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1.Introduction
Reservoir rocks saturated with hydrocarbons are complex on
both a macroscopic and microscopic scale.
The complexity of both rock and fluid properties controls:
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1.Introduction
A sample (core) can be taken to recover a portion of the
reservoir rock, so that it may be examined firsthand and tested
in the laboratory.
Such direct physical measurements furnish both geological and
engineering information and guide the decisions affecting
both the cored well and subsequent wells in that area.
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1.Introduction
Core analysis is the name given to the test procedures and
data collected on core samples.
A variety of information and data may be obtained via
measurements of physical and chemical properties, visual
observations, and photographs.
The two major categories of core analysis are Conventional
Core Analysis, with associated complementary data, and
Special Core Analysis
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1.Introduction
Conventional core analysis yields the most basic data about a reservoir,
such as:
the presence or absence of hydrocarbons;
the storage capacity (porosity), the flow capacity and its distribution
(magnitude and profile of permeability);
the lithology and texture of the formation.
These data, and complementary measurements made on request, can
be available for use within hours or days after a core is recovered,
since laboratories are normally close to the area where the cores are
cut.
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1.Introduction
Special core analysis tests are more complex and the data
furnished are of wider diversity. Typically, they will require
longer core preparation and testing times and more
specialized and expensive equipment. Large quantities of
data are captured on the more sophisticated tests, and
computer assistance is routinely used to calculate results. The
increased time factor should be recognized and accounted for
when planning a project.
Special core analysis tests may be divided into:
Static and
Dynamic measurements.
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1.Introduction
When cores are removed from the reservoir environment they are
subjected to alterations of pressure and temperature.
These alterations cause changes in bulk and pore volume, reservoir
fluid saturations, and, in some cases, reservoir wettability (preference
of the rock for water or oil).
In conventional core analysis (with the exception of unconsolidated
rock where overburden pressure effects are included) these effects are
normally ignored. In many of the special core analysis test sequences,
both pressure and temperature are important, and laboratory
equipment and techniques are designed to simulate reservoir
conditions.
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2.ObjectivesofaCoringProgram
Coring has both engineering and geologic objectives, and
these should be carefully defined before coring commences.
In some cases the objectives conflict, and it is impossible to
satisfy all requirements on a given well.
The objectives that are established will affect the selection of
both the coring fluid and the coring device to be used.
The decision will also affect the choice of a suitable core
handling and preservation technique and will define most
measurements required.
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2.1.EngineeringObjectives
Defining areal changes in porosity, permeability, and lithologythe data
needed for estimates of reserves and mathematical models;
Defining reservoir water saturation (this requires the use of coring
fluids that are oil base or that do not invade the rock,* and that the
core be taken from above the water transition zone);
Assisting in the definition of reservoir net pay;
Providing information for calibrating downhole logs as well as the
measured values of electrical properties that will be used to improve
logcalculated water saturations;
Acquiring data on the magnitude and distribution of reservoir residual
oil saturation (this is normally needed in enhanced oil recovery studies
and utilizes either a pressure or sponge core barrel);
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EngineeringObjectives(cont.)
Providing core material from which petrographic studies can
be made to define clay type and distribution; these yield
subsequent guidance in selection of nondamaging drilling,
coring, and completion fluids;
Acquiring rock samples for special core analysis studies,
including relative permeability, capillary pressure, and
formation wettability tests;
Providing data on porosity, as well as on horizontal and
vertical permeability distributions, for use in the design of
wellcompletion programs to ensure that oil is not isolated
and left behind the pipe.
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2.2.GeologicObjectives
Defining GOC, GWC and OWC, formation limits, and type of production
expected;
Providing core data from which the depositional environment can be
deduced, including grain size and grain size sequences; vertical
sequence of facies; sedimentary structures (ripplesdn sng, cross
bedding); biogenic structures (root zones, burrows); diagenetic
alterations (cementing, secondary porosity, secondary mineralization);
Permitting a visual study of the frequency, size, strike, and dip of
fractures. This requires that fracture studies be undertaken and may
require the availability of an oriented core;
Retrieval of oriented cores so that directional permeability trends can
be ascertained; this applies to both fractured and to nonfractured
samples; acquisition of samples of nonreservoir rock in exploration
areas so that source rock studies can be made.
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3.CoreAlterationDuringRecovery
There are a number of causes of core alteration during
recovery, three of which are discussed below.
Filtrate Invasion
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CoreAlterationDuringRecovery(Cont.)
Fluid Expansion and Expulsion
The saturations seen at the surface are different from those downhole
(Fig 01), the magnitude of saturation changes that occur from
reservoir conditions to surface conditions when a core is taken with a
waterbase mud.
When oil or oilbase mud is used to core a well penetrating a
homogeneous reservoir (Fig 02) the measured values of water
saturation will approximate reservoir saturations
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Fig01Saturationchangesthatoccurduringcoringandrecoverywith
waterbasedcoringfluid
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Fig02Saturationchangesthatoccurduringcoringandrecoverywith
oilbasedcoringfluid
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DamagetotheRock
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4.SelectionofCoringFluid
Coring fluids can be divided into two major categories that relate to
the filtrate lost: waterbase muds (which tend to flush the core with
water) and oilbase muds (which tend to flush the core with oil).
