www.plantservices.

com

SMART SOLUTIONS FOR MAINTENANCE & RELIABILITY

Special Report

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Best Testing Practices

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Putting Your Cables to the Test

Boost reliability by knowing how and when to test medium-voltage cable systems
by Steve Park, Emerson Network Power

Medium-voltage (MV) cables are a vital component of

INDUSTRY STANDARDS: A GREAT PLACE TO START

your plants electrical power distribution system. Although

their service life is expected to be long and they are generally
highly reliable, MV cable systems can and do suffer from
deterioration, defects, and faults, which can eventually result
in complete breakdown and cable failure. Such failures can,
in turn, lead to unplanned power outages, causing substantial losses including loss of plant production, significant
equipment damage, and even personnel injury or death.
To protect people, operations, and the bottom line, you
need insight into the condition of your MV cable systems.
Fortunately, there are several tests and techniques that
can help you keep a finger on the pulse of the health,
performance, and reliability of these systems. However,
choosing the right tests from myriad available options
isnt always a straightforward process. Lets consider
some of the more-popular testing options for MV cables
and explore which test methods are best for a given installation or specific testing philosophy.

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When it comes to selecting the best MV cable system tests

for a particular facility or application, many plant managers
turn to industry standards. In the United States, there are at
least 10 standards that provide information about field testing MV cable and components. Among these are standards
from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE), the National Electrical Manufacturers Association/
Insulated Cable Engineers Association (NEMA/ICEA), the
Association of Edison Illuminating Companies (AEIC), National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), and the InterNational Electrical Testing Association (NETA).
These standards are continually being reviewed and
updated, and they provide a good overview of the types
of tests available. However, when choosing the best tests
for your specific situation, youll want to consider the age
and general condition of your cable system as well as the
service level (loading/load cycles), operating environment,
history, and criticality of equipment served. Well now take

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a closer look at each of these issues,

beginning with understanding the
lifespan of your MV cable system.

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Infant
Mortality

Midlife

End of Life

Installation
& Acceptance
Testing

Occasional Failures,
Basically Stable

Water Treeing
Failures Begin

In general, an MV cable system is

expected to provide reliable service for
approximately 35 to 40 years. However, cable system components (conductor, insulation, shields, jacket, etc.)
can be damaged mechanically during
shipping, handling, or installation or
by or other physical means such as
excavation, settling of the earth, or
support failure. Additionally, operational damage can occur due to severe
load cycling, overloads, short-circuit
currents, voltage transients, and
lightning surges. The environment in
which the cable operates also has a significant impact on lifespan. Exposure
to extreme temperatures, moisture,
heavy vibration, or chemicals can
contribute to premature deterioration
and/or failure.
Regardless of specific stressors,
cable systems experience periods within their life cycle during which failure
is more predominant. The first year
of a cables operating life is considered the infant mortality period. If
installation damage or manufacturing
defects are not detected during initial
acceptance testing, these problems will
likely show up during this time.
Between initial operation and end of
life, cable systems go through a period
of relatively high reliability. Occasional failures may occur as a result of
workmanship issues or uncontrolled
factors, but in general, the cable system will exhibit its highest reliability
during this period.
After a long period of reliable service, operational and environmental

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Failures

UNDERSTANDING CABLE LIFE

Time
Cable Failures

Cumulative Cable Failures

Cumulative Termination & Splice Failures

Termination & Splice Failures

Cumulative Total Failures

This hypothetical cable system failure profile reinforces that is is important to conduct
withstand tests and collect baseline data when cables are new, whereas diagnostic
tests are more applicable at midlife or end of life.

factors will lead to deterioration of cable components, creating an increased

rate of failure. This is an indication
that the cable system is approaching
the end of its reliable life.
Different tests are recommended
during different life-cycle periods.
Heres a look at the different types of
cable tests and when to use them.
TYPES OF MV CABLE TESTING

In general, there are two types of

cable testing. Withstand tests are
intended to stress the cables insulation and cause the cable system to
fail at defects or areas of significant

deterioration that could likely cause

the cable to fail in the near future
during normal operation. Condition assessment or diagnostic tests
produce quantitative and trending
data without causing (or intending to
cause) failure or damage. These tests
are used to determine the extent of
deterioration or changes to the cables
insulation system. Both types of tests
play an important role in evaluating the reliability of the cable and
determining if the cable is reaching the end of its life. Following is a
closer look at the specific types of test
within each category.

