Youngs modulus

Diffusion

Hardness test

Phase transformations

Electrical testing

Recovery &

Heat treatment

recrystallization

Surface treatment Deformation

Composites

Corrosion

Polymers

Resistivity /
Conductivity

Set of common equations

used in Materials Science and
Engineering
This set of common equations used in Materials Science and
Engineering supports the open educational resources (OERs)
available through the CORE-Materials repository.

www.core.materials
.ac.uk

UK Centre
for Materials
Education

2010, The University of

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of CORE Materials

Youngs modulus
E=

E = Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity) (Pa)

= stress (Pa)
= strain
Youngs modulus is the relationship between stress and strain where a material is being
deformed elastically and the stress/strain curve is linear.
TeX format: E = \frac{\sigma}{\varepsilon}

True stress
t = (1+ )
t = true stress (Pa)
= engineering stress (Pa)
= engineering strain
Engineering stress is the form commonly used in applications, testing and stress-strain
curves but does not take into account the reduction in cross-sectional area as a
specimen plastically deforms. The true stress takes this factor into account.
TeX format: \sigma_{t} = \sigma{(1 + \varepsilon)}

True strain
t =ln ( 1+ )
t = true strain
= engineering strain

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Engineering strain is the form commonly used in quantising, testing and stress-strain
curves but does not take into account the reduction is cross-sectional area as a
specimen plastically deforms. This is the true strain.
TeX format: \varepsilon_{t} = ln{(1 + \varepsilon)}

Hoop stress (thin wall assumption)

h=

Pr
t

h = Hoop stress (Pa)

P = internal pressure (Pa)
r = cylinder radius (m)
t = cylinder wall thickness (m)
Gives the value of stress at the inner radius of a cylindrical shaped container using a
thin assumption that the radius is at least ten times the wall thickness.
TeX format: \sigma_h = \frac{Pr}{t}

Hookes law

F=kx

F = reaction force (N)

k = spring constant (kgs-2)
x = displacement (m)

Hookes Law describes the repulsive force exerted by an elastically deformed material
(or spring). This equation is analogous to Youngs modulus.
TeX format: {F} = {-kx}

Poissons ratio

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trans x
=
axial
y

= Poisson's ratio
trans, x = transverse strain
axial, y = axial strain (load direction)
Poissons ratio is a material property strain in the transverse direction to the strain in
the axial (applied load) direction. Applies to elastic deformation only.
TeX format: \nu = -{\frac{\varepsilon_{trans} }{\varepsilon_{axial} }} = {\frac{\varepsilon_{x} }{\varepsilon_{y}}}

Steady-state creep equation

( )
d
=A n e RT
dt
Q

d/dt = creep (strain) rate (s-1)

A = constant
= constant applied stress (Pa)
n = stress exponent
Q = activation energy (J)
T = temperature (K)
R = gas constant (J.kg-1K-1)
Creep is the time-dependent deformation when subjected to a constant load beneath
the yield strength. This is the equation for steady state creep (aka secondary creep).
TeX format: \dot{\varepsilon} = A\sigma^ne^{(\frac{-Q}{RT})}

Crack strain energy release rate

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 02 c
G=
E

( )

G = strain energy release rate (Jm-1)

0 = fracture toughness (Pa)
c = crack length (m)
E = Youngs modulus (Pa)
During crack growth in a material, strain energy release rate was defined by A. A.
Griffith in the following equation. The Griffith Criterion states that for crack growth to
occur, this value must be greater than rate of energy absorption.
TeX format: G = \pi\left(\frac{{\sigma_0}^2c}{E}\right)

Vickers hardness test

HV =

2 sin ( 68 ) F
d2

HV = Vickers Hardness number (Pa)

F = indenter load (N)
d = mean indent diameter (m)
The Vickers hardness test is a measure of a materials resistance to permanent
deformation at the surface using a diamond indenter. Although not strictly speaking a
property, hardness is often used in materials selection process. The equation relates
specifically to the Vickers testing process and equipment.
TeX format: HV = \frac{2sin(68\degree )F}{d^2}

