2.2.1 Strength
Strength is a measure of the ability of an explosive to do useful work. It refers to the
amount of energy stored in an explosive. Strength is generally expressed as absolute
weight strength, absolute bulk strength, relative weight strength and relative bulk
strength(see Nitro Noble, 2002).
exp
( 'haJ!It'r l
2.2.2 I>cnsity
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume and in practice, it is expressed in
glee. Density of explosives is an important characteristic because explosives are
purchased and used on weight basis. It has an influence on sensitivity and the VOD of
an explosive.
The prime purpose of varying the density of an explosive is to enable the total energy
charge in a blast hole to meet the particular field conditions. In case of hard massive
rocks, denser explosives are used since more energy is required to break them. In
watery holes also, the explosive should have a density higher than that of water,
otherwise they will float.
A useful expression of density, particularly in case of bulk products, is the loading
density which is the weight of the explosive per unit length of the hole. This helps in
determining the weight ofthe explosive loaded per running meter of blast hole.The
densities of most of the commercial explosives vary between 0.8 and 1.35 glee.
The sensitivity of an explosive is the amount of input energy needed to cause a reliable
initiation of the explosive. It is also called the minimum booster rating or minimumpriming requirement. Sensitivity of an explosive is affected by the presence of water
in blast hole, inadequate charge diameter and extreme temperature conditions.
2.2. 7 Temperature Resistance
Explosive compounds can suffer in performance if they are stored under extremely
hot or cold conditions. In hot storage conditions, beyond 90F, many compounds
may slowly decompose and change their properties. Most of the commercial explosives
contain ammonium nitrate. Storage of ammonium nitrate based blasting agents in
temperature above 90F can result in cycling which affects the performance of the
product. Cycling is the ability of a material to change its crystal forms depending on
temperature. The two temperatures at which cycling will occur in ammonium nitrate
are 0F and 90F (Konya & Walter, 1990).
Cold conditions can also affect the performance of some explosive products. Some
products may become stiff and firm after prolonged exposure to a low temperature
and may become difficult to use in the field. Slurry explosives can have serious
detonation problem if stored in cold temperature and is not allowed to warm up before
they are detonated (Konya & Walter, 1990).
2.2.8 Fume Characteristics
mDsl common gases that an: consitkred in the fume class rulings. ( 'arhon dioxide is
nDt considered as fume since it is not toxic. llowever, it can result in death due to
su!Tocation if generated in large quantity during blasting in the con!incd area.
Commercial cxplosiv.:s an: oxygen balanced to minimize fumes. However, fumes can
still occur as a result of hlast environmental conditions such as insuf!icient charge
diameter, inadequate water resistance and inadequate priming ( Konya & Walter, 1990).
I 'hapra:!
'l(thlt: :?..1 : Properties of Bulk bplosivcs (l'radhan, 1996: Pradhan & Kate, 2005).
Property
Physical condition
Oxidizer
Initiation
Impact sensitivity,
kgm
Density, glee
VOD, m/s
RBS (%AN)
RWS (%AN)
Energy, kcal/kg
Water resistance
Low temperature
resistance, C
High temperature
resistance, C
ANFO
Powder
Prilled AN
Booster
3-3.5
Slurry
Slurry_
Liquid salt solution
Booster
>10
Emulsion
Greasy emulsion
Liquid salt solution
Booster
>10
0.8-0.9
2400-4500
100
100
930
Poor
32.2
1.0-1.3, variable
4000-5500
135-150
100-120
600-850
Excellent
4.0
< 100
100
100
Table 2.2 :Production of Explosives in India in the Year 2002-03, 2003-04 & 2004-05
(Petroleum and Explosive Safety Organisation).
Sr
No
A
B.
C.
D.