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Withstand tests include:

D
 C high-potential (hipot) withstand: a go/no-go test that
puts cables under higher-than-normal operating voltage
stress to identify weaknesses and cause them to fail. This test
is not recommended for cables more than five years old. Research suggests that this test is not the best test for extruded
insulated cables, as it is not effective in locating many defects
that could lead to premature failure of a cable system.
A
 C hipot withstand: another potentially destructive go/
no-go test that is similar to the DC test, but this one utilizes
AC voltage. Although this test is an improvement over DC
hipot, the test equipment needed to handle the higher-thannormal operating voltage can be large, heavy and expensive.
V
 ery-low frequency (VLF) hipot: a test for effectively
detecting various defects in a cable system. It has recently
gained popularity because the equipment is small and
lightweight and is relatively easy to use. While this test is
considered a destructive test, the recommended test voltages
are much lower than the DC test voltages and, when coupled
with condition assessment tests (discussed later), the chances of causing damage to the cable system can be reduced.

A handheld detector is used during OLPD testing to detect any

corona or acoustic signals before opening equipment covers.

Condition assessment/diagnostic tests include:

Tan delta: a diagnostic tool that measures the level of cable
deterioration and can help determine service reliability.
Tan delta testing is useful for prioritizing cable replacement and is particularly useful in determining whether
cable is approaching the end of its life. Tan delta testing is
effective in detecting water trees, a key indicator of aging
in extruded insulated cables.

for MV cable systems to detect early signs of insulation

failure. This allows for planned shutdowns to investigate
and remediate issues before they have a chance to develop
into a major problem.
Some plant managers choose to permanently mount
sensors for hard-to-access areas or areas that pose a safety
concern. These sensors provide connection points for
portable equipment, which allows for periodic testing.
Sensors can also be connected to continuous monitoring
distributed control systems (DCSs) that trigger alarms
when changes in PD levels are detected.

Online partial discharge (OLPD): noninvasive testing

that can be conducted during operating hours and under
normal operating conditions with no need to interrupt
service and production. These tests assess the condition of
cable systems (including splices and terminations) as well
as connected equipment such as transformers and switchgear. Partial discharge (PD) is a key indicator of impending insulation failure in extruded insulated cables. Because
insulation breakdown is the leading cause of electrical
failure, according to NFPA 70B, monitoring PD activity
plays a crucial role in preventing unplanned outages.
Annual or semiannual OLPD testing is recommended

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TESTING PHILOSOPHIES: NOT IF YOUR CABLES WILL FAIL,

BUT WHEN

While the reliable operating life of some equipment can be

extended by rebuilding, reconditioning, or retrofitting, MV
cables are life-limited components that will eventually deteriorate and fail. Therefore, tests must be conducted throughout the cables lifespan to help plant managers determine
the condition of their cable systems and reduce the risk of
failures. The choice of which tests to use should be based on

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where the cable is in its life cycle and the criticality of the
load. In a nutshell, the right test (or combination of tests)
often comes down to a decision based on risk management.
Before diving into how to develop your own customized testing philosophy, its worth addressing one common
question: Can these tests tell me the remaining service life
of my cables? Very simply, the answer is no. What these
tests do reveal are indicators of defects that will likely
cause your cable to fail in the near future (withstand tests).
They will also tell you if your cables exhibit test values
typically found in cables that are at high risk of in-service
failure, or if they exhibit test values associated with cables
reaching end of life.
DETERMINING WHICH TEST IS BEST