Other less frequently used coring fluids include both waterinoil or
oilinwater emulsions, gas or air, and foam. The latter is now used
successfully in special applications. Common fluids used and filtrate
loss are presented in Table 01., below.
Compatibility with Coring Objective Coring fluids must be compatible
with the objectives of the core analysis program.
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Coring fluids
Filtrate
Hydrocarbons
Water
Increased
Decreased1
Oil emulsion
Water
Increased
Decreased
Foam*
Oil base
Oil
No change2
Replaced
Inverted oil
Oil
No change2, 3 Replaced
Gas (hydrocarbon)
Gas
No change2,4
Replaced
Air
Uncertain
Uncertain5
Decreased
emulsion
Gas loss fluids
18
WaterBaseandOilBaseFluids
Fig03
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Foam
Foam coring fluids are now receiving considerable attention. They
offer the advantages of allowing a low coring fluid pressure at the
formation face: in addition, preliminary data suggest that minimal or
no invasion of the foam into the core occurs. Unlike other coring
fluids, which remain in circulation during the operation, coring with
foam is a oncethrough process. Foam is generated, then vented at
the surface after a onetime use. This fluid has been used in both
conventional coring and in the recovery of pressure cores, as
discussed by Sparks (1982). The technology of foam coring requires
that the process be monitored by computer and variables adjusted to
assure proper quality foam during coring.
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5.Coringwhiledrilling
AnOverview
Fig04
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Fig05
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CorePointSelection
Correlationofsonicanddrilling
exponentlogsinordertoselecta
coringpoint
Fig06
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6.LaboratorySampling
Core Sampling
In some cases wellsite sampling is performed, but it is preferable to
preserve and transport the entire core to the laboratory for sampling
under more controlled conditions. When the entire core reaches the
laboratory, it should be placed in depth order on a layout table. After
the core is refitted, the natural gamma activity of the core can be
logged and photos of the native rock can be taken. A detailed core
description should then be made.
Two basic approaches exist in sample selection.
One is a statistical approach, in which cores are sampled from the top or
middle of each foot of rock, independent of the lithology.
The second approach requires that the analyst secure a representative sample,
regardless of its location, from each foot.
The actual approach will depend upon company philosophy and the formation
characteristics.
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LaboratorySampling(Cont.)
Conventional (Plug) Analysis
In homogeneous formations a core segment of approximately 4 inches
(10 cm) in length or less taken from every foot of core is sufficient for
core plug analysis. If the core has great lithological variations,
however, samples should be obtained more frequently. It is important
that the samples be representativecore data have been skewed by
improper sample selection.
Full Diameter Analysis
If a fulldiameter analysis is to be performed, samples 6 inches (15 cm)
or longer are prepared in the form of right cylinders from each foot of
core, using a diamond saw. The core ends are sometimes used for
saturation determinations. It is important that the lubricant selected
for the saw blade corresponds to the filtrate of the coring fluid, so that
additional extraneous fluids are not added.
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Rubber,Plastic,andFiberglassCores
PressureCores
SpongeCores
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7.CoringDevices
WirelineCoreGun
RotarySidewallCorer
SidewallCoreSlicer
CorePointSelection
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Sequentialcoreprocessingbytwogeologistsworkingtogether
Fig07
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8.TypesofcoreAnalysis
8.1.Plug(Conventional)Analysis
Consolidated Formations
This technique is normally restricted to homogeneous formations that can be
characterized with plugsize samples. Typical plug size is 01 inch (2.5 m) in
diameter, and 01 inch (2.5 cm) long. Cylindrical samples (Figure 08),
Unconsolidated Formations
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Fig08
Coresampleforconventionalanalysiswithproperlyandimproperlyselectedhorizontaland
verticalplugs
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8.2.FullDiameterAnalysis
Routine Analysis
Full diameter analysis was introduced to allow testing of rocks with complex
lithology, such as heterogeneous carbonates (Figure 09, Heterogeneous
carbonate requiring full diameter analysis) and fissured, vugular formations
unsuitable for plug analysis
Samples in the form of a right cylinder up to 10 inches (25 cm) long and
approximately 5 inches (12.5 cm) in diameter are often used.
Data generated include Boyle's law porosities, utilizing helium as the
saturating medium. Two horizontal permeability values are determined.
When fractures or vugs are present, one of the permeability measurements
is visually oriented through the more permeable section, and the second
permeability is at right angles to this measurement. In this manner, the
effect of vugs or fractures on horizontal permeability is indicated. Vertical
permeabilities are also frequently determined.
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32
Table2. Comparisonofplugandwholecoredataonmicrofracturedoil
productivesandstonesamples
Property
Plug data
0.1
69
Porosity, %
10.3
11.3
14.7
17.1
24.6
37.7
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8.3.SidewallCoreAnalysis
Sidewall samples are used extensively in softer sand areas.
The sidewall cores are normally coated with drilling mud, which is
removed prior to analysis.
In areas of high APIgravity (light) oils, sidewall cores are often smaller
than 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter. In areas of low APIgravity (heavy)
oils, samples are often larger.
Permeabilities measured on percussion samples rarely yield true in situ
values. For hard, lowpermeability formations, permeability values are
too high due to impact fracturing, while unconsolidated sands are
usually compacted and yield erroneously low values.
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SidewallCoreAnalysis(Cont.)
