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S K Mondals
1.
Chapter 1
dt
Q =- kA
dx
dt
The temperature gradient
is always negative along positive x direction and,
dx
therefore, the value as Q becomes + ve.
2013
Materials
Silver
10 W/mk
Copper
85 W/mk
Aluminium
25 W/mk
Steel
40 W/mk
Saw dust
0.07 W/mk
Page 1 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 1
Glass wool
0.03 W/mk
Freon
0.0083 W/mk
Solid:
A. Pure metals,
B. Alloys,
C. Insulator,
Liquid:
Gas:
k = k0 (1 + t )
(i ) Metals, k if t except. Al,U
i.e. , ve
insulating material k if t
2013
Page 2 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 1
wool, cork etc.) the thermal conductivity may vary from sample to sample
due Fire brick to variations in structure, composition, density and porosity.
5. Presence of air: The thermal conductivity is reduced due to the
presence of air filled pores or cavities.
6. Dampness: Thermal conductivity of a damp material is considerably
higher than that of dry material.
7. Density: Thermal conductivity of insulating powder, asbestos etc.
increases with density Growth. Thermal conductivity of snow is also
proportional to its density.
Vs
2
Vs =
R
Boltzmann constant per molecule
Av
(Dont confused with Stefen Boltzmann Constant)
Sonic velocity of molecule
=
R =
Av =
1
nvs f
6
Number of molecule/unit volume
Arithmetic mean velocity
f =
=
Number of DOF
Molecular mean free path
k=
Where
For liquid thermal conductivity lies in the range of 0.08 to 0.6 W/m-k
For gases thermal conductivity lies in the range of 0.005 to 0.05 W/m-k
The conductivity of the fluid related to dynamic viscosity ()
4.5
Cv ;
k = 1 +
2n
where,
2013
Page 3 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 1
The ratio of the thermal and electrical conductivities is the same for all metals at the
same temperature; and that the ratio is directly proportional to the absolute temperature
of the metal.
Where
k
k
T
or
=C
k = Thermal conductivity at T(K)
T
= Electrical conductivity at T(K)
C = Lorenz number = 2.45 108 w / k2
This law conveys that: the metals which are good conductors of electricity are also good
conductors of heat. Except
mica.
T = qRth
Slab
(ii)
Hollow cylinder
2013
L
kA
n (r2 / r1 )
( Rth ) =
2 kL
( Rth ) =
Page 4 of 216
S K Mondals
(iii)
Hollow sphere
Chapter 1
( Rth ) =
r2 r1
4 kr1r2
( Rth ) =
1
hA
1
F A (T1 + T2 ) T12 + T22
2013
1
L
1
+
+
h1 A kA h2 A
(Thermal resistance)
Page 5 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 1
1D Conduction in Sphere
Inside Solid:
dT
1 d
kr 2
=0
2
r dr
dr
1 ( r1 / r )
T (r ) = Ts ,1 {Ts ,1 Ts ,2 }
1 ( r1 / r2 )
qr = kA
dT 4 k ( Ts ,1 Ts ,2 )
=
dr
(1 / r1 1 / r2 )
Rt ,cond
1 / r1 1 / r2
=
4 k
2013
Page 6 of 216
S K Mondals
(a) Wood
Chapter 1
Answer. (a)
Thermal diffusivity ( ) =
(c) Concrete
Thermalconductivity ( k )
Thermalcapacity ( c )
k
i. e . =
c
unit
m2
The larger the value of , the faster will be the heat diffuse through the material and its
temperature will change with time.
2013
Page 7 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 1
T
x
T
(b)
x
T
(c)
x
T
(d)
x
(a)
T
= 0K / m
y
T
= 0 K / m,
= 10 K / m
y
T
= 10 K / m,
= 10 K / m
y
T
= 0 K / m,
= 20 K / m
y
= 20 K / m,
[GATE-2008]
GATE-3. A steel ball of mass 1kg and specific heat 0.4 kJ/kg is at a temperature
of 60C. It is dropped into 1kg water at 20C. The final steady state
temperature of water is:
[GATE-1998]
(a) 23.5C
(b) 300C
(c) 35C
(d) 40C
2013
Page 8 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 1
A copper block and an air mass block having similar dimensions are
subjected to symmetrical heat transfer from one face of each block. The
other face of the block will be reaching to the same temperature at a
rate:
[IES-2006]
(a) Faster in air block
(b) Faster in copper block
(c) Equal in air as well as copper block
(d) Cannot be predicted with the given information
dT
The Fourier heat conduction equation Q = kA
presumes
dx
1. Steady-state conditions
2. Constant value of thermal conductivity.
3. Uniform temperatures at the wall surfaces
4. One-dimensional heat flow.
Of these statements:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
(b) 1, 2 and 4 are correct
(c) 2, 3 and 4 are correct
(d) 1, 3 and 4 are correct
[IES-1998]
IES-3.
IES-4.
IES-6.
IES-7.
Match List-I and List-II and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the lists:
[IES-2001]
2013
Page 9 of 216
[IES-2006]
S K Mondals
Chapter 1
List-I
List-II
A. Schmidt number
1.
k
( C p D )
B. Thermal diffusivity
2.
hm L
D
C. Lewis number
3.
D. Sherwood number
4.
k
C p
Codes:
(a)
(c)
A
4
3
B
3
4
C
2
2
D
1
1
(b)
(d)
A
4
3
B
3
4
C
1
1
D
2
2
IES-8.
Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the lists:
[IES-1996]
List-I
List-II
A. Momentum transfer
1. Thermal diffusivity
B. Mass transfer
2. Kinematic viscosity
C. Heat transfer
3. Diffusion coefficient
Codes:
A
B
C
A
B
C
(a)
2
3
1
(b)
1
3
2
(c)
3
2
1
(d)
1
2
3
IES-9.
IES-10.
IES-11.
2013
Page 10 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 1
[IES-1998]
D
4
3
[IES-1992]
1.
2.
3.
4.
List-II
1063C
630.5C
444C
182.97C
A
B
4
3
4
3
C
1
2
D
2
1
IES-13.
Assertion (A): The leakage heat transfer from the outside surface of a
steel pipe carrying hot gases is reduced to a greater extent on
providing refractory brick lining on the inside of the pipe as compared
to that with brick lining on the outside.
[IES-2000]
Reason (R): The refractory brick lining on the inside of the pipe offers
a higher thermal resistance.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
IES-14.
2013
Page 11 of 216
S K Mondals
IES-15.
Chapter 1
(b) MLT
1
[IES-2009]
(c) ML T
1
(d) ML T 2
1
IES-16.
IES-17.
IES-18.
2013
Page 12 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 1
dT
dx
or dT
1
k
Which one has minimum thermal conductivity that will give maximum
temperature drop.
GATE-2. Ans. (d) Heat entry = Heat exit
dT
dT
( 2 B ) = (1 B )
dx
dy
GATE-3. Ans. (a) Heat loss by hot body = Heat gain by cold body
mh c ph (th tf ) = mc c pc (tf tc )
or tf = 13.5C
=
x =1
dT
60
= 0.5 1
W = 120 W
dx
0.25
T
= 10 + 40x + 30x 2
x
1 T
2T
= 40 + 60x
x 2
1
T
40 + 60 (1) =
3
2 10
k
;
cp
k
cp
2013
Page 13 of 216
dt
dx
S K Mondals
Chapter 1
dt
dt
or 0.7 A
or x = 0.1 m
= 0.14 A
[ dt = constant]
IES-11. Ans. (a) Temperature slope is higher for low conducting and lower for high
conducting fluid. Thus A is for 1, B for 2. Temperature profile in C is for
insulator. Temperature rise is possible only for heater and as such D is for
guard heater.
IES-12. Ans. (d)
IES-13. Ans. (a)
IES-14. Ans. (a) It reduces the cooling systems size.
IES-15. Ans. (c) Q = KA
( ) ((L))
dT
; ML2T 3 = K L2
dx
ML2T 3 = K ( L )( )
K =
ML2T 3
= MLT 3 1
L
2013
Page 14 of 216
S K Mondals
2.