Production, Tonnes
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05
Description
Blasting Explosives
Gun Powder:
Nitrate Mixture:
Permitted Small Dia. (SD)
Non Permitted Small Dia. (NPSD)
Large Dia. (LD)
Site Mixed Bulk Explosives
ANFO (Manufactured and used)
Total Class 2
Nitro Compounds:
Permitted Small Dia. (SD)
Non Permitted Small Dia.(NPSD)
Large Dia. (LD)
Booster
Total Class 3
Safety Fuse (million meter)
Detonating Fuse (million meter)
Detonators (million number)
II
123
295
515
19103
15034
106249
215645
14051
370205
25511
29787
108664
217120
14315
395692
22857
43312
98855
190924
26094
382557
3992
23943
2515
1189
31639
99
135
451
2984
20023
299
873
24179
155
164
419
-----
--875
875
109
209
432
( 'hupl.:r :!
mls.
12
( 'lwpter 2
Oil-phase Material
( 'lwpler 2
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
In I 00 g water
20
150
187
233
280
339
411
50!
618
772
994
Solubility, g
In I 00 g solution
54.5
60.0
65.2
70.0
73.7
77.2
80.4
83.4
86.1
88.5
90.9
generally used to prepare the aqueous oxidizer solution for emulsion explosives. Use
of mixed salt solution increases the oxygen-supplying quantity and density and lowers
the fudge point of the explosive. The density of the powdered and grained ammonium
nitrate is usually in the range 0.8-0.95 g/cc. It supplies 200 g of oxygen per kg.
Sodium nitrate is the most common supplemental oxidizer suitable for emulsion
explosives. It raises the dissolubility and drops the fudge point of aqueous oxidizer
solution and thus improves the stability of the emulsion explosive. Its density is 2.265
glee and oxygen-supplying quantity is 2.35 times that of AN. It also increases the
density of the emulsion matrix and oxygen supplying quantity of the oxidizer solution.
Calcium nitrate is also a good supplementary oxidizer for emulsion explosives. It not
only drops the fudge point of the aqueous oxidizer solution but also promotes the
emulsification, thus improves the quality of emulsions. Its oxygen supplying quantity is
about 2.5 times more than ammonium nitrate.
Sodium percolate is also used in emulsion explosive as it is a good oxidizer and a
sensitizer. It improves the detonating sensitiveness, performance and storage stability
of the explosive.
Density Modifier
Density modifier refers to a group of substances which can introduce a large number
of micro-bubbles into emulsion explosives. The main functions of a density modifier in
14
~mulsion
explosive arc to control the density of the explosive and to sensitize the
~xplosivc
The commonly used density modilicrs arc occluded gases, chemical foaming agents
and gas retaining closed solid particles.
Occl udcd gases refer to micro-bubbles of air, nitrogen, carbon di-oxide, nitrogen
monoxide, gaseous hydrocarbons etc. retained and evenly distributed in emulsion
explosives by mechanical stirring.
The chemical foaming agents are those agents which can enter into a chemical reaction
and hence produce a large number of micro-bubbles, evenly dispersed throughout the
explosive. The chemical foaming agents are of two types-inorganic and organic. The
inorganic foaming agents include nitrites such as sodium and potassium nitrites,
carbonates such as sodium hydrocarbonates, ammonium carbonate and ammonium
chloride. The organic foaming agents include azo compounds such as azoamino-benzene,
azo-isobutyric dinitrate and hydrazine compounds such as hydrazine hydrate etc.
Inorganic foaming agents particularly sodium nitrite is extensively used in emulsion
explosives as foaming agents. Sodium nitrite reacts with ammonium nitrate and produce
ammonium nitrite which is unstable and decomposes into nitrogen and water. Nitrogen
micro-bubbles spread through out in the emulsion and modify its density and sensitize it.
NH4NO,= N, +2H 20
Gas retained solid particles added to emulsion explosives may be either glass or resin
hollow micro-balloons or expanded particulate perlite. As compared to gas-occluded
or chemical sensitization methods, emulsion explosives sensitized by this method are
able to bear tremendous external pressure. Glass micro-balloon is made up of a new
silicate material which is light in weight and has good roundness and chemical stability.
Expanded particulate perlite is a white porous loose particulate material made by
crushing, preheating and roasting acidic volcanic glass lava (perlite ore).