With newly installed cables, your primary concern should

be making sure they are installed correctly and that there
are no incipient defects or problems. This is an ideal time
to perform withstand tests. As mentioned earlier, these
tests are great at forcing defects and failures because of the
increased stresses imposed on the cable insulation system.
Identified problems can be repaired and faulty equipment
can be replaced before going live. This stage is also the best
time to obtain baseline test values for condition assessment
tests. Tan delta and OLPD testing are ideal condition assessment tests to establish baselines and detect any installation
or equipment issues that may exist.
The next ideal time to perform testing is approximately
one year after installation or just before your equipment or
installer warranty expires. Withstand tests should again be
considered to detect any incipient defects. Repeating the
condition assessment tests and comparing results with the
original baseline values is also a good practice. Any significant change should be investigated.
After cables have been in service for a few years, the same
tests should be repeated. Withstand tests coupled with condition assessment tests should be performed to detect both
hidden defects and early signs of aging.
To determine how often to test, a few factors should be
considered, such as the availability of an alternate feed that
can be utilized if a set of cables fails and the criticality of
the load served by a given set of cables. You should also ask
yourself, if a cable or termination/splice fails, will the collateral damage likely impact the alternate feed equipment,
resulting in an unacceptable outage period?

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Cables located within a manhole that experienced support failure

resulted in excessive bending that created extremely high levels of
partial discharge and overheating.

As cables age, the destructive nature of withstand testing

is a less-suitable testing option. This is typically because
cables are a critical component and alternative feeds or options dont exist. However, if you dont perform these tests,
you may be missing defects that, if not detected by condition
assessment tests, could result in an unplanned outage and
collateral damage.
One recommended testing strategy is to perform condition assessment testing such as tan delta before conducting
a withstand test such as VLF. By performing the tan delta
test first, you are able to evaluate the overall condition of
the cable. If problems are indicated, dont perform the VLF
withstand test. If the tan delta test results compare closely
with previous results and are considered normal, then the
VLF withstand test can be performed because it poses less
risk of causing cable failure.
This testing philosophy was put into practice with one
facility that contained aging cables. The maintenance
manager needed to provide management with evidence
justifying the need for cable replacement. However, he
couldnt afford to damage cables during testing. Tan
delta testing provided the solution. These nondestructive
tests identified significant deviations in two sets of cables
without applying voltages that could further damage aged

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cables of unknown condition. The circuits in question were

located underground beneath an area of heavy equipment
traffic. The resulting vibration from the traffic, combined
with a possible bus duct collapse, likely contributed to the
deterioration/damage of these cables.
In another example, elevated PD of two circuits was
identified through OLPD testing. Because the PD was
identified as having been generated from within the cable
circuit (not the connected equipment or terminations),
additional testing to determine the exact location of the
PD was performed. A cable mapping process revealed that
the sources of the PD were approximately 1,030 feet down
the length of the 1,220-foot cable circuit. Scouting out the
location revealed a manhole where the cable supports had
failed and the cables experienced excessive bends. This
severely deformed the cables, causing insulation damage
and creating the PD. Visual inspection also revealed signs
of overheating in the area of the excessive bends.
By replacing the damaged cable section, splicing cables,
and adding proper cable support, the plant manager was
able to prevent imminent failure, which would have disrupted other cables in the manhole and caused a disruption to production.
Depending on the variables previously discussed, a common test frequency during the midlife period of a cable is
every three to five years. If cables are extremely critical, lack
alternative feeds, or show signs of possible issues (via test
results), testing may be performed more often. Cables that
show high reliability based on test results and those that
have alternative feeds may be tested less often.
One stopgap test that provides supplemental data to the
VLF withstand and tan delta condition assessment tests is
the OLPD test. Because this test can be performed without
an outage and does not require that equipment be disconnected, periodic tests to identify changes in PD activity
in the cable or associated equipment can be very valuable.
Equipment also exists that allows your cables and associated equipment to be monitored continuously so that you
can be made aware immediately of any changes in PD
activity and begin an investigation process.