Data show that porosities measured on sidewall samples approach
conventional analysis values in formations having true porosities
ranging from 32% to 34%. In hard formations, sidewall porosity values
are normally higher than conventional plug values.
Porosity in hard, wellcemented rock is increased by grain shattering
during bullet impact, and these alterations in properties limit sidewall
sample usefulness in reservoir engineering evaluations. However,
sidewall cores are excellent indicators of lithology, furnish data on the
presence or absence of oil and gas, and are valuable for interpretation
of probable production. They also furnish samples suitable for
petrographic work.
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9.Corepreparation
Cleaning
Drying
Property
Humidity Dried*
10.0
10.0
2.6
2.27
Porosity: %
26.0
22.7
7.4
7.73
Dry weight: g
19.61
19.94
2.65
2.58
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10.MeasurementofPorosity
Porosity is a measure of the reservoir storage capacity.
It is defined as the void volume (pore volume) of a sample divided by
its bulk volume. It enters most equations as a fraction and is reported
in core analysis studies as a percent.
It varies from less than 10% to greater than 40% in sandstones and
from 5% to 25% in limestones and dolomites. Porosity can be greater
than 25% in some vuggy or moldic limestones or dolomites. In some
diatomaceous earth deposits, porosities approach 65%.
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10.MeasurementofPorosity(Cont.)
10.1.Boyle'sLawTechnique
10.2.SummationofFluidsTechnique
10.3.ResaturationTechnique
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10.1.Boyle'sLawTechnique
The Boyle's law method of measuring porosity is a gas transfer
technique that involves the compression of gas into the pores or the
expansion of gas from the pores of a clean, dry sample. Either pore
volume or grain volume may be determined, depending upon the
instrumentation and procedures used.
It is an accurate technique when performed properly; it is fairly rapid for
the majority of samples encountered, and it yields cores that can be
used for further testing. It is essential that the samples be clean and
dry, otherwise you will obtain erroneously low porosity values.
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41
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Figure10GrainvolumedeterminationusingBoyleslawporosimeter
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PORE VOLUME:
Pore volume is often determined indirectly by calculating the
difference between measured values of bulk volume and grain
volume.
It can also be measured directly by using Boyle's law equations. In
order to do this it is necessary to alter the sample holder from the
configuration illustrated in Figure 10.
The sample must be placed in a holder that has no void space around
the periphery of the core and on the ends. An apparatus suitable for
this measurement is referred to as a Hassler holder or a hydrostatic
load cell. The hydrostatic load cell is illustrated in Figure 11
(Hydrostatic load cell for direct measurement of pore volume ).
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Figure11Hydrostaticloadcellfordirectmeasurementofporevolume
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Parameter
Inadequate
drying*
Properly dried
Porosity
6.7
7.8 (+ 16.4%)
Grain density
2.62
Permeability
0.03
0.06 (+50%)
Table03.Exampleoferrorsinporosity,graindensity,andpermeabilityasaresultof
inadequatecoredrying
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10.MeasurementofPorosity(Cont.)
10.1.Boyle'sLawTechnique
10.2.SummationofFluidsTechnique
10.3.ResaturationTechnique
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10.2.SummationofFluidsTechnique
Porosity determination by summationoffluids has been used
extensively. The technique measures gas, oil, and water in the pore
space of fresh core of known bulk volume. These volumes are summed
to yield the pore volume and hence the porosity.
This is the most rapid technique known, and, when it is used in
suitable rock types with proper oil and water calibrations, it yields
valid porosity values. The technique is well suited for routine
laboratory work, and it allows porosity and saturations to be
determined on the same sample.
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Fig12
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50
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Knowledge of the bulk volume and weight of the fresh sample into
which mercury is injected allows computation of the natural density of
the rock. This in turn is used to convert the 100 g to be retorted into
an equivalent bulk volume. The oil, water, and gas volumes are each
reported as a fraction of the bulk volume of the rock from which they
came, and the three are summed to yield the porosity.
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This is not a suitable technique for core samples that have been
exposed to the atmosphere and in which residual oil and water have
evaporated. Fresh cores contain residual oil and water in the finer
pore spaces, and any injected mercury only fills the larger spaces
occupied by gas.
In cores in which all liquids have evaporated, the mercury will not
penetrate the smaller gasfilled pores at the 1000 psi (6895 kPa)
pressure imposed, and the resulting porosity value will be erroneously
low.
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OILVOLUMEDETERMINATION
The oil and water contents of a sample are determined by high
temperature retorting at temperatures of up to 1200 F (650 C). Some
oil is lost within the system because of cooking and cracking of oil
contained within the pore space. This results in an observed oil volume
in the condensing glassware that is less than that actually present in the
core. A correction is made to increase the observed oil volume prior to
the calculation of a summationoffluids porosity. This correction is
based on calibration curves that had been made previously using oils
similar to those from the area from which the core was recovered.
In those cases where no oil is available, a standard correction has
generally proved adequate. The correction curve is essentially
independent of the API gravity, primarily because of the high
temperatures induced during the analysis. A typical oil correction curve
is shown in Figure 13 (Retort oil correction curve).
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Fig13
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WATERVOLUMEDETERMINATION
During retorting, the recovered water volumes are read at a point that
distinguishes pore water from mineral water of crystallization. A plot
of water recovered from individual cores as a function of time is
shown in Figure 14 (Retort water recovery versus time). These are
cumulativewaterrecovered curves and most are distinguished by a
plateau that represents water held within the pore space by capillary
forces.
