FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY MARA

SHAH ALAM

Prepared For:
Dr Jazuri Abdullah
Prepared By:
Mohd Fauzan Mohd Hardi

2016877264

QUESTION 1
a.

Describe Four (4) different approaches to estimate runoff

Catchment runoff, and its characteristics such as volume, peak flow, and flood
return period can be determined using one of four methods: Statistical analysis
of observed flow records; Regional methods; Transfer methods and Rainfallrunoff methods (manual or computerized).
These are briefly described below.
i.

Statistical analysis

This approach of observed records makes probabilistic statements about flows

(annual discharge, frequency of occurrence of discharge events of particular
magnitude), assuming that the measurements are a representative sample of
the population of flow events. The technique has an advantage over all other
runoff estimation methods, in that it is the only technique which makes use of
measured flows for an area of interest. However, it is rarely applicable to urban
areas as there are few urban gauging stations, those records that do exist are
short in comparison to rural sites, and suffer from a high likelihood of significant
changes to the catchment during the period of measurement, making them
unsuited to probabilistic analysis. In addition, an observed flow technique
cannot be used to make inferences about changes to runoff following changes
to catchment characteristics.
ii. Regional methods
This approach relates a dependent variable, such as annual discharge, with a
physically related independent variables, such as catchment area. Given this
relationship (correlation or regression) for a gauged site, and information on the
independent variable, the dependent variable can be determined for ungauged
sites. These methods are specifically regional as they are intended only for use
in regions that supplied the data underpinning the original relationship (e.g. UK
planning regions). These methods are easy to apply, and have the advantage

that effects of urbanization can be investigated, for example by manipulating an

impervious area variable. However, they do require a large number of flow
records from which the appropriate relationships can be determined. Thus
regional methods are rare in urban drainage studies due to the lack of flow
records. Greater interest in urban flow monitoring, and methods to extend
observed flow records using rainfall records mean that regional methods are in
future likely to become more popular for urban areas
iii. Transfer methods
This Methods are used to determine hydrologic characteristics, say a flood
return period, for a smaller or larger part of catchment with similar runoff
characteristics - the discharge transfer is made in proportion to the ratio of the
tributary area, and an exponent n determined from regional methods or from
the slope of a regional area-flood graph. It is assumed that the only significant
difference between the two area is the catchment area. Another transfer
method interpolates results from known data from two or more points on the
same catchment. These methods require relatively little data, but suffer where
catchments are not homogenous in characteristics. Urban catchments are
usually highly heterogeneous in land-use and cover, and also have a
complexity of stormwater structure that modify runoff.

iv. Rainfall-runoff methods

These methods are the only methods that incorporate precipitation, the causal
process behind runoff into estimates of discharge. They do so by considering
rainfall as an intensity (mm/hr) or as a hyetograph (a graph of the time
distribution of rainfall over a catchment). There are several approaches
(coefficient methods, soil-complex-cover methods, unit hydrograph methods),
described in more detail below, all of which have been applied to the estimation
of urban runoff characteristics, including, for example, hourly runoff. Literature
reviews have been performed to assess all of the above runoff techniques.
McCuen (1977) concluded that, on the basis of accuracy, reproducibility and

practicality, no technique was clearly preferable. The US Water Resources

Council (1981) conducted a similar review, and concluded that statistical
methods were the most accurate and reproducible, followed by rainfall-runoff
methods. They also concluded that computerised methods were very useful for
their ability to simulate responses to changes in the watershed, the value of
which should 47 offset the effort to establish the model. Given these
conclusions which were drawn from reviews of these techniques in general (i.e.
largely rural catchments), and the additional caveats associated with their
application to urban areas, it is evident that the rainfall-runoff methods offer the
best opportunities for application to urban runoff modelling.

b.

Discuss the shape of the hydrograph for:

Table 1.1 Shape of Hydrograph for undeveloped, partially and fully developed
No
1
2

Criteria
Base Flow Recession
Rising Limb (controlled

3
4

climate)
Crest Segment
Falling Limb (Depletion

Storage/Peak Discharge))
Base Flow Recession

by

Undeveloped
High base flow
Slowly rising

Partially developed
Intermediate
Intermediate

Fully developed areas

Lower base flow
Steeper (Smaller time

of

Long baseline peak

Slow rising

Intermediate
Intermediate

base)
short
Steeper (Smaller time

High baseflow

Intermediate

Base-short)
Lower Baseflow

Figure 1.1 Effect of Development on Hydrograph

c.

Three (3) factors contributing to the total quantity of water that can store in a
lake.
Precipitation
Precipitation in the form of rain, snow and condensation is the source of all
waters reaching the lake. Over-lake precipitation represents a large and
immediate supply of water to the lake depend on lake surface and areas. If
the amount of precipitation is fairly constant throughout the year then
quantity of water in lake can be sustainable.
Evaporation
Evaporation from the land and water surfaces depends on solar radiation,
on temperature differences between the air mass and the water, and on
humidity and wind. Evaporation from lake is greatest in the fall and early
winter when the air above the lakes is cold and dry and the lakes are
relatively warm. Conversely, the evaporation is least in the spring and early
summer when the air above the lakes is warm and moist and the lakes are
cold. Condensation to the lake surface may result instead of evaporation.
Infiltration
The process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. The rate
of infiltration is affected by soil characteristics including ease of entry,
storage capacity, and transmission rate through the soil. The soil texture
and structure, vegetation types and cover, water content of the soil
temperature, and rainfall intensity all play a role in controlling infiltration rate
and capacity.

QUESTION 2
In a year, the watershed with an area of 3,500 km 2 receives 100 cm of rainfall.
Infiltration and evaporation is estimated to be 4.7 x 10-7 cm/s and 25cm/y,
respectively. The mean flow of the of the river draining the watershed 30.5 m3/s.
a.

Determine the change in storage in the watershed over a year

b.

Compute the runoff coefficient for this watershed. Runoff coefficient is the
ratio of flow to precipitation.

c.

If the calculated flow is increased by 50%, calculate the new runoff

coefficient.

d.

Discuss the computed values in (b) and (c) with respect to watershed
characteristics.
The runoff coefficient (C) is a dimensionless coefficient relating the amount
of runoff to the amount of precipitation received. It is a larger value for areas
with low infiltration and high runoff (pavement, steep gradient), and lower for
permeable, well vegetated areas (forest, flat land).
It is important for flood control channel construction and for possible flood
zone hazard delineation. A high runoff coefficient (C) value may indicate
flash flooding areas during storms as water moves fast overland on its way
to a river channel or a valley floor.
It is measured by determining the soil type, gradient, permeability and land
use. The values are taken from the table below. The larger values
correspond to higher runoff and lower infiltration.
The designer must use judgment to select the appropriate "C" value within
the range. Generally, larger areas with permeable soils, flat slopes and
dense vegetation should have the lowest "C" values. Smaller areas with
dense soils, moderate to steep slopes, and sparse vegetation should have
assigned the highest "C" values.