Informal Settlements

in Istanbul, Turkey:
From shacks to high rises

TODAY
TOMORROW

Ayse Yonder, Pratt Institute, NYC

SCUPAD Conference in Salzburg, Austria 2006

A dynamic and integral part of the urbanization process

cannot be understood in isolation from what is
happening in the rest of the city and society

a place to take root in the city,

(Gazi, Zeytinburnu 1982)

jobs, a community of networks,

(Gulsuyu 1982,
1990)

shelter -- an investment that would gain value over time

 Background: unequal development and rapid rates of

urbanization in Turkey
Development of Informal Settlements in Istanbul
1945-1960
1960-1980
1980 +

Current issues + opportunities, future problems

Map of Turkey regions & Istanbul

Historic Growth

Traditional spatial organization of neighborhoods in the

historic core

Area

57,120 ha

Density
(*)

1,928 pe / sq.km

POPULATION
Turkey
Istanbul
2000
1990
1980
1970
1960
1950
1940
1935
1927

67,803,900
56,473,000
44,737,000
35,605,200
27,855,000
20,947,200
17,821,000
16,158,000
13,650,000

10,018,700
7,196,800
4,741,900
3,019,000
1,882,100
1,166,500
991,200
883,600
606,900

%
14.8%
12.7%
10.6%
8.5%
6.8%
5.6%
5.6%
5.5%
4.4%

Spatial planning efforts - early years of the Republic

Development of railroad system
Industrial complexes +
Cultural centers

19231935

18901923
19351945

Unequal regional growth

Source: SSI of Turkey 2001

% of manufacturing workers in
Turkey

Per capita Gross Domestic Product

$

% Unemployment (pop. > 12

old)

yrs

Settled areas, industry, highways, and City fresh water reservoirs

E-5

E-5

Informal Settlements

Types of informal settlement processes:

1.

Squatter housing = Gecekondu (landed overnight)

Legal definition: unauthorized construction on someone elses land

2.

Informal Subdivision = Hisseli Tapu (shared title deed) OR

Ozel Ifraz (private subdivision)
Shared title deed is legal according to the Civil Law but both the
subdivision and construction are against the Reconstruction Law

1946-1960: Formation of first settlements

Context:

Multi-party system 1946

Economic liberalization policies + high inflation real estate++
Marshall Aid + mechanization in agriculture migration to cities
Inner city public works projects dislocation of many residents
Government unable/reluctant to subsize housing

Attitudes & Policy Response:

Media image mixed: cancerous growth, poor migrants

Some employers support their workers to build gecekondu
1949 gecekondu law (1st ) frequent demolitions
1953 Law consolidation of existing gecekondu
1956 Reconstruction law new rules re. subdivision size/services

Gecekondus increase from 5,000 (1949) to 60,000 (1960)

Informal subdivisions emerge as an alternative

Gradual occupation of
public land + land-indispute
Located on steep slopes,
near highways, and
undesirable land

Located near
places of
employment

Lack of basic infrastructure services

1960-1980: Expansion and Establishment

Context:

Military coups in 1960 & 1970; weak coalition governments

1961 Constitution expanded democratic freedoms, housing right
Economic growth + high inflation rates
Accelerated rates of migration to cities in 1970s
Five-year Development Plans + govt housing investments <10%
2,000 pop sufficient to form a new municipality 20 new municpls

Attitudes & Policy Response:

no longer marginalized - housing for the poor
1966 Gecekondu Law Upgrading, Clearance, Prevention areas
patronage relations, esp. with local governments; building amnesty

Informal sector: 2/3 of housing production in mid-70s

~60% housing units formed through informal processes
tenancy rates >50%

Informal settlements in Istanbul

Gecekondu Law provided

infrastructure services to
Upgrading areas but few titles
Squatters have to purchase land
from local power groups; liberated
zones emerge

Informal subdivisions:
mostly on rural land around
the city (village greens,
private farmland, land
allocated to Balkan
immigrants, etc)
Once development takes
place, new municipality
formed (services, ad hoc
master plan, legalization)

Informal subdivison documents:

Shared title deed
+ subdivision map
Public Notary agreement

Construction
of
foundations

Financing of construction:
1) purchase of a larger lot than needed sell the rest later

2) construction over time

3) tenants finish construction in lieu of paying rent

Pollution

Inadequate infrastructure

Lack of
open
space

Transportation System minibuses

Uncoordinated private subdivisions + streets

1980 + : Urban Transformation starts

Context:
Military regime 1980-83; new Constitution
Military conflict in SE forced migration to cities w/o resources
IMF dictated economic stabilization program Soaring rates of
infllation in 1980s; wage levels decline
Local government reform: revenues increased; planning power
decentralized to local level; infrastructure provision centralized

Islamic movement captures municipalities 1994; wins national

elections in 2002 (social services for the poor = charity, NGO work;
not government responsibility)

Attitudes & Policy response:

1984 new Reconstruction Law; NHA (TOKI) & Mass Housing
Fund created focus first on middle class housing
New Gecekondu law + amnesty (1984-86) density increases
Penalties for all involved in informal subdivisions
Re-marginalization in media as speculators + peripheral
settlements as centers of crime and violence and anarchy

 Densities increase in existing settlements

Formal sector housing production increases (2/3 of

total)

And formal sector and coophousing enter informal

settlement areas

 New settlements pushed out into citys

water reservoir areas
Access to land & housing controlled by
entrepreneurs w/ underground connections

A wake up call:
1999 Marmara Earthquake Disaster

Urban Transformation after 1999:

Opportunities:
The need to end ad hoc planning and prevent sprawl,
and to rehabilitate dense areas & to reduce disaster
risks recognized
2004 Municipalities Law: increased responsibility and
power to undertake disaster mitigation projects
Istanbul Disaster Master Plan prepared (1983)
Istanbul Metropolitan Planning & Urban Design Center
(re)established (2005)

Poor neighborhoods are high risk areas

(Istanbul Disaster Master Plan)
Disaster risk calculations based on geological factors, density, and building quality

Population density (pe/sqKm) in

selected districts of Istanbul (2000)
Istanbul

1,928

Bagcilar
Bayrampasa
Gungoren
Kagithane
Kartal
Umraniye
Zeytinburnu
Sultanbeyli

26,501
35,144
34,119
24,660
11,996
10,763
20,639
7,321

Bahcelievler
Beyoglu
Fatih
Kadikoy
Uskudar

29,914
25,767
31039
16,582
10,763

Issues:

No clear and shared understanding of what

Urban Transformation means (unique
implementation in Ankara; pilot project in Zeytinburnu;
interagency competition)

No legislation yet to clarify the process

No consideration of social, economic,

environmental implications

Gecekondu Housing
Administrations vision of
Urban Transformation

Ankara Municipalitys
Dikmen Valley Project
1998

Concluding questions
Who will benefit or be excluded from these projects?
Will there be process for community participation?
What will be the impact on social life of communities?
Will it end informal settlement formation?
What will be the impact on the city as a whole?