Chapter 2
dE
dt
= Q in W out
system
The sign convention on work is such that negative work out is positive work in:
dE
dt
= Q in + W out
system
The work in term could describe an electric current flow across the system boundary and
through a resistance inside the system. Alternatively it could describe a shaft turning
across the system boundary and overcoming friction within the system. The net effect in
either case would cause the internal energy of the system to rise. In heat transfer we
generalize all such terms as heat sources.
dE
dt
= Q in + Q gen
system
The energy of the system will in general include internal energy, (U), potential energy,
( 1 mgz ), or kinetic energy, ( m v2 ). In case of heat transfer problems, the latter two
2
terms could often be neglected. In this case,
E = U = m u = m c p (T Tref ) = V c p (T Tref )
Where Tref is the reference temperature at which the energy of the system is defined as
zero. When we differentiate the above expression with respect to time, the reference
temperature, being constant disappears:
cp V
dT
dt
= Q in + Q gen
system
Consider the differential control element shown below. Heat is assumed to flow through
the element in the positive directions as shown by the 6-heat vectors.
2013
Page 15 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
T
T
T
T
= -k ( y z )
+
c p ( x y z )
- -k ( y z )
-k ( y z )
t system
x
x x
x
T
T
T
+ k ( x z )
k ( x z )
+ k ( x z )
y
y y
y
T
T
T
+ k ( x y )
+ k ( x y )
+ k ( x y )
z
z
z
+ q g ( x y z )
i
T
+ k ( x z )
y
y
y
T
+ k ( x y )
z
z
Dividing by the volume ( x y z ) ,
dT
cp
dt
2013
T
= - -k
x
x
system
z + q g ( x y z )
-k
y
y
Page 16 of 216
-k
z
z
i
+ qg
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
Which is the general conduction equation in three dimensions. In the case where k is
independent of x, y and z then
i
c p dT
k
dt
system
2T 2T 2T q
= 2 + 2 + 2 + g
k
x
y
z
k
cp
Then
1 dT
dt
system
2T 2T 2T q
= 2 + 2 + 2 + g
k
x
y
z
or,
1 dT
dt
= 2T +
system
qg
k
The vector form of this equation is quite compact and is the most general form. However,
we often find it convenient to expand the del-squared term in specific coordinate systems:
x x x y z z
i.e. . ( kT ) + q g = c
Fouriers equation:
2T 2T 2T 1 T
+
+
=
x 2 y2 z 2
1 T
or, 2T = .
heat
Poissons equation:
i
2T 2T 2T qg
+
+
+
=0
k
x 2 y 2 z 2
or
State: Steady.
i
2T +
2013
qg
k
=0
Page 17 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
or
State: Steady.
2T = 0
T 1 T 1 T T
1 T
+ 2
+ 2+
=
2 +
2
r r r
z k
r
2
qg
2T 1 T
+
=0
r 2 r r
i .e.
d
dr
dT
r dr = 0
.
+ 2
r sin
T
1
2T qg 1 T
+
+
= .
sin
.
r 2 sin2 2
k
2 dT
r dr = 0
Steady State: steady state solution implies that the system condition is not
changing with time. Thus T / = 0.
One dimensional: If heat is flowing in only one coordinate direction, then it
follows
That there is no temperature gradient in the other two directions. Thus the two
partials associated with these directions are equal to zero.
Two dimensional: If heat is flowing in only two coordinate directions, then it
follows
That there is no temperature gradient in the third direction. Thus the partial
derivative associated with this third direction is equal to zero.
2013
Page 18 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
i
No Sources: If there are no heat sources within the system then the term, q g = 0.
dt
Every time Q = kA
dx
volume is q g W/m
).
(E
in
qx qx +x + Ax ( x ) qg =
qx = kAx
T
x
qx +x = qx +
kAx
2013
E
t
qx
x
x
i
T
T
T
T
+ kAx
+ Ax
x + Ax x q g = Ax c x
k
x
x
x x
t
Page 19 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
2T q g c T 1 T
+
=
=
x 2 k
k t t
(When k is constant)
d dT
k
dx dx
=0
With constant k, the above equation may be integrated twice to obtain the general
solution:
The differential equation governing heat diffusion is:
T ( x ) = C1 x + C2
Where C1 and C2 are constants of integration. To obtain the constants of integration, we
apply the boundary conditions at x = 0 and x = L, in which case
T ( 0 ) = Ts ,1 And T ( L ) = Ts,2
Once the constants of integration are substituted into the general equation, the
temperature distribution is obtained:
X
T ( x ) = (Ts,2 Ts,1 ) + Ts,1
L
The heat flow rate across the wall is given by:
q x = kA
Ts,1 Ts,2
dT kA
=
T
T
=
( s,1 s,2 ) L / kA
dx
L
2013
Page 20 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
T = qRth
A thermal resistance may also be associated with heat transfer by convection at a surface.
From Newtons law of cooling,
q = hA (T2 T )
The thermal resistance for convection is then
Rt ,conv. =
Ts T
1
=
q
hA
Applying thermal resistance concept to the plane wall, the equivalent thermal circuit for
the plane wall with convection boundary conditions is shown in the figure below:
The heat transfer rate may be determined from separate consideration of each element in
the network. Since qx is constant throughout the network, it follows that
2013
Page 21 of 216
S K Mondals
qx =
Chapter 2
T ,1 Ts ,1
1 / h1 A
Ts ,1 Ts ,2
L / kA
Ts ,2 T ,2
1 / h2 A
In terms of the overall temperature difference T ,1 T ,2 , and the total thermal resistance
Rtot , The heat transfer rate may also be expressed as
qx =
T ,1 T ,2
Rtot
Rtot = Rt =
1
L
1
+
+
h1 A kA h2 A
T1 T2
x
L
T T1 x
=
T2 T1 L
T1 T2
T T
= 1 2
( L / kA ) ( Rth )cond .
k = ko (1 + T )
dT
and integrate for t and Q both
dx
T T2
Q = km A 1
L
Use
Q = kA
1
2Qx
and T = + T1 +
ko A
(T + T2 ) = k 1 + T
Where k m = k0 1 + 1
o (
m)
2
2
+k0
f (T )dt
(T2 T1 ) T1
If k = k0 f(t) Then, km =
2013
Page 22 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
The steady state heat flow rate through the walls is given by:
qx =
T ,1 T ,2
Where U =
1
Rtot A
T ,1 T ,2
= UAT
LA
LB
1
1
+
+
+
h1 A k A A k B A h2 A
as
U=
1
1 LA LB LC 1
+
+
+
+
h1 k A k B kC h2
Series-parallel arrangement:
2013
Page 23 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
The following assumptions are made with regard to the above thermal resistance model:
1)
Face between B and C is insulated.
2)
Uniform temperature at any face normal to X.
qx =
T ,1 T ,2
2013
T ,1 T ,2
= UA T
LC
LA
LB
1
1
+
+
+
+
h1 A k A A k B A kC A h2 A
Page 24 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
U=
1
R
total
1
1
1
L
+ +
h1
k h2
1
L
L
L
1
1
+ A + B + C +
h 1 k A k B kC h 2
2013
Page 25 of 216
S K Mondals
Uniform
conductivity
For temperature distribution,
dt
r . dr = 0
In ( r / r1 )
t t1
=
t 2 t1 In ( r2 / r1 )
Chapter 2
Variable thermal conductivity,
k = ko (1+t)
Use Q = k A
d
dr
Q =
= ko (1 + t ) 2 rL
use Q = k ( 2 rL )
For Q,
dt
dr
dt
dr
t1 t 2
In ( r2 / r1 )
2 kL
dt
dr
2 k0 L 1 + (t1 + t 2 ) (t1 t 2 )
t t
2
then Q =
= 1 2
In
ln ( r2 / r1 )
( r2 / r1 )
2 km L
and
In ( r / r1 )
1
2
2
2
t = (1 + t1 )
(1 + t1 ) (1 + t2 )
In ( r2 / r1 )
1
Q In ( r / r1 )
.
= + t1 +
k0
L
1
2
1
2
Invariably it is considered conferment to have an expression for the heat flow through a
hollow cylinder of the same form as that for a plane wall. Then thickness will be equal to
( r2 r1 )
and the area A will be an equivalent area Am shown in the Now, expressions for
heat flow through the hollow cylinder and plane wall will be as follows.
Q=
( t1 t2 )
ln ( r2 / r1 )
2 kL
2013
Page 26 of 216
S K Mondals
Q=
Chapter 2
( t1 t2 )
( r2 r1 )
k Am
Am is so chosen that heat flow through cylinder and plane wall be equal for the same
thermal potential.