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END OF CABLE LIFE

Just as humans age differently, so do cables. Various

environmental factors, along with operational stresses,
contribute to the aging and deterioration of your cables. If
your cables are approaching the end of their life, you have
likely witnessed changes in your condition assessment
test results indicating water migration and insulation and
shield deterioration. It is during this stage that you should
increase the frequency of testing and avoid withstand tests
altogether, or you may perform a modified withstand test
that puts less stress on the cables. OLPD testing should be
continued, as it is nondestructive and is effective at detecting deterioration of splices and terminations.
Once your condition assessment test values have increased to a concerning level, you should begin a capital
replacement program. If you have monitored and tested
your cables over their life, you can justify the need for
replacement based on the historical test results. Not all
cables will age at the same rate, so not all of your cables
must be replaced at one time. Cable replacement can be
prioritized based on criticality of loads served, alternative
feed options, and historical test results. The replacement
program can be spread over many years.
Clearly, MV cable testing plays a critical role in determining the health of your electrical assets and ensuring maximum uptime. When you understand your testing options and
establish a testing philosophy that meets your specific needs,
you can create a testing program that combines the right type
of tests at the right intervals. These tests will provide you valuable information about the condition of your cables and help
you avoid unplanned outages, prioritize your maintenance
budget, justify requests for cable replacement, and keep your
plant operating safely and reliably.
Steve Park, PE, USAF (Ret.), is technical services
manager for the Electrical Reliability Services group
at Emerson Network Power (www.emersonnetworkpower.com), overseeing such offerings as power system studies
and conformity assessment services. Park is also responsible
for evaluating and supporting new test technologies.

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By Sook-Wai Wong, Keysight Technologies

INSULATION RESISTANCE
TESTING BASICS
Identify potential electrical issues to reduce unpredictable,
premature equipment repair and replacement costs

Preventive maintenance is a pre-

determined task performed based on

a schedule, and its objective is to keep
equipment in good condition to avoid
breakdowns. This article describes the
insulation resistance testing method
commonly used for preventive maintenance activities.
Insulation resistance testing is commonly performed as part of electrical
testing in a preventive maintenance
program for rotating machines, cables,
switches, transformers, and electrical
machinery where insulating integrity is needed. Insulation resistance
testing in the preventive maintenance
program helps identify potential
electrical issues to reduce unpredictable, premature equipment repair and
replacement cost (see Figure 1).
Insulation resistance is used to
verify the integrity of the insulation
material, whether cable insulation or
motor/generator winding insulation.
Insulation resistance testing is carried
out by applying a constant voltage to
the equipment under test while measuring the flowing current. High DC

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INSULATION INTEGRITY
Figure 1: Insulation resistance test is performed in the maintenance program for the
rotating machines and switchgear to check on the insulation integrity.

voltage is used, causing a small current

to flow through the insulator surface.
The total current consists of three
components (see Figure 2):
Capacitance charging current:
relatively high upon start-up, drops
exponentially within a few seconds
to dozens of seconds. It is normally
negligible when the reading is taken.
Absorption current: decays at a decreasing rate. It may require up to a
few minutes to reach zero depending
on the insulation materials.
Leakage current: constant over time.
For an effective test, results should

be regularly recorded over a period

of time and compared with earlier recorded values taken when the
equipment was new and in good condition. The trend of the readings over
a period of time will help identify
the presence of anomalies. Insulation
resistance values that are consistent
over time indicate that the equipments insulation properties are good.
If the resistance values are decreasing, it indicates that potential issues
can occur sometime in the future and
more thorough preventive maintenance should be scheduled soon.

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Three types of tests are available for

measuring insulation resistance:
Spot test: This test is suitable for
a device with a small or negligible
capacitance effect, e.g. short wiring run. A test voltage is applied for
a short interval until a stable reading
is achieved, or for a fixed period of
time, normally 60 seconds or less. The
reading is collected at the end of the
test. For the historical record, a chart
is plotted based on the history of the
readings. Observation of the trend is
taken over a period of time, normally
over years or months (see Figure 3).
This test is normally performed for

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COMPONENTS OF TEST CURRENT

Capacitive charging current
starts high as test material is
electrically neutral and has
capacity to absorb the initial
charges. It then falls to zero
when saturated

Current (A)

Absorption current decays

over time eventually
reaching zero

Leakage current is material

dependent and will stay
constant after a period
of time

Total current is a
summation of all
three components

Seconds

Figure 2: The total current consists of three components: capacitance charging current,
absorption current, and leakage current.

