Mineragraphy

Optical properties of opaque minerals

Schematic Cross Sections of Polarizing Reflecting

Microscopes for orthoscopic viewing

Object for microscopic examinations

Thin section (non-opaque minerals) vs polished section (opaque minerals)

Thin-sections (standard thickness

0.03 mm)

polished sections

ORTHOSCOPE VIEWING
Parallel Nicols configuration
before polished section inserted

lower polarizer

Unpolarized light

Plane polarized
light
Only the component of light vibrating
suits the lower polarizer direction can
pass through light intensity decreases

Modified from: Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003

Bright field

Parallel Nicols examinations after thin section inserted

After polished section of mineral/
inserted
lower polarizer

Unpolarized light

Plane polarized
light
Observation of :

Modified from: Jane Selverstone, University of

New Mexico, 2003

Only the component of light vibrating

suits the lower polarizer direction can
pass through light intensity decreases

Colors , pleochroism
Reflectivity/reflectance
bireflectance
Crystal Form/habit
Cleavage

Crossed Nicols configuration

before polished section inserted
lower polarizer

Plane polarized
light

before polished section

inserted

upper polarizer
(analyzer)

Black!! (extinct) if
Polished section of
minerals
not inserted yet

Modified from: Jane Selverstone, University of New Mexico, 2003

Crossed Nicols examinations after thin section inserted

insert a polished of mineral

Unpolarized light

Light vibrating suits

the lower polarizer
direction

Modified from: Jane Selverstone, University of New

Mexico, 2003

Light vibrating in
different planes because
of anisotropi of minerals

Observation of :
Isotropy/aniostropy
Interference/anisotropy Colors
Internal Reflection
Texture/structure etc

How light behaves in minerals depends on

crystal structure
Isotropic

Isometric
All crystallographic axes are
and equal (a = b = c, )

Uniaxial

Hexagonal, tetragonal

Biaxial

Orthorhombic, monoclinic,
triclinic

All axes c are equal but c

is unique (a = b c)

All axes are unequal

The optical properties of ore minerals observed

under reflected polarized light microscope
Crossed Nicols:

Parallel Nicols:

Reflectivity (R)
color,
pleochroism.
bireflectance,
Relative hardness, kalbline hardness
morphological character

anisotropism vs. isotropism,

polarization colors
and internal reflections.
morphological character :
(habit)
cleavage

A. Reflectivity/reflectance and Relative Reflectivity

Reflectivity is defined as the ratio of the intensity of the light reflected by a mineral to the
intensity of the light incident upon it, expressed in percent;

R = Ir/Io x 100%
Reflectivity is normally expresed through the Fresnel Equation:

R = [(n-mmed)2 + k2]/[(n+nmed)2 + k2]

n = refractive index of the substance
nmed = refractive index of medium (commonly air or immersion oil)
k = absorption coeficient
R = Reflectance (when R = 1 corresponding to 100% reflectance)

the relative reflectivity is the qualitative degree of reflectivity which is judged in comparison
with a known mineral

THESE VISUAL STANDARDS FOR

REFLECTIVITY/REFLECTANCE

Although reflectance can be quantitatively measured with suitable equipment,

in general practice one qualitatively estimates reflectance by comparing the
unknown mineral to a known mineral.

We can estimate the reflectance of unknown phases by comparison with these

visual standards:
Magnetite R~ 20%
Pyrite
R ~55%
Galena
R ~45%
Quartz
R ~ 5%
Mounting plastic R ~ 5%