( t1 t2 )
ln ( r2 / r1 )
2 k L
ln ( r2 / r1 )
or.
or
or
2 kL
Am =
2 L ( r2 r1 )
ln ( r2 / r1 )
Am =
( t1 t2 )
( r2 r1 )
k Am
( r2 r1 )
kAm
2 Lr2 2 Lr1
ln ( 2 Lr2 / 2 Lr1 )
A2 A1
A
ln 2
A1
Where A1 and A2 are inside and outside surface areas of the cylinder.
2013
Page 27 of 216
S K Mondals
Q=
Chapter 2
2 L (thf tcf )
1
hhf r1
+
1
ln ( rn+1 / rn )
1
+
kn
hcf rn+1
{
{
+
e2
r
r
(
)
2
1
1
ln
Rth =
2
2 kL
2
( r2 + r1 ) e
} {
} {( r
1
2
}
e }
+ ( r2 r1 ) e 2
1
2
2 r1 )
2013
Page 28 of 216
V2
V2
S K Mondals
Use
Chapter 2
Q = kA
dt
dt
= k c 2 x 2
4
dx
dx
x2
2
dx
2
4Q 2 = kc dt
x1 x
t1
2013
Page 29 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
Uniform Conductivity
d
dr
2 dt
r dr
=0
and
Q=
1 1
r r1
t t1 r2 [ r r1 ]
=
=
t 2 t1 r r r1 1 1
2
r2 r1
For Q, Use Q = KA
Q =
t1 t 2
r2 r1
4 kr1r2
t1 t 2
,
r2 r1
4 km r1r2
+ k0 2
f ( t ) dt
Km =
t 2 t1 t1
dt
dt
= k 4 r 2
dr
dr
Rth
r2 r1
4 kr1r2
2013
dt
) dr
For sphere
For cylinder
Page 30 of 216
S K Mondals
Q=
t1 t 2
L
kA
Chapter 2
t1 t 2
t t
1 2
r2 r1
In ( r2 / r1 )
kAm
2 kL
A2 A1
Am =
ln ( A2 / A1 )
Q=
Q=
r2 r1
rm =
ln ( r2 / r1 )
t1 t 2
t t
= 1 2
r2 r1
r2 r1
kAm
4 kr1r2
A m = A 2 A1
rm = r2r1
4 ( t hf tcf )
n
rn +1 rn
1
1
+
+
hhf r12
hcf r 2n +1
1 k n rn rn +1
2013
T1 T2
L
kA
Composite slab, Q =
Page 31 of 216
Tg Ta
L
1
1
+
+
h0 A hi A
kA
He
at
Co
nd
iti
on
S K Mondals
b) Cylinder, Q =
2 L (T1 T2 )
r2
ln
r1
Chapter 2
Composite cylinder, Q =
1
1
+
hi r1 h0 rn +1
Am =
c) Sphere, Q =
4 (T1 T2 )
r2 r1
kr2r1
2 L (Tg Ta )
Composite sphere, Q =
Page 32 of 216
A2 A1
A
ln 2
A1
4 (Tg Ta )
r r
1
1
+
+ n +1 n
2
2
kn rn +1rn
hi r1
h0 r n +1
Am = A1 A2
2013
r
ln n +1
r
+ n
kn
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
T
(a)
x
T
(b)
x
2T
(c)
xt
2T
(d) 2
x
2T q 1 T
+ =
r 2 k t
(d)
2
q 1 T
+ ( rT ) + =
2
k t
r
2013
(b) 20C
Page 33 of 216
(c) 30C
[GATE-2008]
(d) 40C
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
k1 = 20 W/mK; k2 = 50 W/mK; L1
= 0.30 m and L2 = 0.15 m.
Assuming negligible contact
resistance between the wall
surfaces,
the
interface
temperature, T (in C), of the
two walls will be:
(a) 0.50
(b) 2.75
[GATE-2009]
(c) 3.75
(b) k1 = k2
(d) 4.50
[GATE-2006]
(d) k1 = 2k2
GATE-7. Heat
flows
through
a
composite slab, as shown
below. The depth of the slab
is 1 m. The k values are in
W/mK. the overall thermal
resistance in K/W is:
(a) 17.
(c) 28.6
(b) 21.9
(d) 39.2
[GATE-2005]
2013
Page 34 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
(a) K1 > K 2
(b) K1 = K 2
(c) K1 = 0
(d) K1 < K 2
[GATE-1998]
A wall of thickness 0.6 m has width has a normal area 1.5 m2 and is
made up of material of thermal conductivity 0.4 W/mK. The
temperatures on the two sides are 800C. What is the thermal
resistance of the wall?
[IES-2006; 2007]
(a) 1 W/K
(b) 1.8 W/K
(c) 1 K/W
(d) 1.8 K/W
IES-2.
Two walls of same thickness and cross sectional area have thermal
conductivities in the ratio 1 : 2. If same temperature difference is
maintained across the two faces of both the walls, what is the ratio of
heat flow Q1/Q2?
[IES-2008]
(a)
(b) 1
(c) 2
(d) 4
2013
Page 35 of 216
S K Mondals
IES-3.
Chapter 2
IES-4.
A wall as shown above is made up of two layers (A) and (B). The
temperatures are also shown in the sketch. The ratio of thermal
k
[IES-2008]
conductivity of two layers is A = 2.
kB
What is the ratio of thickness of two layers?
(a) 0105
(b) 0213
(c) 0555
(d) 0840
IES-5.
IES-6.
A 0.5 m thick plane wall has its two surfaces kept at 300C and 200C.
Thermal conductivity of the wall varies linearly with temperature and
its values at 300C and 200C are 25 W/mK and 15W/mK respectively.
Then the steady heat flux through the wall is:
[IES-2002]
2
2
2
(a) 8 kW/m
(b) 5 kW/m
(c) 4kW/m
(d) 3 kW/m2
IES-7.
IES-8.
2013
Page 36 of 216
S K Mondals
IES-9.
IES-10.
Chapter 2
(b) ko (1 T )
(c) 1 + T
[IES-1997]
(d) 1 T
A composite wall having three layers of thickness 0.3 m, 0.2 m and 0.1 m
and of thermal conductivities 0.6, 0.4 and 0.1 W/mK, respectively, is
having surface area 1 m2. If the inner and outer temperatures of the
composite wall are 1840 K and 340 K, respectively, what is the rate of
heat transfer?
[IES-2007]
(a) 150 W
(b) 1500 W
(c) 75 W
(d) 750 W
IES-12.
IES-13.
What is the heat lost per hour across a wall 4 m high, 10 m long and 115
mm thick, if the inside wall temperature is 30C and outside ambient
temperature is 10C? Conductivity of brick wall is 1.15 W/mK, heat
transfer coefficient for inside wall is 2.5 W/m2K and that for outside
wall is 4 W/m2K.
[IES-2009]
(a) 3635 kJ
(b) 3750 kJ
(e) 3840 kJ
(d) 3920 kJ
IES-14.
IES-15.
2013
Page 37 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
100C and 200C respectively. The heat transfer takes place only by
conduction and the required surface temperature at the junction is
150C
[IES-2004]
What will be the ratio of their thicknesses, 1: 2?
(a) 1 : 1
(b) 2 : 1
(c) 1: 2
(d) 2 : 3
IES-16.
IES-17.
IES-18.
IES-19.
2 K1 K 2
K1 + K 2
(d)
K1 K 2
K1
K2
L1 = L2
[IES-2010]
A composite slab has two layers of different materials having internal
conductivities k1 and k2. If each layer has the same thickness, then
what is the equivalent thermal conductivity of the slab?
[IES-2009]
k1k2
k1k2
2k1
2k1k2
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
( k1 + k2 )
( k1 + k2 )
( k1 + k2 )
2( k1 + k2 )
A furnace wall is constructed
as shown in the figure. The
interface temperature Ti will
be:
(a) 560C
(b) 200C
(c) 920C
(d) 1120C
[IES-1998]
IES-21.
2013
Page 38 of 216
S K Mondals
IES-22.
Chapter 2
[IES-1999]
(c) 45C
(d) 55C
IES-24.
n =1 K n
n =1 K n rn rn +1
rn
T Tn +1
T T2
(c) Q = 1
(d) Q = 1
r
1 n =n Ln
log e 2
A n =1 K n
r1
2 KL
2013
Page 39 of 216
S K Mondals
IES-27.