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Fig14
57
Hensel (1980) documented the idea that data could be improved if the
water value were read after subjecting the cores to a temperature of
350F (193C) for a minimum of 30 minutes. This effectively extends
the plateau, and improves the differentiation between capillaryheld
water and that formed by breakdown of minerals present.
Figure 14 (Summationoffluids porosity (water read at 350F/177C)
versus Boyles law (helium) porosity) shows the difference in measured
porosities between those obtained with Boyle's law procedure and
those obtained in retorting when a constant temperature of 350F
(193C) and a plateau technique were used to determine formation
water volumes.
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POROSITY: Validity of the summation-of-fluids technique can be roughly checked by a balance (Hensel 1980) to yield grain density as illustrated in the following equations:
POROSITY:Validityofthesummationoffluidstechniquecanberoughlycheckedbyabalance(Hensel 1980)toyieldgraindensityas
illustratedinthefollowingequations:
(1)
(2)
and
Vg=Vb (Vu+Vo+Vw)(3)
Where:
rw=rockgraindensity,g/cm3
ro=oildensity,g/cm3
rg =waterdensity,g/cm3(assumed1.00forwatercollected)
W1=weightofcrushedrockinretortlessweightofcontainedfluids,g
W2=weightofcrushedrockinretort,g
Vg =grainvolume,cm3
Vo =volumeofoilcollected,cm3(correctedforvaporlosses,coking,etc.)
Vw =volumeofwatercollected,cm3
Vs=volumeofunoccupiedporespace,correctedbasedonretortsampleweight,cm3
Vb =bulkvolumeofsampleusedtodetermineunoccupiedporespace,correctedbasedonretortsampleweight,cm3
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60
CombinationAnalysis*
Table 04
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Porosity
Oil
Water
Gas
34.0
45.8
33.8
20.4
36.4
47.3
30.2
22.5
28.2
53.5
27.7
18.8
34.9
51.0
28.7
20.3
37.9
60.2
25.3
14.5
61
(2)
(3)
(4)
Porosity
Oil
Water
Gas
43.4
34.2
48.4
17.4
44.1
39.2
42.4
18.4
35.8
42.3
43.1
14.6
40.3
44.2
38.2
17.6
47.9
47.7
40.9
* Correct technique.
** Technique was unsuitable for this rock which
contained hydratable clays.
11.4
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10.MeasurementofPorosity(Cont.)
10.1.Boyle'sLawTechnique
10.2.SummationofFluidsTechnique
10.3.ResaturationTechnique
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10.3.ResaturationTechnique
The resaturation technique requires that the samples be clean and dry
prior to measurement. A dry weight of the core is taken and the
sample is then evacuated and pressure saturated with either water or
a light hydrocarbon. The difference between the saturated and dry
weights yields the grams of fluid in the pore space. Dividing this value
by the density of the saturating fluid yields the pore volume. The
procedure is slow and fairly difficult and requires that fluids used to
saturate the rock wet, but do not react with, the rock surfaces.
Incomplete resaturation will cause erroneously low porosity values.
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10.3.ResaturationTechnique(Cont.)
The advantages of this method include the possibility of using the
samples for further testing, although the core must be recleaned if oil
is used to saturate the rock. When done properly, the technique is
accurate; however, the results are sensitive to preparation. The
samples must be clean and dry prior to the initial weighing, otherwise
an erroneously low porosity will be measured.
The resaturation method is commonly used as a quality control check
in special core analysis tests, as many measurements require
resaturation of core samples. Comparison of the resaturation
measured porosity with an originally measured Boyle's law value for
the same sample pinpoints problem areas when the two do not
agree.
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PrecisionofMeasurement
The Boyles law, summationoffluids and resaturation techniques for
porosity measurement have been accepted as yielding values accurate
within 0.5 porosity points when the limits imposed on each method
are properly observed.
In some cases where the summationoffluids data have been
found to yield high porosity values because of the presence of clays,
and yet where information is required with rapid turnaround for
completion or decision purposes both summation and Boyle's law
data have been determined. The summationoffluids data furnish
rapid information for the completion decision. The plugs to be used
for permeability measurements are cleaned, dried, and subsequently
used for a Boyle's law porosity value comparison. This yields more
accurate data for application in reservoir engineering calculations.
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OverburdenPressureEffects
Rocks analyzed at surface conditions have usually been relieved of
downhole confining pressures. Wellcemented, elastic rocks do not
undergo any major change in volume when their environment is
changed from reservoir to surface conditions. For this reason porosity
is normally determined with minimal or no confining pressure.
Unconsolidated and poorly consolidated rock, however, often expands
when released from its natural confining stresses. Porosity should be
measured on samples of this type under a confining pressure
approximately equivalent to reservoir conditions.
A hydrostatic load cell used for simulating downhole stresses is shown
in Figure 15 (Hydrostatic load cell for direct measurement of pore
volume).
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Fig15
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70
Figure 17(Porosityreductionwithnetoverburdenpressure)illustrates
thereductioninporosityobservedforsamplesofvariedlevelsof
cementation
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Exercise
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2/Giventhefollowingdataforacoreanalysis,calculatetheporosityandthesaturationsofoil,gas,andwater.