SPOT TEST
After repair

New motor

Effect of aging,
contamination

Resistance (M)

Factors that commonly affect insulation resistance are:

Surface condition: For example oil
or carbon dust on the equipments
surface that can lower the insulation
resistance.
Moisture: If the equipments surface
temperature is at, or below, the dew
point of the ambient air, a film of
moisture forms on its surface, lowering the resistance value.
Temperature: The insulation resistance
value may vary inversely with the
change of the temperature. Its influence on readings can be mitigated by
performing preventive maintenance
testing at the same temperature each
time. If the temperature cannot be
controlled, normalizing to a base temperature such as 40 C is recommended. This is commonly done using the
estimation rule, Every 10 C increase
in temperature halves the insulation
resistance, while a 10 C reduction
doubles the resistance. As different
materials may have different degrees of
resistance change due to temperature,
for more precise temperature correction, some may adopt a temperature
correction factor; the measurement
reading should be multiplied by the
temperature correction factor at the
corresponding temperature.

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Insulation failure

Year

Figure 3: For effective monitoring of equipment insulation resistance, the insulation resistance
values collected at each test interval should be plotted at the graph to track its trend.

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EXAMPLE TIME-RESISTANCE TEST
PI value

DAR value

Insufficient

<2

< 1.25

OK

2 to 4

< 1.6

Excellent

>4

> 1.6

Table 1. PI and DAR test result

interpretation.

Go/NoGo testing or historical records.

Temperature and humidity variations
may affect the readings and have to be
compensated for if necessary.
Time-resistance test: This test is
suitable for the predictive and preventive maintenance of rotating machines. Successive readings are taken
at a specific time, typically every few
minutes, and difference in readings
compared. Good insulation will show
a continual increase in the resistance
value. If the reading is stagnant and
it does not increase as expected, the
insulation may be weak and attention
may be needed. Moist and contaminated insulation may lower resistance
readings since they will increase the
leakage current during testing. The
temperature influence on this test
is negligible as long as there is no
significant temperature change in the
device under test.
The polarization index (PI) and
dielectric absorption ratio (DAR) are
commonly used to quantify the timeresistance test result. The PI is defined
as the ratio of the 10 minute resistance value to the 1 minute resistance
value. The interpretation of the value
is shown in Table 1. The IEEE Std 432000 recommends the minimum value
of PI for AC and DC rotating machinery in thermal class B, F and H as 2.0,
and the minimum PI value for class A
equipment is 1.5.
(Note: Some new insulation systems have a faster response to the
insulation test. They usually start

3x10 +11

Resistance (Ohm)

Insulation
condition

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2x10 +11

1x10 +11

+0x10 +11

-1x10 +11

100 200 300 400 500

Time (Second)

Figure 4: Curve plot of a time-resistance test made on a motor winding with Keysight
Handheld Meter Logger Software. Good insulation shows a continual increase in
resistance, and the trend line should be an inverse exponential.
Winding Rated Voltage (V)*

Insulation Resistance Test Direct Voltage (V)

< 1,000

500

1,000 - 2,500

500 - 1,000

2,501 - 5,000

1,000 - 2,500

5,001 12,000

2,500 5,000

> 12,000

5,000 - 10,000

Table 2. Guidelines for DC voltage to be applied during insulation resistance test

(extracted from IEEE Std 43-2000).
*R
 ated line-to-line voltage for three-phase AC machines, line-to-ground voltage for single-phase machines, and rated
direct voltage for DC machines or field windings.

Nominal Rating Of
Equipment in Volts

Minimum Test
Voltage, DC

Recommended Minimum Insulation

Resistance in Megaohms

250

500

25

600

1,000

100

1,000

1,000

100

2,500

1,000

500

5,000

2,500

1,000

8,000

2,500

2,000

15,000

2,500

5,000

25,000

5,000

20,000

34,500 and above

15,000

100,000

Table 3. Insulation resistance test values electrical apparatus and system

(extracted from NETA ATS-2007).
In the absence of consensus standards dealing with insulation-resistance tests, the Standards Review Council suggests
the above representative values. Test results are dependent on the temperature of the insulating material and the
humidity of the surrounding environment at the time of the test. Insulation-resistance test data may be used to establish
a trending pattern. Deviations from the baseline information permit evaluation of the insulation.