IES-28.
Chapter 2
(r2 r1 )r1r2
(b)
4k
4k (r2 r1 )
r1 r2
(c)
r2 r1
4kr1 r2
A solid sphere and a hollow sphere of the same material and size are
heated to the same temperature and allowed to cool in the same
surroundings. If the temperature difference between the body and that
of the surroundings is T, then
[IES-1992]
(a) Both spheres will cool at the same rate for small values of T
(b) Both spheres will cool at the same reactor small values of T
(c) The hollow sphere will cool at a faster rate for all the values of T
(d) The solid sphere will cool a faster rate for all the values of T
What will be the geometric radius of heat transfer for a hollow sphere
of inner and outer radii r1 and r2?
[IES-2004]
(a)
(b) r2 r1
r1r2
(c) r2 / r1
(d) ( r2 r1 )
IES-31.
d 2T 2 dT
+
=0
dr 2 r dr
2T 1 T
B.
=
x 2 t
d 2T 1 dT
C.
+
=0
dr 2 r dr
A.
D.
2. 1D conduction in cylinder
3. 1D conduction in sphere
d 2
m 2 = 0
dx 2
Codes:
(a)
(c)
2013
A
2
2
4. Plane slab
B
4
1
C
3
3
D
1
4
Page 40 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
2013
Page 41 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
or 250 =
20 T
1 0.30
+
20
20
or T = 3.75C
T1 + T2
2
T1 + T2
T1 + T2
T1 2
2 T2
= k
Req =
L1
+
K1 A1
1
1
1
+
L2
L3
K 2 A2 K 3 A3
GATE-8. Ans. (d) Lower the thermal conductivity greater will be the slope of the
temperature distribution curve (The curve shown here is temperature
distribution curve).
2 L (ti tf )
r
r
ln 2 ln 3
r1 + r2
KA
KB
2 1 ( 600 )
0.025
0.055
ln
ln
0.01 + 0.025
19
0.2
2013
Page 42 of 216
= 944.72 W/m
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
L
0.6
=
=1 K
W
KA
0.4 1.5
dT
dx
dT
K2 A
dx
K1 A ( T1 ) K 2 A ( T2 )
=
IES-3. Ans. (a)
dx
dx
Q
IES-2. Ans. (a) 1 =
Q2
K1 ( T1 ) = K 2 ( T2 )
K1 A
kA (1325 1200 )
xA
kB (1200 25 )
dT
dx
or k =
T1
K
2
= 2 =
T2
K1
3
xB
xA
2 125
=
= 0.2127
1175
xB
0.213
q
30
=
= 0.3 W/mK
dT 10
dx 0.1
25 + 15
= 20
2
dT
IES-7. Ans. (b) Q = kA
dx
6000
10 dT
or
= 100
10 60
10000 1
IES-6. Ans. (c) K average =
or dT = 100C
Q
dT
= K
A
dx
100
T
(
2)
T2 = 50C
25 103 = 50
( 0.1)
dT
dx
d 2T 1 dT
=
relation.
dx 2 d
2013
Page 43 of 216
dT
= 6x + 3K/cm2
dx
0.1
0.1 1
= 750 W
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
T1 : T2 : T3 =
Q Q Q
1 1 1
:
:
= : : = 4 : 2 :1
K1 K 2 K 3 1 2 4
(T1 T2 )
1
1
x
+
+
h1 A K1 A h2 A
(30 10 )
1 0.115
1
1
+
+
40 1.15 2.5 4
40 20
3840.000
kJ/hour = 3840 kJ/hour
=
= 1066.66 kJ/sec =
1000
( 0.1 + 0.4 + 0.25 )
Q 120 40
1
800
, or 800 , and h =
=
= 10 W/m2 K
A
h
1/h
80
1
2
1
50
1
or
=
=
2 2 50 2
IES-16. Ans. (d) The common mistake student do is they take length of equivalent
conductor as L but it must be 2L. Then equate the thermal resistance of them.
1
1 1
1
=
+
K eq 2 K1 K 2
2 K1 K 2
K eq =
K1 + K 2
K1
K2
L1 = L2
IES-18. Ans. (d) Same questions [IES-1997] and [IES-2000]
t1 t2
1000 120
Q
IES-19. Ans. (c) For two insulating layers,
=
=
= 800
0.3 0.3
x
x
A
1
2
+
+
3
0.3
k1
k2
Considering first layer,
2013
Q 1000 Ti
=
= 800, or Ti = 1000 80 = 920C
0.3
A
3
Page 44 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 2
tB to tB 25
=
1/h
1 / 80
1
1
t t1
r
r1
=
IES-26. Ans. (c) Temp distribution would be
1
1
t2 t1
r2
r1
r2 r1
t
4k (t1 t2 )
IES-27. Ans. (c) Resistance (R) =
Q=
=
4k (r1r2 )
R
r2 r1
r1r2
IES-28. Ans. (c)
IES-29. Ans. (a)
IES-30. Ans. (d) ri = 0.8 ro and r = ri + t = r2 t
2r = ri + ro
r=
ri + ro
2
ri + 1.25ri
= 1.125 ri
2
r
0.8ro + ro
1
r=
= 0.9ro 0 =
r 0.9
2
ti t
t to
Q=
=
r ri
ro r
4 krri 4 ( 2k ) rro
r=
2013
Page 45 of 216
S K Mondals
3.
Chapter 3
[IES-05]
For Cylinder:
For Sphere:
k
rc =
h
2k
rc =
h
Common Error: In the examination hall students often get confused about
2013
Page 46 of 216
k
W / mK
is
=m
h
W / m 2K
h
k
or
k
h
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
For cylinder
Q=
For Qmax
2 L ( t1 tair )
In ( r2 / r1 )
1
+
k
hr2
In ( r2 / r1 )
k
1
hr2
is minimum
d In ( r2 / r1 )
1
+
dr2
k
hr2
1 1 1 1
k
+ 2 = 0 r2 =
h
k r2 h r2
=0
(i)
4 ( t1 tair )
r2 r1
1
+ 2
kr1r2
hr2
r2 r1
1
+ 2 = 0 gives
hr2
kr1r2
2k
r2 =
h
d
dr2
For cylindrical bodied with r1 < rc , the heat transfer increase by adding
insulation till r2 = r1 as shown in Figure below (a). If insulation thickness is
further increased, the rate of heat loss will decrease from this peak value,
but until a certain amount of insulation denoted by r2 ' at b is added, the
heat loss rate is still greater for the solid cylinder. This happens when r1 is
small and rc is large, viz., the thermal conductivity of the insulation k is
high (poor insulation material) and h is low. A practical application
(ii)
2013
Page 47 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
2013
Page 48 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
Unit of
qg
is W/m3 but in some problem we will find that unit is W/m2 . In this case
they assume that the thickness of the material is one metre. If the thickness is L
meter then volumetric heat generation is ( q g ) W/m3 but total heat generation is
d
(Qx ) dx
dx
d
(Qx ) dx
dx
d
q g Adx =
(Qx ) dx
dx
That given
Qg =
d 2t q g
+
=0
(i )
k
dx 2
For any problem integrate this
Equation and use boundary
condition
dt q g
+
x = c1
dx k
( ii )
qg x2
= c1 x + c2 ( iii )
2k
Use boundary condition and find
C1 & C2 than proceed.
or t +
dt
For Qx = kA
dx at x
dt
Q0 = kA
dx x =0,
dt
QL = kA
dx x = L
2013
Page 49 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
For objective :
q g L2
8k
+ t wall
Qg = q g AL = I 2R = I 2
q g =
Where,
L
A
J=
I
= J2
2
A
I
= current density amp./m2
A
(ii )
At
x = L, t = tL
d 2t q g
+
=0
k
dx 2
2013
Page 50 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
tmax =
q g L2
8k
+ tw
+ tw
+ tw
tmax =
q g R2
4k
tmax =
q g R2
6k
d 2t q g
+
=0
k
dx 2
For Plate
d dt q g
+ .r = 0
r
dr dr k
For cylinder
d 2 dt q g 2
+ .r = 0
r
dr dr k
For Sphere
r 2
t tw
= 1
tmax tw R
(b)
(i ) For plane,
(ii ) For cylinder ,
2013
t t1
x
=
t2 t1 L
ln ( r / r1 )
t t1
=
t2 t1 ln ( r2 / r1 )
1 1
t t1
r r1
=
t2 t1 1 1
r2 r1
Page 51 of 216
L
2
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
Dielectric Heating
Dielectric heating is a method of
quickly
heating
insulating
Dielectric heating
d 2 q g
+
=0
k
dx 2
q x2
+ g . = c1 x + c2
k 2
d
kA
= h1 A (tw1 ta )
dx x =0
h q x2
= 1 + 1 1 g .
k
k 2
q L2
h
2 = 1 + 1 1 g . ... ( i ) at x = L, = 2
k
k 2
2013
Page 52 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
2013
Page 53 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
dt
Qr = k 2 rb , Qg = q g 2 rdr
dr
d
Qg =
(Qr ) dr
dr
d dt q g
that gives,
.r = 0
+
r
dr dr kb
d dt q g
+
then use ,
.r = 0
r
dr dr
k
Where, qg = Heat generation rate at radius r.
qo = Heat generation rate at the centre
of the rod (r = 0). And
Rfr = Outer radius of the fuel rod.