Brinell hardness test

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D2 d 2
D

D
2
F
BHN =
BHN {BHN} = Brinell Hardness Number (Pa)
D = indenter ball diameter (m)
d = mean indent diameter (m)
The Brinell hardness test is a measure of a materials resistance to permanent
deformation at the surface using a spherical indenter (ball bearing). Although not
strictly speaking a property, hardness is often used in materials selection process. The
equation relates specifically to the spherical testing process and equipment.
TeX format: BHN = \frac{F}{{\pi\over 2}D(D - \sqrt{D^2-d^2})}

Knoop hardness test

HK =

P
C p L2

HK {HK} = Knoop hardness (Pa)

P = indenter load (N)
Cp = indenter shape correction factor
L = largest indent length/diameter (m)
The Knoop microhardness test is a measure of a materials resistance to permanent
deformation at the surface using a pyramid diamond indenter. Although not strictly
speaking a property, hardness is often used in materials selection process. The equation
relates specifically to the Knoop testing process and equipment, used primarily for
brittle and thin materials at a small scale.
TeX format: HK = {P \over {C_pL^2}}

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Coffin-Manson relation
p '
= f (2 N )c
2
p/2 = plastic strain amplitude
f = fatigue ductility coefficient
2N = number of reversals to failure
c = fatigue ductility exponent - empirical constant
The Coffin-Manson relation is a low-cycle fatigue strain classification relating fatigue
strain size to the number of cycles.
TeX format: {\Delta \varepsilon_{p}\over2} = {\varepsilon^{'}_f(2N)^c}

Miners rule
k

Ni =C
i=1

k = different stress magnitudes in a spectrum

ni = number of cycles
Ni = number of cycles to failure
C = experimental constant between 0.7 and 2.2, usually for design purposes, C is
assumed to be 1
Miners rule is used to estimate fatigue life left of a sample which has undergone cyclic
stresses at varying amplitudes. Typically used in high-cycle applications.
TeX format: {\sum_{i=1}^{k}{n_i\over{N_i}} = C}

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Paris-Erdogan law
da
m
=C K
dN
da = the crack length (m)
dN = number of load cycles
C and m = material constants
K = range of stress intensity factor (m)

The Paris-Erdogan law states the relationship of the stress intensity factor range to subcritical crack growth under a fatigue stress regime.
TeX format: {da\over{dN}}= {C\Delta K^{m}}

Hall-Petch relationship
y = 0 +

ky

y = yield stress (Pa)

0 = material constant (Pa)
ky = strengthening coefficient (Pa.m 0.5)
d = grain diameter(m)

The Hall-Petch relationship illustrates the relationship between yield strength and grain
size. Only holds down to 10nm grain size after which plastic deformation uses a
different mechanism and yield strength decreases.
TeX format: \sigma_y =\sigma_0 + {k_y \over \sqrt{d}}

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Ficks first law of diffusion

J =D

J = diffusion flux (mol.m-2s-1)

D = diffusivity (m2s-1)
= concentration (mol.m-3)
x = position (m)
Ficks first law of diffusion states that flux moves from regions of high concentration to
regions of low concentration with a magnitude that is proportional to the concentration
gradient.
TeX format: J = -D\frac{\partial \phi }{\partial x}

Ficks second law of diffusion

2
=D 2
t
x
D = diffusivity (m2s-1)
= concentration (mol.m-3)
x = position (m)
t = time (s)
Ficks second law of diffusion characterises how the concentration field at a point will
changes with time.
TeX format: {\partial\phi\over\partial t} = D{\partial^2\phi\over\partial x^2}

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Darkens equations
CA
J 'A =~
D
x

( )

C A ~ C A
=D
t
x

( )

JA = diffusion flux (mol.m-2s-1)

D = interdiffusion coefficient (m2s-1)
CA = concentration (mol.m-3)
x = position (m)
t = time (s)
The Darken regime is an adaptation of Ficks Laws for substitutional diffusion by the
motion of vacancies.
The Darken equation is an adaptation of Ficks laws for this purpose.
TeX format: 1. {J_A}' = - \tilde{D}\left (\frac{\partial C_A}{\partial x}\right)
2. \frac{\partial C_A}{\partial t} = \tilde{D} \left(\frac{\partial C_A}
{\partial x}\right)

Clausius-Clapeyron relation
dP
L
=
dT T V
dP/dT = slope of the coexistence curve (JK-1m-3)
L = latent heat (J)
T = temperature (K)
V = volume change of the phase transition (m 3)
The Clausius-Clapeyron relation represents the mathematical form of the coexistence
curve (aka lines of equilibrium) on a Phase diagram. The coexistence curve marks the
points on a pressure-temperature plot where multiple phases can coexist.