Gold

R~ 65%

Pyrite
R ~55%
Chalcopyrite R ~44 %

Galena
R ~45%
Spalerite R ~ 17 20%
Quartz
R ~ 5%

Quartz

R ~ 5%

Some Common Opaque Minerals: listed in order of decreasing

reflectance

Mineral

gold

arsenopyrite

tetra
hedrite

chalcopyrite
pyrite

sphalerite

Anisotropy

Hardness

74

bright yellow

isotropic

2.5-3.0

Pyrite

FeS2

54

pale yellow

isotropic

6.0-6.5

FeAsS

52

white

strong

5.5-6.0

(Fe,Ni)9S8

Light yellow

isotropic

3.5-4.0

CuFeS2

44

yellow

weak

3.5-4.0

PbS

43

grey-white

isotropic

2.5

Pyrrhotite

Fe1-x S

34-40

pinkish brown
to yellow

strong

4.0

Chalcocite

Cu2S

32

light grey

weak

2.5-3.0

Hematite

Fe2O3

28

bluish grey

strong

5.0-6.0

Cu5FeS4

22

purplish
brown

isotropic

3.0

Magnetite

Fe3O4

21

brownish grey

isotropic

5.5

Ilmenite

FeTiO3

17-20

pinkish grey

strong

5.0-6.0

Sphalerite

ZnS

17

grey

isotropic

3.5-4.0

Chromite

FeCr2O4

14

dark grey

isotropic

5.5

Chalcopyrite

dolomite

Colour

Au

Pentlandite

chalco
pyrite

Reflect.

Gold

Arsenopyrite

pyrite

Formula

Galena

Bornite

Notes in reflectivity:

It must be considered that the visual

impression of the reflectivity is
influenced markedly by the effect of
contrast to neighboring crystals with
higher or lower reflectivity.

A difference in reflectivity can affect

the eye, and where two minerals
have a similar color but different
reflectivity, the one of higher
reflectivity appears the clearer
because of its greater brightness.

Polishing quality affect the

reflectivity. If one mineral takes a
less good polish than another of
similar reflectivity, then the first
mineral will appear distinctly less
highly reflecting than the second.

Gold
R~ 65%
Chalcopyrite R ~44%

Au

Cp

gold
pyrite

galena

arsenopyrite

pyrite

gold
galena

gold

pyrite
galena

gold

bornite
chalcocite

arsenopyrite

B. Color of Reflection
The colors of ore minerals, which range from pure white to gray, are one
of their most characteristic and useful properties.
The eye is poor at 'remembering' a particular color after even a very short
time lag, and hence consecutive comparisons of color can be made only
for large differences. This means that a color cannot be distinguished by a
name, except in a crude way.
For example :
pyrrhotite has a characteristic color ('pyrrhotite color') which the observer
soon learns to recognize, but which has been described in the literature as:
cream, pale brownish-cream, clear-bronze, pale yellowish-red, and so on.
When a mineral is freshly polished it shows its true colour but many
minerals (especially sulfides and native metals) tarnish (oxidise) quickly.
This can radically change a minerals colour, either making it more intense
or changing it, as in the case of bornite (Cu5FeS4) which goes from a true
colour of pale pink to purple to blue. Many sulphides oxidize to blues and
yellows.

Reflectence and Colour

pyrite > chalcopyrite

chalcopyrite > pyrrhotite

pyrrhotite > sphalerite

As color is a function of the character of the human eye, each

observer must make his own descriptions of the colors of
minerals and must not be disconcerted if the pale cream
mineral he has just observed is described as light yellow by
someone else.
As the eye is quite sensitive to very slight differences in hue or
brightness of two minerals lying side by side, use of the
double, or comparison microscope is strongly urged. This
apparatus allows an unknown mineral to be viewed in the
same field with a standard mineral from another specimen.

 In well polished, untarnished sections the perceived

surface colour and reflectance of opaque minerals will
depend upon:
the presence of coloured filters in the light path,
the strength of the illumination,
the magnification of the lenses and whether air or
oil immersion techniques are used.

Even when these are standardized the apparent optical

properties of a mineral will be partially dependent on
those of adjacent minerals. A mineral, therefore, can
appear quite 'different' in different associations and so
the most effective method of teaching opaque mineral
identification is to use mineral associations rather than
mono-mineralic material.

'mutual color interference

The color of a mineral is strongly
influenced by the color of
neighboring crystals ('mutual color
interference'). For example,
chalcopyrite by itself has a
characteristic and easily
recognizable yellow color. Inside
sphalerite, it appears a very clear
yellow, but in contrast with native
gold, it appears a dull greenish
yellow. In these circumstances, it
may help to close down the IFS, so
that the fieldof view is essentially
monomineralic.