Nuclear Cylinder Fuel Rod with Cladding i.e. Rod covered with protective materials
known as Cladding.
2013
Page 54 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
IES-2.
2013
Page 55 of 216
[IES-1993; 2005]
[IES-2010]
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
IES-4.
IES-5.
IES-6.
IES-7.
IES-8.
IES-9.
2013
Page 56 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
W/m2K
(c) k/h
(d)
2 kh
IES-10.
IES-11.
IES-13.
IES-14.
2013
Page 57 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
(a)
( D 2 / 4)C p (Tmp Ti )
I 2R
(b)
(Tmp Ti )
I 2R
(c )
(Tmp Ti )
I2
(d )
C p (Tmp Ti )
I 2R
(a) Ts = T +
IES-17.
q* L
h
(b) Ts = T +
q* L2
2k
(c) Ts = T +
q* L2
h
(d) Ts = T +
q* L3
2k
IES-18.
2013
Page 58 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
2013
Page 59 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
k 1
= = 0.2 m = 20 cm
h 5
Critical thickness of insulation ( r )C = rc r1 = 20 0.5 = 19.5 cm
K 0.1
=
= 0.02 m = 2 cm
h
5
Critical thickness of insulation (t ) = rc r1 = 2 1 = 1 cm
2013
Page 60 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 3
2k
and for cylinder is k/h
h
2013
Page 61 of 216
S K Mondals
4.
Chapter 4
One can.
Increase the temperature difference ( Ts T ) between the surface and the fluid.
Increase the convection coefficient h. This can be accomplished by increasing the fluid
flow over the surface since h is a function of the flow velocity and the higher the
velocity,
The higher the h. Example: a cooling fan.
Increase the contact surface area A. Example: a heat sink with fins.
( x ) = C1emx + C2e mx
2013
Page 62 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 4
To evaluate the two constants C1 and C2, we need to specify two boundary conditions:
The first one is obvious: the base temperature is known as T (0) = Tb
The second condition will depend on the end condition of the tip.
2013
=
=
=
=
=
Page 63 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 4
to =
ta =
k
h
=
=
dT
Qx = kAc
dx
Qx +dx = Qx + Qx dx
x
Qcov = h( P .dx )(t ta )
d 2T
kAc 2 dx h( Pdx )(t ta ) = 0
dx
d 2T hP
(t ta ) = 0
dx 2 kAc
Temperature excess, = t ta
d dt
=
dx dx
d 2
hP
2
m
=
0
or
=
kAc
dx 2
= C1 emx + C2 e mx
0 = C1 + C2
0 = C1 em( ) + C2 e m C1 = 0
2013
Page 64 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 4
Temperature Distribution
= 0 e-mx
or
= e mx
0
Temperature Distribution
(a) By considering the heat flow across the root or base by conduction.
(b) By considering the heat which is transmitted by convection from the surface.
(a) By considering the heat flow across the root or base by conduction
dt
Qfin = kAc
dx at x = 0
t ta
= e mx
t0 ta
t ta = (t0 ta ) e mx
dt
= m(t0 ta ) e mx
dx
x = 0
Qfin = k Ac m(t0 ta ) = k Ac
Qfin =
hP
0
k Ac
hP kAc 0
Qfin = h P dx (t ta ) = h P (t0 ta ) e mx dx
Qfin = h P (t0 ta )
2013
1
=
m
Page 65 of 216
hPkAc o
S K Mondals
Chapter 4
dt
=0
dx
= c1emx + c2 e mx
or t ta = c1emx + c2 e mx = mc1emx mc2 e mx
0 = c1eml c2 e ml
cos h {m(l x )}
=
0
cos h(ml )
dt
Qfin = kAc
dx x =0
Qfin = kAc m(t0 ta ) tan h (ml )
Qfin = hPkAc 0 tan h(ml )
h
sin h {m(l x )}
km
h
cos h(ml ) +
sin h(ml )
km
h
tan h(ml ) + km
hPkAc 0
1 + h tan h(ml )
km
t ta
=
=
0 t0 ta
Qfin =
dt
h
=
at x = l
dx
k
cos h m(l x ) +
2013
Page 66 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 4
Temperature Distribution for Fins Different Configurations
Case
Tip Condition
Temp. Distribution
h
Convection heat coshm(L - x)+
sinhm ( L - x )
mk
transfer:
h
coshmL+
h(L)=-k(d/dx)x=L
sinhmL
mk
M
h
coshmL+
sinhmL
mk
Adiabatic
(d / dx )x = L = 0
cosh m( L x )
cosh mL
M tanh mL
Given
temperature:
(L) = L
L
sinh m ( L - x ) + sinh m ( L - x )
b
sinh mL
L
cosh mL
b
M
sinh mL
e mx
= T T , m2 =
hP
kAc
b = (0) = Tb T , M = hPkAc b
Correction Length
The correction length can be determined by using the formula:
Lc = L+ ( Ac /P), where Ac is the cross-sectional area and P is the
q
d 2
m2 + g = 0
2
k
dx
= C1 cos h ( mx ) + C2 sin h ( mx ) +
Then use boundary condition.
2013
Page 67 of 216
qg
km2
S K Mondals
Chapter 4
QX = ( Ai ki + Ao ko )
d
dx
Qo = hPdx .
( x )dx = Qc
x
d 2
hP
2
dx
ki Ai + ko Ao
m=
. = 0
hP
ki Ai + ko Ao
i)
2013
1
m
Page 68 of 216
S K Mondals
tan h ( m
iii )
m
kP
h Ac
iv )
kP
tan h ( m
h Ac
ii )
Chapter 4
Effectiveness, (fin)
fin =
Q with fin
Qwithout fin
If the ratio
(1)
2013
kP
=
h Ac
hPkAc (t0 ta )
h Ac (t0 ta )
P
is fin
Ac
Due to this reason, thin and closely spaced fins are preferred, but boundary
layer is the limitation.
Page 69 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 4
fin = fin
Biot Number
Bi =
Internal resistance of fin material
k
h
k
Note: where, = 2
1
External resistance of fluid on the fin surface
h
then > 1 in this condition only use fin.
If Bi <1
then = 1 No improvement with fin.
If Bi =1
then < 1 Fin reduced heat transfer.
If Bi >1
(i) Boiling.
(ii) Condensation.
(iii) High velocity fluid.
The fin of a finite length also loss heat by tip by convection. We may use for
that fin the formula of insulated tip if
Corrected length,
=
+
l
l
c
2
l 0.7095
=
y
Bi
(i)
(ii)
2013
Page 70 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 4
Conclusion: It is preferred to use thin and closely spaced (to increase the total
number) fins.
qf
q
(Tb T ) / Rt f
hA c (Tb T ) (Tb T ) / Rt h
qf
Rt h
Rt f
It is a ratio of the thermal resistance due to convection to the thermal resistance of a fin.
In order to enhance heat transfer, the fin's resistance should be lower than that of the
resistance due only to convection.
2013
tl tf
to tf
1.
Thermometric error =
2.