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TeX format: {dP\over dT} = \frac{L}{T\Delta V}

Avrami equation
y=1expk t

y = fraction of material changed

k = material dependant constant (no units)
n = material dependant constant (no units)
t = time (s)
The Avrami equation describes the change of matter from one state to another at a
constant temperature. A graph of y against log(t) is characterised by an initially slow
rate of change (corresponding to nucleation of the new phase) followed by a faster,
steady rate (growth of the new phase), and finally a decrease in rate (as the driving
force behind the phase change reduces).
TeX format: y = 1 - \exp^{- kt^{n}}

Scheil equations
C L =C0 ( f L )k1
C S=k C 0 ( 1f S )
CL
CS
C0
fL
fS
k

k1

= Concentration of solute in the liquid phase (mol.m-3)

= Concentration of solute in the solid phase (mol.m-3)
= Concentration of solute in the liquid phase at start of solidification (mol.m-3)
= Fraction of total mass in the liquid phase (no units)
= Fraction of total mass in the solid phase ( f L + f S =1 ) (no units)
= Distribution coefficient of solute ( k =C S /C L ) (no units)

The Scheil equations describe the concentration of a solute in the solid and liquid
phases during solidification. This equation is commonly used in metallurgy, during the
solidification of alloys and in semiconductor wafer manufacture for the solidification of
single crystals of semiconductor materials.
TeX format:

C_L=C_0(f_L)^{k-1}

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C_S=kC_0(1-f_S)^{k-1}

Blacks equation
n

MTTF= Aw j

Q
(
kT )
exp

MTTF = Mean time to failure (s)

A = material/geometry dependant constant
w = width of metal wire, sometimes included with the constant, A
j = current density (A.m-2)
n = material/geometry dependant constant (typically = 2, no units)
Q = activation energy for electromigration (eV)
k = Boltzmanns constant (8.617 eV.K-1)
T = Temperature (K)

(m)

In integrated circuit manufacture the Mean Time To Failure (MTTF) equation is used to
predict the lifetime of nano-scale connections between components such as transistors.
By running short experiments at elevated temperatures the constants in the equation
can be calculated, allowing the time to failure (defined as the failure of 50% of
interconnect lines) at normal operating temperatures to be predicted.
TeX format: MTTF = Awj^{-n}exp^{\frac{Q}{kT}}

RC (interconnect) delay
2

L
RC delay 2
w
RC delay = (RC: Resistance & Capacitance) Time taken for a signal to pass through an
interconnect wire (s)
= Resistivity of interconnect wire (m)
= Permittivity of dielectric material surrounding wire (F.m-1)
L = Length of metal interconnect (m)
w = Width or separation of interconnects (m)
As integrated circuits decrease in size and more transistors are squeezed into the same
amount of space, the interconnecting wires remain at roughly the same overall length,
whilst the width of dielectric layers between them is reduced. This introduces a
capacitance and resistance which must be overcome for a signal to pass.
TeX format: RC delay \approx \rho \varepsilon \frac{L^2}{w^2}

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Equivalent oxide thickness (EOT)

EOT =t highk

k Si O
k highk
2

EOT = Equivalent oxide thickness (m)

t highk = thickness of the high-k dielectric layer (m)
k SiO = relative permittivity of SiO2 (3.9 F.m-1)
k highk = relative permittivity of SiO2 replacement (F.m-1)
2