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Minimum Insulation Resistance (M)

Test Specimen

IR1 min = kV + 1

For most windings made before about 1970, all field windings, and others not described below

IR1 min = 100

For most dc armature and ac windings built after about 1970 (form-wound coils)

IR1 min = 5

For most machines with random-wound stator coils and form-wound coils rated below 1 kV

Table 4. Recommended minimum insulation resistance values at 40 C (extracted from IEEE Std 43-2000).

with test result at G range yielding

a PI between 1 and 2. In these cases,
the PI calculation may be disregard.
According to the IEEE Std 43-2000,
if the 1 minute insulation resistance
is above 5 G, the calculated PI may
not be meaningful.)
The DAR refers to the ratio of the
60 second resistance value to the 30
second resistance value. The interpretation of the value is shown in Table 1.
DAR is suitable for devices with insulation materials in which the absorption current decreases quickly.
Step voltage test: This test is
particularly useful when the rated
voltage of the equipment is higher
than the available test voltage generated by the insulation resistance
tester. Different voltage levels are
applied in steps to the device under
test. The recommended ratio of the
test voltage is 1:5. The test at each step
is same length, usually 60 seconds,
and goes from low to high. This test
is normally used at test voltages lower
than the rated voltage of the equipment. The rapid increase of the test
voltage level creates additional stress
on the insulation and causes the weak
point to fail, subsequently leading to
a lower resistance value.
TEST VOLTAGE SELECTION

As the insulation resistance test consists of high DC voltage, the appropriate test voltage has to be selected to
avoid over stressing the insulation,
which may lead to insulation failure.
The test voltage also may vary accord-

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ing to the international standards.

Consulting the product/equipment
manufacturer for the proper test voltage values is recommended.
If the appropriate test voltage is
not specified by the manufacturer,
industrial standards and practices may
be applied. The following guideline for
rotating machinery shown in Tables 2
and 3 may be adopted in the absence
of manufacturers data.
DETERMINATION OF MINIMUM
INSULATION RESISTANCE

The IEEE Std 43-2000 indicates that

the minimum insulation resistance
for AC and DC machine stator
windings and rotor windings can be
determined by:
Rm = kV + 1
Where,
Rm is the recommended minimum
insulation resistance in M at 40 C of
the entire machine winding (see Table
4), and
kV is the rated machine terminal-toterminal voltage in kV unit
As insulation resistance testing
involves high DC voltage application, the following safety precautions
should be taken:
Make sure that the device under test
is discharged.
Conduct the test at the de-energized
condition to ensure that no test voltage other than that from the insulation resistance tester is applied.
Restrict personal access when high
voltage testing is being conducted.

10

Use of personal protective equipment

(e.g. protective gloves) where applicable.
Ensure suitable test leads are used
and that they are in good condition.
Using unsuitable test leads not only
contributes to errors in readings,
they may be hazardous.
After the test, make sure the device
is fully discharged. This can be done
by shorting the terminal with a suitable resistor. A minimum discharge
time of four times the applied voltage
duration is recommended. Some insulation resistance testers may have the
built in self discharge circuit to ensure
a safe discharge after the test. Testers
with this feature ensure devices are
safely discharged after every test.
Finally, when planning for a
maintenance program, equipment
that needs maintenance needs to be
identified, and priorities set accordingly. The maintenance record
should cover the following:
1. Date and time of the test
2. Test voltage and current
3. Insulation resistance value
4. Temperature of winding/equipment
5. I dentification of the equipment/device under test
6. P
 arts or equipment that were included in the test
7. Relative humidity
Sook-Wai Wong is an application
engineer focusing on the handheld test
tool applications, including handheld
meters, oscilloscopes, and
insulation testers at Keysight Technologies.