Gasvolumesample
1.Bulk volume:15.34cm3
2.Weight:31.86g
3.Gas vol:1.56cm3
4.Computed naturaldensity=weight/BV=_______g/cm3
RetortSample
5.Weight:125g=W2
6.Bulkvolume=Sampleweight/naturaldensity=Vb =______cm3
7.Recoveredoil2.1cm3
8.Correctedoil:2.5cm3 =Vo
9.Initialwater:8.3cm3 =Vw
10.Finalwater:9.2cm3
11.Fluiddensities:
=0.85g/cm3
=1.0g/cm3
Porosityandsaturations
OB WB GB
12.Oil%BV+Water%BV+Gas%BV=Porosityfraction
(8) (6)+(9) (6)+(3) (1)
0.042+0.138+0.102=0.282
13.Porosity(percent)=porosityfractionx100=28.2
14.Oilsaturation%porespace=[(8)+(12)(6)]100=14.8%
15.Watersaturation%porespace=[(9)+(12)(6)]100=49.0%
16.Gassaturation=100 14.8 49.0=36.2%
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3/Usingthefollowingdata,calculatethegraindensityoftheretortsample.
=graindensity=grainweight/grainvolume
Comparecalculatedgraindensitywithexpectedgraindensitybasedonthelithologic descriptionofthecoreandthendecide
Doesthedataappeartobeaccurate?
Why?
Gasvolumesample
1.Bulkvolume:15.34cm3
2.Weight:31.86g
3.Gasvol:1.56cm3
4.Computednaturaldensity=weight/BV=2.08g/cm3
Retortsample
5.Weight:125g=W2
6.Bulkvolume=Sampleweight/naturaldensity=Vb =60.1cm3
7.Recoveredoil2.1cm3
8.Correctedoil:2.5cm3 =Vo
9.Initialwater:8.3cm3 =Vw
10.Finalwater:9.2cm3
11.Fluiddensities:
=0.85g/cm3
=1.0g/cm3
Porosityandsaturations
OB WB GB
12.Oil%BV+Water%BV+Gas%BV=Porosityfraction
(8) (6)+(9) (6)+(3) (1)
0.042+0.138+0.102=0.282
13.Porositypercent=porosityfractionx100=28.2
14.Oilsaturation%porespace=[(8)+(12)(6)]100=14.8%
15.Watersaturation%porespace=[(9)+(12)(6)]100=49.0%
16.Gassaturation=100 14.8 49.0=36.2%
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11.MeasurementofPermeability
The ability of a formation to transmit fluids is termed permeability; its
unit is the darcy (m2). This unit has been subdivided into 1000
smaller units, called millidarcies, and these units are used in reporting
core analysis measured values.
A darcy has been defined as that permeability which permits a fluid of
one centipoise viscosity to flow at a rate of one cubic centimeter per
second through a porous medium with a crosssectional area of one
square centimeter under a pressure gradient of one atmosphere per
centimeter. Its value is determined in the laboratory.*
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11.MeasurementofPermeability(Cont.)
Dry gas has been selected as the standard fluid for use in permeability
determinations because it minimizes fluidrock reaction and is easy to
use. In the laboratory, air is caused to flow through a clean and dry
sample of measured length and diameter (APIRP27).
The pressure differential and flow rates are measured and the
permeability is calculated from the Darcy equation. In the linear flow
system, the Darcy equation for noncompressible fluids can be used to
calculate permeability to a compressible gas of the rate of flow in
cm3/s of the gas is expressed as the mean pressure existing within the
core sample. This conversion of a volume at atmospheric pressure to
the volume existing at mean pressure is accomplished by using the
following equation (1), (2)
*In SI units a permeability of one meter squared will permit a flow of
1m3/s of fluid of 1 Pa.s viscosity through an area of 1m2 under a
pressure gradient of 1 Pa/m.
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(1)
Thus:
Compressible Fluid Flow (Gas)
2000
Where:
q = liquid flow rate, cm3/s
qa = gas flow rate at atmospheric pressure, cm2/s
= viscosity of fluid flowing, centipoise
L = sample length, cm
A = sample cross-sectional area, cm2
p1 = upstream pressure, atmospheres absolute
p2 = downstream pressure, atmospheres absolute
Pa = atmospheric pressure, atmospheres absolute
k = permeability, md
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Permeameter
PLUGS:
Aschematic
oftheprinciple
involvedin
permeability
measurement
Fig18
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Q In
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Q Out
79
FULLDIAMETER
CORES: Full
diametercore
measurementsare
normallyrestricted
tocarbonatesand
formations
containingvugsand
fractures.
Fig19
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80
Vertical
permeabilityona
fulldiameter
sampleiseasily
measuredusinga
Hasslertypecore
holder.
Fig20
81
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FactorsAffectingMeasuredValues
Air permeabilities measured in a routine core analysis laboratory on
rock samples from nonfractured reservoirs will give higher values than
the actual reservoir permeability. This difference is dependent upon
the magnitude of permeability as well as the pore geometry. The
higher laboratory values are thought to be caused by gas slippage (the
Klinkenberg effect), relative permeability, reactive fluids, and
overburden pressure effects.