Chalcopyrite with quartz

Chalcopyrite with gold

It should be stressed that many

minerals which occupy solid
solution fields (for example
ilmenite, sphalerite, pentlandite)
will exhibit color variations,
even in identically oriented
sections; occasionally, this leads
to an overlapping of the colors of
minerals which may normally
distinguished readily.

Ilmenite in solid solutions with hematite

In some cases the change of

color produced by immersion in
cedar oil is an aid to
identification.

Ilmenite in solid solutions with magnetite

C. Bireflectance and Pleochroism

Isometric minerals (for example, pyrite,
galena, pentlandite) remain unchanged in
color and brightness as the stage of the
microscope is turned.
Many minerals of the other crystal
systems, however, show distinct changes
in brightness or color, or both, with
rotation of the stage.
The ccanges or the variation in tint of a
colored mineral observed as it is rotated on
the microscope stage in ore microscopy
are commonly referred to as pleochroism
or reflection pleochroism .
Bireflectance or bireflexion is the change
in intensity of the light reflected from a
mineral as it is rotated on the microscope
stage.
A pleochroic mineral is by necessity also
bireflectant.

These two phenomena are manifestations of anisotropy in the mineral section.

The bireflectance depends on the difference between the two reflectivities
(Ordiner and Extraordiner or,, , and ) whereas the pleochroism depends on
the differences between the dispersions of the two reflectivities.
It must be remembered that for a given mineral, the intensity of the
bireflectance varies with the orientation of the section and that the highest
bireflectance observed for the mineral in a polished section is not necessarily
the maximum for the mineral.Only a vertical section of a uniaxial mineral
(//C) will show the maximum bireflectance for the mineral in question.
For all practical purposes, four degrees of intensity can be distinguished:
1. Bireflectance strong: graphite, molybdenite, pyrolusite, covellite, marcasite,
stibnite
2. Bireflectance medium: ilmenite, pyrrhotite, niccolite, cubanite
3. Bireflectance weak: arsenopyrite, enargite, hematite, loellingite (Best observed
by contrast (Best observed by contrastagainst neighboring isotropic crystals)
4. Bireflectance weak to absent: chalcocite, argentite, chalcopyrite

STRONG BIREFLECTANCE

covellite

Graphite

stibnite

medium bireflectance

pyrrhotite

cubanite

BIREFLECTANCE WEAK TO ABSENT

Bireflectance of hematite: weak

bireflectance of arsenopyrite: weak

Bireflectance of Chalcopyrite: weak to absent

Notes in Bireflectance :
1. Bireflectance, like color, is a function of the index of refraction of the
immersion medium. Generally, the higher the index of refraction of the
immersion medium,the higher the bireflectance of an ore mineral. You should
examine covellite both in air and in cedar oil to convince yourself of this fact.
2. Bireflectance is also a function of crystallographic orientation, and for every
anisotropic mineral, there is at least one crystallographic plane, sections
parallel to which will show no bireflectance (for example, sections of
hexagonal or tetragonal crystals perpendicular to the c-axis). Thus,
observations of bireflectance should be made on several grains of each
anisotropic silicates.
3. Bireflectance is also shown by the carbonate of Pb, Fe, Mg and Ca, but not by
the common rock-forming silicates.
4. When studying a section, always record the strength of the bireflectance, and
also any color changes, if detectable, for several grains of each bireflectance
mineral,noting the relationships between the positions of maximum and
minimum reflectance and crystal outline, cleavage traces, etc.

Examples of Reflection Pleochroism

covellite blue deep violet blue

bluish-white
molybdenite whitish to gray
whitish-gray white
pyrrhotite clear brownish yellow
pinkish-brown brownish-yellow
niccolite pinkish to brownish
white clear pinkish-brown bluishwhite

cubanite bronze-yellow pinkbrown

D. Measurement of Hardness

There are numerous ways of estimating

hardness in polished surfaces.

Comparative hardness /Polishing hardness

can be. judged by:
1. the quality of the polished surface
(the hardest surfaces have the most
mirror-like finishes)
2. and can be tested drawing the needle
lightly across a contact between a
known-mineral and an unknown, and
3. Kalb Hardness Determination,
obtained by varying the specimen objective distance.