Page 71 of 216
(t
tf
S K Mondals
Chapter 4
x cos h{m( x )}
=
o
cos h (m )
1 t tf
1
=
=
= Thermometric error
o to tf cos h(m )
At x =
m=
( ii )
h di
hP
=
=
kA c
k di
If ( a ) di & given or
or ( c ) di & given
(b)
h
k
where
A=
(do 2 di 2 )
4
(ii)
= 2
(iii)
(iv)
= h P dx = hPkAc (1 + 2 )
cos h (m ) 1
2013
sin h (m )
sin h (m )
Page 72 of 216
S K Mondals
(v)
Chapter 4
d
=0
dx
Q1 = kA
2013
d
dx
x =0
and Q2 = kA
d
dx
Q = Q1 Q2
Page 73 of 216
x =l
S K Mondals
Chapter 4
IES-2.
2013
Page 74 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 4
IES-5.
(a)
tan hmL
( hA / kP )
0.5
tan hmL
(b)
mL
mL
(c)
tan hmL
[IES-2001]
(d)
( hA / kP )
0.5
tan hmL
IES-6.
dx x =l
t t
t t
(a) Zero
(b) 1 a
(c) h (to tl )
(d) o l
to ta
l
IES-7.
IES-9.
Usually fins are provided to increase the rate of heat transfer. But fins
also act as insulation. Which one of the following non-dimensional
numbers decides this factor?
[IES-2007]
(a) Eckert number
(b) Biot number
(c) Fourier number
(d) Peclet number
IES-10.
IES-11.
2013
Page 75 of 216
S K Mondals
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Chapter 4
IES-12.
IES-13.
IES-14.
IES-15.
IES-16.
IES-17.
2013
Page 76 of 216
[IES-2010]
S K Mondals
Chapter 4
IES-18.
Extended surfaces are used to increase the rate of heat transfer. When
the convective heat transfer coefficient h = mk, the addition of
extended surface will:
[IES-2010]
(a) Increase the rate of heat transfer
(b) Decrease the rate of heat transfer
(c) Not increase the rate of heat transfer
(d) Increase the rate of heat transfer when the length of the fin is very large
IES-19.
IES-20.
500
L/2
470
(c)
L/2
(a)
2013
(b)
500
L/2
(d) Zero
Page 77 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 4
hp
; P = 2 rl, A = d 2
KA
4
Substituting we are getting
Q = 5 watt
GATE-2. Ans. False
m=
= 3.4 W
=
kA x / kA
0.17 1
1 / 0.17 2
l
dT
IES-7. Ans. (a) hA(Tat tip Ta) = KA
= Negligibly small.
dx x =l
2013
Page 78 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 4
dT
Therefore, the temperature gradient
at the tip will be negligibly small
dx x =l
i.e. zero.
IES-8. Ans. (a) The effectiveness of a fin can also be characterized as
q
qf
(T T ) / Rt ,f = Rt ,h
= b
f = f =
q
hAC (Tb T ) (Tb T ) / Rt ,h
Rt , f
It is a ratio of the thermal resistance due to convection to the thermal resistance
of a fin. In order to enhance heat transfer, the fin's resistance should be lower
than that of the resistance due only to convection.
IES-9. Ans. (b)
IES-10. Ans. (c)
IES-11. Ans. (b)
IES-12. Ans. (b) Effectiveness (fin)
fin =
Q with fin
Qwithout fin
If the ratio
kP
=
h Acs
hPkAcs (t0 ta )
h Acs ( t0 ta )
P
is fin
Acs
qfin =
KP
hAC
KP = 0.75 20 1
hPKAC 0
= 20 1 20 1 0.75 20
20 0.75 20 = 300 W
Qfin
300
=
=
= 400 W
75
Qwithout fin
If < 1; fins behave like insulator.
IES-15. Ans. (d)
IES-16. Ans. (c)
IES-17. Ans. (a)
IES-18. Ans. (c)
IES-19. Ans. (c) Addition of fin to the surface increases the heat transfer if
IES-20. Ans. (d)
2013
Page 79 of 216
hA / KP <<1.
S K Mondals
5.
Chapter 5
Bi =
LC
hLC LC / kA
Internal conduction resistance within solid
=
=
k
1 / hA
External convection resistance at body surface
Many heat transfer problems require the understanding of the complete time history of the
temperature variation. For example, in metallurgy, the heat treating process can be
controlled to directly affect the characteristics of the processed materials. Annealing (slow
cool) can soften metals and improve ductility. On the other hand, quenching (rapid cool)
can harden the strain boundary and increase strength. In order to characterize this
transient behavior, the full unsteady equation is needed:
c
Where
T
1 T
= k2T , or
= 2T
t
t
2013
k
c
Page 80 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 5
Question: How good an approximation would it be to say the bar is more or less
isothermal?
Answer:
L
= internal resistance of body.
kA
L
1
Now,
kA
hA
If k is very high the process in which the internal resistance or is assumed
negligible in comparison with its surface resistance is called the Newtonian
heating or cooling process.
2013
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S K Mondals
Chapter 5
dt
= h As (t ta )
d
hAs
dt
+ c1
=
Vc
t ta
Q = Vc
At = 0, t = ti
c1 = n (ti ta )
=e
1
h As
Vc
hAs
hV As2 k
hL
=
= c 2 = Bi F0
2
Vc
kAs V c
k Lc
where, Bi = Biot number & F0 = Fourier number
Where,
=
V =
c =
h =
t =
As =
t =
Now,
= e B F
i
i
Qi = Vc
hA s Bi Fo
dt
= Vc (ti ta )
= hA s (ti ta ) e Bi Fo
e
d
Vc
Qtotal = Qi d = Vc (ti ta ) e Bi Fo 1
0
Algorithm
Step-I:
Characteristic Length,
Step-II:
Biot Number
Lc =
V
As
hLc
k
k
C p
2013
Lc 2
Page 82 of 216
S K Mondals
Step-V:
Chapter 5
t ta
= e Bi Fo
ti ta
B F
Step-VI: Qtotal = Vc ( ti ta ) e i o 1
For a plane wall with symmetrical convection conditions and constant properties,
the heat equation and initial boundary conditions are:
T = T ( x, t, Ti , T , h, k, )
How may the functional dependence be simplified?
The answer is Non-dimensionalisation. We first need to understand the physics
behind the phenomenon, identify parameters governing the process, and group them
into meaningful non-dimensional numbers.
Non-dimensionalisation of Heat Equation and Initial/Boundary Conditions:
Dimensionless coordinate: x =
Dimensionless time: t =
The Biot Number: Bi =
2013
t
L2
T T
=
i Ti T
x
L
F0
hL
k solid
Page 83 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 5
The solution for temperature will now be a function of the other non-dimensional
quantities
= f ( x, Fo, Bi)
Exact Solution:
= Cn exp(- n2 F0 )cos( n x )
n 1
Cn =
4sin n
2 n + sin(2 n )
n tan n = Bi
0 =
T T
C1exp(- 12 Fo)
Ti T
= 0 = cos( 1 x i )
Change in thermal energy storage with time:
Est = Q
sin 1
Q = Q0 1
0
1
Q0 = cV (Ti T )
Can the foregoing results be used for a plane wall that is well insulated on one side and
convectively heated or cooled on the other? Can the foregoing results be used if an
isothermal condition (Ts Ti ) is instantaneously imposed on both surfaces of a plane wall
or on one surface of a wall whose other surface is well insulated?
2013
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S K Mondals
Chapter 5
Temperature Distribution
2013
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S K Mondals
Chapter 5
l.
Limitations:
l.
2. No heat generation (Q = 0)
3. Relatively long after initial times (Fo > 0.2)
Radial Systems
Bi = hr0 / k
F0 = t / r02
Important tips: Pay attention to the length scale used in those charts, and calculate your
2013
Page 86 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 5
IES-2.
2013
The ratio
Page 87 of 216
[IES-1992]
S K Mondals
(c) Stanton number
Chapter 5
(b) Prandtl number
IES-3.
IES-4.
IES-5.
A solid copper ball of mass 500 grams, when quenched in a water bath
at 30C, cools from 530C to 430C in 10 seconds. What will be the
temperature of the ball after the next 10 seconds?