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THEKLlNKENBERG GASSLIPPAGEEFFECT:
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84
THEKLlNKENBERG GASSLIPPAGEEFFECT(Cont.):
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85
THEKLlNKENBERG GASSLIPPAGEEFFECT(Cont.):
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86
THEKLlNKENBERG GASSLIPPAGEEFFECT(Cont)
Experiments show that a plot of gas permeability versus the reciprocal
mean pressure existing at the time of the gas permeability
measurement forms a straight line that can be extrapolated to infinite
mean pressure.
This extrapolated value of permeability, referred to as the Klinkenberg
permeability or equivalent liquid permeability, is lower than the
measured gas permeabilities and is comparable to the permeability
that would be obtained if the core were saturated with a nonreactive
liquid such as oil. Figure 21 (Klinkenberg permeability determination)
shows an example of this relationship for a low permeability
sandstone.
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Fig21
Klinkenberg permeability
determination
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Noncorrected
permeability (md)
Klinkenberg corrected
permeability* (md)
1.0
0.7
10.0
7.8
100.0
88.0
1000.0
950.0
*Airpermeabilitythathasbeencorrectedforgasslippage.TheKlinkenberg valueisthe
equivalentliquidpermeabilityassumingnoreactionbetweentherockandthefluid.
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91
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RELATIVEPERMEABILITYANDREACTIVEFLUIDSEFFECTS:
When a second fluid phase is present in a reservoir, the permeability
to each phase is referred to as the effective permeability In an oil or
gas reservoir, the second phase present in the pore space is interstitial
water.
The effective permeability to the hydrocarbon phase in a reservoir
with interstitial water present will be less than the measured
permeability to air after correction for Klinkenberg effects (absolute
permeability).
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RELATIVEPERMEABILITYANDREACTIVEFLUIDSEFFECTS(Cont.):
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RELATIVEPERMEABILITYANDREACTIVEFLUIDSEFFECTS(Cont.):
Clays line the pore spaces of many formations and sometimes react
with coring, drilling, or other fluids injected into the reservoir. This
reaction commonly results in a reduction in permeability that can vary
from minor to catastrophic.
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RELATIVEPERMEABILITYANDREACTIVEFLUIDSEFFECTS(Cont.):
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OVERBURDENPRESSUREEFFECTS:
Samples tested when making routine core analysis measurements
usually have no net overburden pressures applied to them. When
simulating reservoir conditions in the laboratory, it has been found
that the application of overburden pressure reduces permeability
(Table 06). Reduction in permeability of as little as 7% to as much as
100% has been reported for overburden pressures up to 5000 psi
(34475 kPa). (McLatchie, Hemstock, and Young 1958; Vairogs et a.
1970.)
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OVERBURDENPRESSUREEFFECTS(Cont.):
As was noted in porosity measurements, the unconsolidated materials show the
greatest percentage reduction in value with increasing overburden pressure.
Generally, the reduction in permeability with the application of net overburden
pressure is greater than the reduction seen in porosity.
An experiment with flowthrough capillary tubes, as described by the physicist
Poiseuille (17971869), indicates that the quantity of fluid flowing through a
capillary varies with the fourth power of the radius. Because the value of air
permeability is directly proportional to flow rate, small changes in pore radii
caused by the application of overburden pressure result in correspondingly large
reductions in permeability.
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1000 psi
3000 psi
5000 psi
7000 psi
100%
96%
91%
86%
82%
Sandstone
100%
(unconsolidate
d)
72%
44%
35%
30%
Chalk
97%
93%
60%
30%
Sandstone
(well
indurated)
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100%
99
In any given reservoir, the effects of gas slippage, reactive fluids, and overburden
pressure may be great or small, depending on pore geometry. Laboratory results
indicate that these factors become more important as absolute permeability of a
rock decreases. In some low permeability gas reservoirs, a high interstitial water
level causes a significant reduction in effective permeability, with further
reductions caused by an increase in net overburden pressure and the gas slippage
effect.
It represents data on a sample with an initial air permeability of .28 millidarcies.
When a nonmobile, interstitial water saturation of 53% of pore space was
introduced, the original air permeability determined on the dry core was reduced
to an effective permeability of .051 millidarcies. These measurements were made
with a minimum net overburden pressure of 200 psi (1379 kpa), to prevent air
bypassing the core and flowing down the sample's sides.
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AccuracyofMeasurement
The accuracy of the permeability value measured in the laboratory is
approximately 5% of its true value when the permeability is in the
range of 10500 md. As permeability decreases to the <1.0 md,
accuracy may decrease to 20% of true value. Above 500 md, the
accuracy of measurements is typically 10% of true value.
Horizontal permeability values determined by core analysis yield the
vertical distribution of horizontal permeability at the wellbore. They
provide a measure of permeability variation, which may be used in
subsequent reservoir engineering calculations. Other reservoir
evaluation tools, such as buildup pressure tests, provide interwell
permeability values, but supply only an average value for the
formation permeability and not the distribution of permeability. Both
types of data have a place in formation evaluation.
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AccuracyofMeasurement(Cont.)
Slippage, relative permeability, reactive fluid, and overburden
pressure effects can all be measured in the laboratory. They require
additional testing time and are usually not measured at the time that
a conventional core analysis is run. The conventional data are
adequate to describe permeability distribution profiles, to indicate
formation productivity, and to serve as a guide for selecting samples
to be used in more complex special core tests.