Die Kratzerbreite ist umgekehrt proportional zur Mineralhrte.

Hrte von Mineral 1 < Mineral 2 < Mineral 3

Kalb Hardness Determination

At the junction of a hard and soft
grain, there tends to be a slight
departure from flatness, and the
Kalb light-line effect,which is
analogous to the Becke-line effect,
can be observed.
As the distance between the
objective lens and the polished
section is increased (i.e.the stage is
lowered) the white line will move
into the softer mineral.

Formation of Kalb Line

Kalb Line
N Pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite,
: chalcopyrite from Geco.

100 X, Width is 1 mm.

Top: pyrite (white, lower right
and left) with chalcopyrite
(yellow), sphalerite (gray)
and pyrrhotite (cream,
between pyrite and
chalcopyite).
Bottom: Same as above, but
stage has been lowered to
show how Kalb line moves
into softer mineral. Py > Po.
Py > Sl, Sl > Cpy

Quantitative Methode
Vickers Hardness
Load
Vickers Hardness Number
(VHN) : ratio of load (gram
or kilogram force) divided by
the contact area of the
impression(squaremilimeters)
Vickers
INDENTOR
Hydraulic
Vickers
Indentor

Sample/Polished section
H.-J. Bernhardt 2002

VHN =Vickers Hardness Number

Vickers Hardness Number (VHN) : ratio of load (gram or kilogram force) divided by the contact
area of the impression(squaremilimeters

VHN= 2 * sin(68) L/d2

VHN = 1.854*L /d2

[ g / mm2 ]

d = ( d1 + d2) / 2
L = load

H.-J. Bernhardt 2002

Shape of hardness indentation

H.-J. Bernhardt 2002

Indentation Shape and Fractures characteristics

A
perfect

concave

convex

sigmoidal

A. Indentation Shapes: 1).perfect 2). concave 3). convex 4). sigmoidal

B. Indentation fractures : 1). Star radial 2). Side radial 3). Cleavage 4). Parting
5). Simple shell 6). Clevage shell 7). Concentric shell (Young and Millman, 1964)

H.-J. Bernhardt 2002

Factors affecting Vickershardness values

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

Variatiation with load

Variation with mineral texture
Variation with mineral orientationof the
grain particularly in material such as
covellite and molibdenite wich have highly
anisotropic structure
Variation with mineral composition
Variation with mechanical and thermal
history

H.-J. Bernhardt 2002

E. Isotopic/Anisotropic
Isotropic Phenomena

To observe these phenomena, both the analyzer and polarizer must be crossed .

When the stage is rotated with the polars crossed, it is noticeable that certain
ore grains remain dark ; these are referred to as uniradial or circular sections
(mono-reflecting) and are either isometric minerals or else basal sections of
some uniaxial mineral. These basal sections can be recognized as such because
different sections of the same mineral are bireflecting.

Sometimes the section, although uniradial, is not completely dark; this is the
case with minerals of high (metallic) reflectivity. But such sections can be
recognized as being uniradial because the slight luminosity remains constant
on rotation of the stage; this can be more easily observed if the polarizer is
uncrossed very slightly (2 or 3o). Thus, under

crossed polars, an isotropic mineral will show one of two kinds of behavior:

Isotropic Minerals
1. It will remain completely dark through 360o of rotation. Examples of
isotropic minerals with good extinction (i.e. low to medium
reflectivity) are sphalerite,magnetic and chromite.
2. It will be very faintly illuminated, but will show no change in color
or intensity of illumination through 360o of rotation. Isotropic minerals
with poor extinction (i.e. of high reflectivity) are pyrite and native
silver.
One precaution must be kept in mind, however. Not all isometric
minerals are fully isotropic. Pyrite and bornite, for example, are often
anisotropic, although many X-ray studies have shown that pyrite at
least is invariably isometric.