[IES-1997]
(a) 300C
(b) 320C
(c) 350C
(d) Not determinable for want of sufficient data
2013
Heisler charts are used to determine transient heat flow rate and
temperature distribution when:
[IES-2005]
(a) Solids possess infinitely large thermal conductivity
(b) Internal conduction resistance is small and convective resistance is large
(c) Internal conduction resistance is large and the convective resistance is small
(d) Both conduction and convention resistance are almost of equal significance
Page 88 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 5
2013
Page 89 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 5
4 3
r
V
r 0.005 / 2
3
Charactaristic length ( Lc ) =
=
= =
= 8.3333 104 m
2
3
3
As 4 r
Thermal diffusivity, =
Fourier number (Fo) =
Biot number (Bi) =
k
400
=
= 1.1544 104
c p 9000 385
L2c
= 166
Then,
T Ta
T 300
=
= e B F or
= e 166 5.20810
i Ti Ta
500 300
or ln(T 300) ln 200 = 0.08646
i
or
1
dT
dT
= 0.08646 or
= 0.08646 (500 300 ) = 17.3 K/s
(T 300 ) d
d T 500 K
4 3
r
V 3
r
GATE-3. Ans. (b) Characteristic length (Lc) =
=
= = 0.11767 103 m
2
A 4 r
3
3
hLc 400 0.11767 10
=
= 2.3533 10 3
Biot number (Bi) =
k
20
k
20
=
= 5.882 106 m2 /s
c p 8500 400
L2c
= 425
or Fo .Bi = ln
i
300 30
or 425 2.3533 10 3 = ln
300 298
= e F .B
i
o
2013
or = 4.9 s
Page 90 of 216
S K Mondals
Chapter 5
Q
= e Bi Fo
Qo
hLc h V
= .
k
k As
dt
This is derived to
hAt
C
=
o
hA
t
T T
C V
or
=e p
To T
hA
t
430 30
C V
or
= 0.8 = e p (t = 10 sec)
530 30
After 20 sec (2t ):
hA
(2t )
ChAV t
T 30
C V
=e p
= e p
530 30
T = 350C
IES-6. Ans. (a)
IES-7. Ans. (d)
or
T 30
= (0.8)2 = 0.64
500
2013
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S KMondals
6.
Chapter 6
How do we determine h?
Consider the process of convective cooling, as we pass a cool fluid past a heated wall. This
process is described by Newtons law of Cooling;
q = h A (Ts T )
Near any wall a fluid is subject to the no slip condition; that is, there is a stagnant sub
layer. Since there is no fluid motion in this layer, heat transfer is by conduction in this
region. Above the sub layer is a region where viscous forces retard fluid motion; in this
region some convection may occur, but conduction may well predominate. A careful
analysis of this region allows us to use our conductive analysis in analyzing heat transfer.
This is the basis of our convective theory.
At the wall, the convective heat transfer rate can be expressed as the heat flux.
qconv
= kf
= h (Ts T )
y y = 0
T
y y = 0
(Ts T )
kf
Hence, h =
2013
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S KMondals
Chapter 6
T
But
depends on the whole fluid motion, and both fluid flow and heat transfer
y y = 0
Extremely diverse.
Several parameters involved (fluid properties, geometry, nature of flow, phases
etc).
Systematic approach required.
Classify flows into certain types, based on certain parameters.
Identify parameters governing the flow, and group them into meaningful nondimensional numbers.
Need to understand the physics behind each phenomenon.
Common Classifications
A. Based on geometry:
External flow / Internal flow
B. Based on driving mechanism:Natural convection / forced convection / mixed convection
C. Based on nature of flow:
Laminar / turbulent.
Typical values of h (W/m2k)
Free convection
Forced convection
Gases :
2 25
Liquid :
50 100
Gases :
25 250
Liquid :
50 20,000
Boiling/ Condensation
2013
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2500 100,000
S KMondals
Chapter 6
1. Conservation of mass:
u
u
dU u
+v
=U
+
v
x
y
dx y y
T
T
T
+v
=
3. Conservation of energy: u
x
y
y y
2. Conservation of momentum: u
dU
=0
dx
4.99
Rex
Rex =
1
U 2
2
Rex
Ux
u
, 0 =
V
y
y =0
1
1.328
Cx dx =
L0
ReL
0.664
1
2
Pr 3
( )
1
2
Pr 3
Nux k
k 1 1
= 0.339 Rex2 Pr 3
x
x
1
1
Nux k
k
= 0.678 ReL2 Pr 3
L
L
In Conduction problems, only some equation is needed to be solved. Hence, only few
parameters are involved.
In Convection, all the governing equations need to be solved.
Large number of parameters can be involved.
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Chapter 6
Inside the boundary layer, we can apply the following conservation principles:
Momentum balance: inertia forces, pressure gradient, viscous forces, body forces.
Energy balance: convective flux, diffusive flux, heat generation, energy storage.
hx / k
v /
(Momentum diffusivity) /
(thermal diffusivity)
Ux/
Viscous force provides the dam pending effect for disturbances in the fluid. If dampening is
strong enough laminar flow.
Otherwise, instability turbulent flow critical Reynolds number.
For forced convection, the heat transfer correlation can be expressed as
Nu=f (Re, Pr)
The convective correlation for laminar flow across a flat plate heated to a constant wall
Temperature is:
2013
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Chapter 6
The numerator is a mass flow per unit area times a velocity; i.e. a momentum flow per unit
area. The denominator is a viscous stress, i.e. a viscous force per unit area. The ratio
represents the ratio of momentum to viscous forces. If viscous forces dominate, the flow
will be laminar; if momentum dominates, the flow will be turbulent.
Pr ( / ) k/.c p = v / a
The Prandtl number may be seen to be a ratio reflecting the ratio of the rate that viscous
forces penetrate the material to the rate that thermal energy penetrates the material. As a
consequence the Prandtl number is proportional to the rate of growth of the two boundary
layers:
/ t = Pr1 / 3
If we recall that the thickness of the boundary layer at any point along the surface, , is
also a function of x then
Nux h. /k ( /k .A ) / (1 / h.A)
We see that the Nusselt may be viewed as the ratio of the conduction resistance of a
material to the convection resistance of the same material.
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Chapter 6
Students, recalling the Biot number, may wish to compare the two so that they may
distinguish the two.
Nux h.x/k fluid
Bi x h.x/k solid
The denominator of the Nusselt number involves the thermal conductivity of the fluid at
the solid-fluid convective interface; the denominator of the Biot number involves the
thermal conductivity of the solid at the solid-fluid convective interface.
To put this back into dimensional form, we replace the Nusselt number by its equivalent,
hx/k and take the x/k to the other side:
1
h = 0.323.(k/x).Rex 2 .Pr1 / 3
h = 0.323.k. (U .) / x 2 .Pr1 / 3
And see that the convective coefficient decreases with x
We see that as the boundary layer thickness, the convection coefficient decreases. Some
designers will introduce a series of trip wires, i.e. devices to disrupt the boundary layer,
so that the build up of the insulating layer must begin a new. This will result in regular
thinning of the boundary layer so that the convection coefficient will remain high.
2013
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Chapter 6
Averaged Correlations
If one were interested in the total heat loss from a surface, rather than the temperature at
a point, then they may well want to know something about average convective coefficients.
For example, if we were trying to select a heater to go inside an aquarium, we would not be
interested in the heat loss at 5 cm, 7 cm and 10 cm from the edge of the aquarium; instead
we want some sort of an average heat loss.
The desire is to find a correlation that provides an overall heat transfer rate:
Q=h L .A. Twall T = hx . Twall T .dA =
hx . Twall T .dx
2013
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S KMondals
Chapter 6
h L .L. Twall T =
hx . Twall T .dx
Since the temperature difference is constant, it may be taken outside of the integral and
cancelled:
h L .L =
hx .dx
0.323
k U .x .
.
x
0.5
.Pr1 / 3 .dx
Take the constant terms from outside the integral, and divide both sides by k.
U .
h L .L/k = 0.323.
0.5
.Pr .
1/3
0.5
1
x .dx
U .
h L .L/k = 0.323.
0.5
x 0. 5
.Pr .
0.5
1/3
The left side is defined as the average Nusselt number, ( NuL ). Algebraically rearrange the
right side.
0.323 U .
NuL =
.
0.5
0.5
1/3
0. 5
.Pr .L
U .L .
= 0.646.
0. 5
.Pr1 / 3
The term in the brackets may be recognized as the Reynolds number, evaluated at the end
of the convective section. Finally,
NuL = 0.646.Re0L.5 .Pr
This is our average correlation for laminar flow over a flat plate with constant wall
temperature.