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Exercise
Given:
g = 0.018 cp
A = 5.06 cm2
I = 2.54 cm
pa = atmospheric pressure = 1.0 atmosphere
p1 = upstream pressure, atmospheres absolute
p2 = downstream pressure, atmospheres absolute
qa = volumetric gas flow rate at atmospheric
pressure, cc/sec
And Darcy's equation for flow of gas in a porous medium:
104
qa
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p1
p2
3.75
1.50
1.00
5.56
2.25
1.75
10.48
4.25
3.75
25.20
10.25
9.75
105
SOLUTION
Todo:
1.Computeka (millidarcies)ateachoffourflowrates.
2.Plotkaversus1/pmandextrapolatetofindequivalentliquid
permeabilitykL where1/pm=0(Figure22).
3.kL fromplotequals44.2millidarcies.
qa
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p1
pm
(p1 - p2)
(p1 + p2)/2
p2
ka
1/pm
3.75
1.50
1.00
.5
1.25
54.2
0.80
5.56
2.25
1.75
.5
2.00
50.2
0.50
10.48
4.25
3.75
.5
4.00
47.4
0.25
25.20
10.25
9.75
.5
10.00
45.5
0.10
106
Fig22
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12.CoreAnalysisReport
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Plug(Conventional)Analysis
Figure 23 (ConventionalcoreanalysisfortheCADNo.1well,oftheLouisianna
GulfCoast)
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Fig23
109
Fig24
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110
FullDiameterAnalysis
Fig25
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111
SidewallCoreAnalysis
Fig26
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13.SpecialCoreAnalysis
Special core analysis tests on homogeneous formations are normally
made on 1 or 1 1/2 inch (2.5 to 3.8 cm) diameter cylindrical plugs
approximately 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 7.5 cm) long.
Samples are selected to cover the permeability, porosity, and rocktype
range.
For heterogeneous formations, tests are made on full diameter cores.
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13.SpecialCoreAnalysis(Cont.)
Certain measurements are made on fresh, preserved cores that are not
extracted and leached prior to the laboratory tests. In other cases,
samples are extracted, leached, and dried.
After porosity and permeability are determined, the samples are
restored to the desired saturation conditions.
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13.SpecialCoreAnalysis
13.1 Rock wettability
13.2 Capillary Pressure Tests
13.3 Electrical Properties
13.4 Relative Permeability
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13.SpecialCoreAnalysis
13.1 Rock wettability
13.2 Capillary Pressure Tests
13.3 Electrical Properties
13.4 Relative Permeability
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13.1Rockwettability
Other than when storage of rock has caused deterioration, the primary
factor that may affect the soundness of the results of special tests is
rock wettability. It is complex in theory, but a simplified illustration of
the concept of wettability as a function of contact angle is shown in
Figure 27 (Contact angle as an indication of wettability).
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Fig27
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13.SpecialCoreAnalysis
13.1 Rock wettability
13.2 Capillary Pressure Tests
13.3 Electrical Properties
13.4 Relative Permeability
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13.2CapillaryPressureTests
Measurement Techniques
Three commonly utilized techniques for measuring capillary pressure
data are:
the restored state cell technique (Bruce and Welge 1947);
the centrifugal technique (Slobod, Chambers, and Prehn 1951);
the mercury injection technique (Purcell 1949).
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Figure28 (Schematicofrestoredstatecapillarypressurecell)isaschematic
oftherestoredstatecapillarypressurecell.
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Figure29 Pressuredifferential(PC)betweenwaterandhydrocarbon
versusheightandwatersaturation
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123
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Figure30Capillarypressurecurvesrepresentingdifferentdepositional
environments
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WaterSaturationversusHeight
Three Equations (below) may be used to correct the laboratory
measured capillary pressure to an equivalent height above the free
water level in the reservoir.
The free water level is defined as the depth where the capillary
pressure is zero; for practical purposes, it is the depth at which a high
permeability and porosity reservoir rock would show no residual oil
saturation as the zone of 100% water saturation is approached.