Anomalous anisotropism is very weak, however, and it rarely hinders

identification. Under crossed polars an anisotropic mineral will show a
change in intensity of

Note the rotating stage

If the mineral grains change color as the stage is
rotated; these grains go black 4 times in 360
rotation-exactly every 90o
These minerals are anisotropic

isometric minerals
stay black in all
orientations
These
minerals
are
isotropic

Anisotropy and Polarization Colors

Under crossed polars an anisotropic mineral will show a change
in intensity of illumination or color of illumination, or both, as
the stage is rotated.

The observed colors are referred to as polarization colors and

are often highly characteristic and useful in mineral
identification.
If the nicols are exactly crossed, then in general in a 360o
rotation of the stage there will be four positions of maximum
darkness ('extinction positions') 90o apart alternating with four
positions of maximum illumination lying at about 45o to the
positions of darkness.

Chalcopyrite with cubanite lamellae. Nic. //, Obj. 20x, air.

Polarization color/interference color of Chalcopyrite with

cubanite lamellae. Nic. X , Obj. 20x, air

Strong bireflectan and anisotropy in stibnite

Strong bireflectan in // nicols

Strong anisotropy in X nicols

Strong bireflectance and anisotropy of

covellite

// nicols

X nicols

Strong bireflectance and anisotropy of graphite

The polished sample with Nic //, Obj. 10x, air.

Arsenopyrite in quarz, with a twin crystal
(100 um bar)

 Examples of distinctly anisotropic minerals (i.e. with distinct

positions of extinction or minimum luminosity on rotation of
the stage) are pyrrhotite, wolframite and arsenopyrite.
Strongly anisotropic minerals, which have bright reflection
in between the four definit positions of extinction (or
minimum illumination) include graphite, covellite, sylvanite
and chalcophenite. Weakly anisotropic minerals such as
chalcopyrite should be viewed very carefully in strong light.
In many cases it is best to view adjacent grains while
rotating the stage of the microscope, rather than try to see
light and dark positions in a single grain. Remember that
polarization colors are constant only if the nicols are exactly
crossed.

Care must be taken

in using anisotropy not to confuse reflection from scratches or
roughness of polish for a true anisotropic. Poorly polished pyrite often
shows apparent anisotropy which will disappear if the polish is
improved. It must also be remembered that any anisotropic mineral
may show an isotropic section by fortuitous orientation. More than one
grain must be observed before concluding that a mineral is isotropic.
Some anisotropic minerals show a distinct and characteristic sequence
of colors as the polarizer is turned, degree by degree, to and beyond
the minimum position. The section is turned in white light between
crossed polars, so that the vibration direction of greater reflectivity is
parallel to the vibration direction of the polarizer (N S). The stage is
then turned first clockwise to the plus 45o position. In each of these two
positions the polarizer is slowly turned through a few degrees, and the
sequence of tints is noted. Two examples are shown below; in the last
column, mention is made only of the tints whic

F. Internal reflection:

Refleksi permukaan
Galena dan sphalerite (// nicols )

sphalerite memperliatkan
Internal reflection (x nicols)

Lights which
penetrate deep below
the surface of
transparent minerals
and than reflected
back to the the
observer from cracks
or flaws within the
crystals

Internal Reflection in Cassitierite,

A. Grains that show no recognizable

crystal form are said to be

ANHEDRAL

B.Grains that show imperfect but

recognizable crystal form are said to
be SUBHEDRAL

C. Grains that show sharp and clear

crystal form are said to be

EUHEDRAL

Crystal Form

G. Morphological Characters:
Cleavage
Pyrrhotite (dark brown, top
right) has a well developed
cleavage, the basal (0001)
cleavage which extends into
chalcopyrite (yellow, top
centre and left) and cubanite
(blue-grey, centre right) areas,
suggesting that chalcopyrite
and cubanite are replacing
pyrrhotite.

Polished block, plane

polarized light, x 160, oil

Source: SME-virtual atlas of ore minerals

Cleavage of galena
Galena (blue-white, centre) shows
characteristic triangular cleavage
pits (black, centre) due to plucking
along the (100) cleavage.

It encloses euhedral pyrite (light

yellow, high reflectance, centre
right) and chalcopyrite (yellow,
centre bottom), and is intergrown
with sphalerite (light grey, left)..
Polished block, plane polarized
light, x 80, air

Source: SME-virtual atlas of ore min