Reynolds Analogy
In the development of the boundary layer theory, one may notice the strong relationship
between the dynamic boundary layer and the thermal boundary layer. Reynoldss noted
the strong correlation and found that fluid friction and convection coefficient could be
related. This refers to the Reynolds Analogy.
Pr =1,
Staton number =
Cf
2
Conclusion from Reynoldss analogy: Knowing the frictional drag, we know the
Nusselt Number. If the drag coefficient is increased, say through increased wall roughness,
2013
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Chapter 6
then the convective coefficient will increase. If the wall friction is decreased, the convective
coefficient is decreased.
Ns" =hA(Ts Tn )
NuD =
h=
hD
= 4.36 when, qs" = constant
kf
48 k
11 D
[VIMP]
Turbulent Flow
We could develop a turbulent heat transfer correlation in a manner similar to the von
Karman analysis. It is probably easier, having developed the Reynolds analogy, to follow
that course. The local fluid friction factor, Cf, associated with turbulent flow over a flat
plate is given as:
Cf = 0.0592 / Re0x.2
Substitute into the Reynolds analogy:
( 0.0592 / Re ) / 2 = Nu
0.2
x
/ RexPr
Rearrange to find
Nux = 0.0296.Re0x.8 .Pr1 / 3
Local Correlation
Turbulent Flow
Flat Plate
In order to develop an
average correlation, one
would evaluate an integral
along the plate similar to
that used in a laminar
flow:
Note: The critical Reynolds number for flow over a flat plate is 5 105; the critical
Reynolds number for flow through a round tube is 2000.
2013
S KMondals
Chapter 6
Note: Fluid properties should be evaluated at the average temperature in the boundary
layer, i.e. at an average between the wall and free stream temperature.
Free Convection
Free convection is sometimes defined as a convective process in which fluid motion is
caused by buoyancy effects.
Velocity Profiles
Compare the velocity
profiles for forced and
natural
convection
shown figure:
TP =Const.
Evaluation of
2013
S KMondals
Chapter 6
Ideal Gases: We may develop a general expression for for an ideal gas from the
Ideal gas law:
P = .R.T
= P/R.T
Then,
=
p Const .
P
.R.T
=
=
2
2
R.T
R.T
T
1
Tabs
Ideal Gas
Grashof Number
Because U is always zero, the Reynolds number, [ U D]/, is also zero and is no longer
suitable to describe the flow in the system. Instead, we introduce a new parameter for
natural convection, the Grashof Number. Here we will be most concerned with flow across
a vertical surface, so that we use the vertical distance, z or L, as the characteristic length.
Gr
g. .T .L3
Just as we have looked at the Reynolds number for a physical meaning, we may consider
the Grashof number:
. g. .T .L3
2
. .U max
2
2
3
L
. g. .T .L
Gr
=
2
2
U
2 . max
L2
Buoyant Force Momentum
Area
Area
=
2
Viscous Force
Area
2013
S KMondals
Chapter 6
number and (2) the exponent on Prandtl number is not generally 1/3 (The von Karman
boundary layer analysis from which we developed the 1/3 exponent was for forced
convection flows):
Nux = C .Grxm .Pr n
Local Correlation.
Average Correlation.
Quite often experimentalists find that the exponent on the Grashof and Prandtl numbers
are equal so that the general correlations may be written in the form:
Nux = C Grx .Pr
NuL = C GrL .Pr
Local Correlation
Average Correlation
This leads to the introduction of the new, dimensionless parameter, the Rayleigh number,
Ra:
Rax = Grx . Pr
RaL = GrL . Pr
So, that the general correlation for free convection becomes:
Nux = C Raxm
Local Correlation
NuL = C RaLm
Average Correlation
2013
S KMondals
Chapter 6
In the case of complete flow interference, the upward and downward forces will cancel,
cancelling circulation forces. This case would be treated as a pure convection problem since
no bulk transport occurs.
2013
S KMondals
Chapter 6
The transition in enclosures from convection heat transfer to conduction heat transfer
occurs at what is termed the Critical Rayleigh Number. Note that this terminology is
in clear contrast to forced convection where the critical Reynolds number refers to the
transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
Racrit = 1000 (Enclosures with Horizontal Heat Flow)
Racrit = 1728 (Enclosures with Vertical Heat Flow)
The existence of a Critical Rayleigh number suggests that there are now three flow
regimes: (1) No flow, (2) Laminar Flow and (3) Turbulent Flow. In all enclosure
problems the Rayleigh number will be calculated to determine the proper flow regime
before a correlation is chosen.
Bulk Temperature
Q = mc p (Tb2 Tb1 )
Bulk-mean temperature =
u(r )T (r )rdr
ro
um rdr
0
2013
2 o
=
u(r )T (r )rdr
umro2 0
S KMondals
Chapter 6
Data for Q4Q5 are given below. Solve the problems and choose
correct answers.
Heat is being transferred by convection
from water at 48C to a glass plate whose
surface that is exposed to the water is at
40C. The thermal conductivity of water is
0.6 W/mK and the thermal conductivity of
glass is 1.2 W/mK. The spatial Water
gradient of temperature in the water at the
water-glass interface is dT/dy =1 104 K/m.
[GATE-2003]
GATE-4. The value of the temperature gradient in the glass at the water-glass
interface in k/m is:
(a) 2 104
(b) 0.0
(c) 0.5 104
(d) 2 104
GATE-5. The heat transfer coefficient h in W/m2K is:
(a) 0.0
(b) 4.8
(c) 6
2013
(d) 750
S KMondals
Chapter 6
A sphere, a cube and a thin circular plate, all made of same material
and having same mass are initially heated to a temperature of 250oC
and then left in air at room temperature for cooling. Then, which one of
the following is correct?
[IES-2008]
(a) All will be cooled at the same rate
(b) Circular plate will be cooled at lowest rate
(c) Sphere will be cooled faster
(d) Cube will be cooled faster than sphere but slower than circular plate
IES-2.
IES-3.
IES-4.
IES-5.
Assertion (A): For the similar conditions the values of convection heat
transfer coefficients are more in forced convection than in free
convection.
[IES-2009]
Reason (R): In case of forced convection system the movement of fluid
is by means of external agency.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R individually true but R in not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
2013
S KMondals
Chapter 6
Assertion (A): A slab of finite thickness heated on one side and held
horizontal will lose more heat per unit time to the cooler air if the hot
surface faces upwards when compared with the case where the hot
surface faces downwards.
[IES-1996]
Reason (R): When the hot surface faces upwards, convection takes
place easily whereas when the hot surface faces downwards, heat
transfer is mainly by conduction through air.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
IES-7.
For the fully developed laminar flow and heat transfer in a uniformly
heated long circular tube, if the flow velocity is doubled and the tube
diameter is halved, the heat transfer coefficient will be:
[IES-2000]
(a) Double of the original value
(b) Half of the original value
(c) Same as before
(d) Four times of the original value
IES-8.
IES-9.
IES-10.
IES-11.
IES-12.
2013
S KMondals
(a)
(c)
4
4
Chapter 6
3
3
1
2
2
1
(b)
(d)
3
3
4
4
1
2
2
1
IES-13.
IES-14.
IES-15.
IES-16.
IES-17.
2013
S KMondals
Chapter 6
C. Free convection
D. Transient conduction
Codes:
(a)
(c)
A
5
4
B
1
2
C
2
1
D
3
3
3. Mach Number
4. Biot Number
5. Grashoff Number
A
B
C
(b)
2
1
5
(d)
2
3
5
D
4
4
IES-18.
IES-19.
IES-20.
[IES-2001]
IES-21.
IES-22.
Nusselt number for a pipe flow heat transfer coefficient is given by the
equation NuD = 4.36. Which one of the following combinations of
conditions does exactly apply for use of this equation?
[IES-2004]
(a) Laminar flow and constant wall temperature
(b) Turbulent flow and constant wall heat flux
(c) Turbulent flow and constant wall temperature
(d) Laminar flow and constant wall heat flux
IES-23.
For steady, uniform flow through pipes with constant heat flux
supplied to the wall, what is the value of Nusselt number?
[IES-2007]
(a) 48/11
(b) 11/48
(c) 24/11
(d) 11/24
IES-24.
2013