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(1)
or
(2)
But
(3)
Therefore
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Where:
h=heightabovefreewatertable,ftorm
Pc =capillarypressure,psiorkPa
s=interfacialtension,dynes/cm
f=contactangle,degrees
w =densityofbrine,g/cm3
h =densityofhydrocarbon,g/cm3
g=gravitytermusedtoconvertdensitytofluidgradient
R=subscriptusedtoindicateinitialreservoirconditions
L=subscriptusedtoindicatelaboratoryconditions
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System
Laboratory
Reservoir
Tx
Cosine
Air-water
1.0
72
72
Oil-water
30
0.866
48
42
Air-mercury 140
0.765
480
367
Air-oil
1.0
24
24
Water-oil
30
0.866
30
26
Water-gas
1.0
50*
50
129
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PoreThroatDistribution
Capillarypressure
dataobtained
frommercury
injectiontests
canbeconverted
toequivalent
poreradious,
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13.SpecialCoreAnalysis
13.1 Rock wettability
13.2 Capillary Pressure Tests
13.3 Electrical Properties
13.4 Relative Permeability
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(1)
(2)
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Sw =formationbrinesaturation,fraction
Rw =formationbrineresistivity,ohmmeters
Rt =trueformationresistivity,ohmmeters
Ro =trueresistivityof100%brinesaturated
rock,ohmmeters
F=formationresistivityfactorRo/Rw
(3) f=measuredporosity,fraction
a=interceptonFversusfplot
n=saturationexponent,slopeofRIversusSw
plot
m=cementationexponent(slopeofFversus
fplot)
134
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Figure 32 Plot of formation factor versus porosity, illustrating variation in intercept "a"
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Figure 33 Plot of sesistivity index versus water saturation for range of measured values of the slope"n"
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Clay Effects
The presence of clay can suppress rock resistivity, and yield lower m
and variable n values. The water saturation equation that was
developed to accommodate the presence of clays that conduct
electricity becomes more complex than that given in Equation 3. The
saturation equation that incorporates measured cation exchange
capacity effects caused by clays is given by the WaxmanSmitsThomas
equations (1968,1974):
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Where:
F*=Fa (1+Rw BQv)(5)
F*=formationresistivityfactorindependentofclayconductivity
=a*/m*
n*=saturationexponentindependentofclayconductivity
B=specificcounterion activity,1/ohmm/equiv/liter
Qv =quantityofcation exchangeableclaypresent,meq/mlof
porespace
CEC=cation exchangecapacity,meq/100gm
rma=graindensityofrockmatrix,g/cm3
a=equationcoefficientassociatedwithm*
m*=cementationexponent(slopeofF*vs fplot)
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13.SpecialCoreAnalysis
13.1 Rock wettability
13.2 Capillary Pressure Tests
13.3 Electrical Properties
13.4 Relative Permeability
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13.4RelativePermeability
Definitions
Relative permeability is a dimensionless term that has importance
when two or more fluids move through the pore spacesfor example,
oil and water. Specific or absolute permeability is the permeability of a
porous medium to one fluid at 100% saturation.
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13.4RelativePermeability(Cont.)
Definitions
Effective permeability is the permeability to a given phase when more
than one phase saturates the porous medium. The effective
permeability, then, is a function of saturation.
Relative permeability to a given phase is defined as the ratio of
effective permeability to the absolute or, in some cases, a base
permeability. Relative permeability, then, is also a function of
saturation.
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RelativePermeability(Cont.)
Definitions
In data that were generated prior to 1973, the specific permeability
to air was often used as the base permeability. Since that time, the
common base has been the hydrocarbon permeability in the presence
of irreducible water. For an oilwater reservoir, this would mean the
base permeability would be effective permeability to oil at irreducible
water. For a gas reservoir, the base permeability would be that to gas
in the presence of irreducible water. Figure 34 (Gaswater relative
permeability curves) illustrates gaswater relative permeability data
when water displaces gas.
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Figure 34 (Gas-water relative permeability curves) illustrates gas-water relative permeability data when
water displaces gas.
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LaboratoryMethodsforMeasuringRelativePermeability
Two major laboratory methods have evolved to measure relative
permeability. These are referred to as the steadystate and
nonsteadystate techniques.
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LaboratoryMethodsforMeasuringRelativePermeability(Cont.)
STEADY STATE:
The steadystate test, the older of the two methods, is made at low
flow rates, and the test apparatus contains upstream and downstream
mixer heads to remove capillary end effects.
Most research groups prefer data obtained from this test.
Two fluids are injected simultaneously into a core sample and the
water saturation is increased slowly. This simulates the slow increase
in water saturation that would occur in the formation between the
injection and producing wells. Saturation increase is monitored by
measuring the gain in weight occurring in the sample or by Xray
technique.
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LaboratoryMethodsforMeasuringRelativePermeability(Cont.)
NONSTEADY STATE:
The nonsteadystate technique uses a viscous oil and is normally made
at a higher flow rate than that present in the reservoir.
It is this higher rate that sometimes yields pessimistic estimates of
recovery from rocks of intermediate wettability. Heaviside and Black
(1983) have analyzed the two techniques and presented
recommendations on the most appropriate way to measure wateroil
relative permeability depending upon the wetting characteristics of
the rock.
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Wettability Effects
The natural preference of a porous medium, which causes one fluid to
adhere to its surfaces rather than another, is referred to as wettability.
A waterwet porous medium causes water to adhere to its surfaces.
The wettability of a rock has a dramatic influence on relative
permeability curves. It is therefore necessary that the core samples
tested in the laboratory reflect the actual formation wettability, and
that initial water saturation in the test sample be of the same
magnitude and have the same spatial location as it has in the
reservoir. This need has led to the recovery of "native state" cores.
These are cores taken with crude oil or with other oilbase fluids that
do not alter the wettability or water saturation present in the
recovered core.
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Wettability Effects
Figure 35 (Effects of wettability on wateroil relative permeability:
imbibition data for Torpedo sandstone) illustrates the effects of core
wettability on wateroil relative permeability measurements (Owens
and Archer 1971).
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Figure 35 (Effects of wettability on water-oil relative permeability: imbibition data for Torpedo
sandstone)
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153
These data indicate that as the rock becomes more oilwet, the
relative permeability to oil decreases and the relative permeability to
water increases at any given saturation. This results in unfavorable
recovery efficiency. It also indicates that the residual oil saturation in
intermediate to oilwet rocks is a function of the volume of water that
flows through the core sample, and that the relative permeability to
water existing at floodout will be much higher for the oilwet
formation. An interesting observation is that the reduction of capillary
retentive forces in the oilwet rock allows a lower residual oil
saturation to be achieved in the oilwet rock if economics would
support continued water injection.
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Exercise
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