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers are one of the key components of emulsion explosives and usually their
content is 0.5 to 2.0% of the total massoftheexplosive. They play an important role in
15
( 'hapter 2
Other Additives
To improve the performance of the emulsion explosives, small quantities of some other
components are also added to them which are as described below:
Crystal-shape Modifier
To control the
dissolution~
modifiers are added to emulsion explosive in the range 0.1-0.3% by weight. These are
added to oxidizer salt solution prior to emulsification. These agents include alkyl alcohol
alkali metal sulphonate, alkyl alcohol alkali metal sulphate, phenyl or naphthyl alkali
metal sulphonate and phenyl and naphthyl alkali metal sulphate. Amongst these, dodecyl
sodium sulphate, dodecyl sodium sulphonanate and dodecanol acyl phosphate are
commonly used.
Emulsification Promoter
Emulsion Stabilizer
< 'haf>la :!
an: added to emulsion explosives in small quantity. These stabilizers together with
emulsifier arc dissolved in oil-phase prior to emulsification. Some commonly used
emulsion stabilizers arc phosphatide compounds like soybean lecithin, solid tine powder,
and beeswax and borax.
Soybcan is a plant lccithin. Addition of about 0.5% of this stabilizer improves the
long-term storage stability of emulsion explosives. Solid fine powder ofzinc stearate,
tctradecoic acid zinc, aluminum stearate, tetradecoic acid magnesium, carbon black,
silicon dioxide, iron oxide, titanium dioxide, sulphur, aluminum and zinc improve the
stability of emulsion explosive in storage and performance under low temperature.
Addition amounts of solid fine powder are usually in the range 0.1-1%. Beeswax and
borax have also been found to improve the storage stability of emulsion explosives.
Addition amount of beeswax in an emulsion explosive is about 0.3% and that of borax
is about 0.4 to 0.7% of the mass of explosive.
2.4
Bulk explosive systems are essentially those where explosives are delivered directly
into the blast hole through mechanized and mobile delivery systems. Explosives which
are amenable to bulk loading are ANFO, slurry and emulsion. The bulk explosive
systems offer the following advantages (Pradhan, 1996; Xuguang, 1994):
No need for a large fleet of explosive vans. Explosive vans are required only
for transportation of cast boosters, detonating cord, detonators etc.
17
( 'lwpler 2
Better transfer of explosive energy to rock due to full bore coupling permits
larger spacing and burden ami thus results in reduction in drilling cost.
Emulsion explosives are available both in bulk and cartridge form. Bulk emulsion
explosives are booster sensitive. They are usually mixed and prepared on the site and
directly loaded into the drill holes. Basically, there are two systems for bulk delivery of
emulsion explosives namely; site mixed emulsion explosive system and re-pumpable
emulsion explosive system.
In site mixed emulsion explosive system, a support facility is erected near the mine
site where the intermediaries for the production of explosive on truck such as oxidizer
and fuel blends are prepared. The truck carries different ingredients in different
compartments. The mixing of various ingredients in pre-determined calibrated quantities
is carried out on the truck and the final mixture is pumped into the blast hole through
a loading hose. The advantage of this system is that explosive material is neither
manufactured at the plant nor carried on the truck. The mixture becomes an explosive
only after gassing that takes place in the hole. Also, explosive formulations can be
customized by controlling the addition of ingredients. The main disadvantage ofthis
system is that the pump trucks are of complex design. Moreover, quality assurance is
difficult as the emulsion matrix is prepared on the truck at the site (Persson eta!.,
2001 ).
In re-pumpable emulsion explosive system, non-explosive emulsion matrix is prepared
in a support plant erected near the mine. The non-explosive matrix is carried on the
pump trucks to the blasting site. Only gassing agent is mixed in batches to the matrix
on the pump truck just before the charging ofthe holes. The pump trucks of this
system are of simple design. In India, re-pumpable system is more popular.
18
t 'hapter :?
Chemicnlly sensitized
emulsion explosives
Cheap
0.5 to I 00, Mostly 5-50
Low
High
High
Good
Low
Better than Glass microballoons
Can bear comparatively low
hydrostatic pressure
rn icron
Uniformity of
bubbles
Tendency to
agglomerate or
escape
Storage stability
Sensitive effect
Hydrostatic pressure
19