As integrated circuits are miniaturised, quantum tunnelling of electrons between

adjacent interconnects and transistors becomes a problem, causing signal loss and the
generation of heat. To combat this, replacement dielectrics can be used, for example
HfO2, which has a k 21 F.m-1. This allows a thicker dielectric layer to be used to give
the same performance as SiO2 with a reduced likelihood of quantum tunnelling.
TeX format: EOT = t_{high-k} \left(\frac{k_{SiO_2}}{k_{high-k}}\right)

Critical thickness for strained oxide

layer
2 1
hc = .
.P
s E 2m
hc

s
E
m
P

= Critical oxide thickness (m)

= Poissons ratio for strained material (no units)
= Mean separation of misfit dislocations (m)
= Youngs modulus of strained material (Pa)
= Misfit strain (no units)
= Dislocation energy per unit length (N.m-1)

One method of increasing the speed of a microprocessor is to deposit strained channel

material between gates in MOSFETs. This effectively reduces the delay in and between
transistors. Electrons passing from one gate to another encounter less material and as
such undergo less scattering, increasing their apparent velocity. The thickness of the
strained material is limited by the strain field associated with the lattice mismatch

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between the channel and substrate material, and at a critical thickness will introduce
dislocations into the deposited material, which are detrimental to the effect sought.
TeX format: h_c = \frac{2}{s}\cdot\frac{1-\nu}{E{\varepsilon_m}^2}\cdot P

Resistivity / Conductivity
1
A
1
= =R =

L Ne e e
= resistivity (m)
= conductivity (Sm-1)
R = resistance ()
A = cross-sectional area (m2)
L = length of sample (m)
Ne = density of free electrons (m-3)
e = electron charge (C)
e = electron mobility (m2V-1s-1)
Material property describing how well a material can conduct electricity. Materials with
high resistivity (low conductivity) are known as insulators. Materials with low resistivity
are conductors. This is generally a good indication of a materials ability to conduct
heat. Can be effected by environmental (thermodynamic) factors.
TeX format: \rho = {1\over\sigma} = R{A\over L}

Piezoresistivity

=
L
L
= piezoresistivity
= change in resistivity
L = change in length
= original resistivity
L = original length
Stress over a conductor will induce a strain and therefore change the resistance of the
conductor. In semiconductors, strain also causes a change in the materials resistivity,

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causing a much larger change in resistance. This change in material conductivity

brought about by strain is known as piezoresistivity. Not related to the piezoelectric
effect. Used primarily in strain gauges.
TeX format: \rho_\sigma = \frac{\left(\frac{\partial\rho}{\rho}\right)}
{\left(\frac{\partial L}{L}\right)}

Capacitance
C=

Q
V

C = capacitance (F)
Q = charge (C)
V = potential difference (V)
The electrical capacitance of a material or, more usually, a device is defined as the
amount of charge than can be stored for a given electric potential (driving force).
TeX format: C = \frac{Q}{V}

Capacitance (parallel plate)

C=

0 r EA
V

C {C} = capacitance (F)

0 = permittivity of free space (Fm-1)
r = relative permittivity
E = electric field strength (Vm-1)
The most basic type of capacitor involves running a potential difference over two
parallel plates separated by a dielectric, causing charge to build up on the plates. This
is the defining equation of this arrangement, which underpins every type of capacitor.
TeX format: C = \frac{\varepsilon_0\varepsilon_r EA}{V}

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Degree of Crystallinity
%C=

c s a
100
s c a

%C = crystallinity of sample (%)

c = density of crystalline solid (kg.m-3)
a = density of amorphous solid (kg.m-3)
s = density of sample with unknown % crystallinity (kg.m-3)
This equation is used to determine the percentage crystallinity for a semi-crystalline
sample by the measured density of the sample and of the densities of the fully
crystalline and fully amorphous states (assuming no voids are present).

TeX format: \% C = \frac{\rho_c}{\rho_s} \left ( \frac{\rho_s \rho_a}{\rho_c

\rho_a} \right ) \times 100

Degree of polymerisation
n=

n = Degree of polymerisation, also = average number of mers per polymer chain (no
units)
M = Molecular weight of polymer (g.mol-1)
m
= Molecular weight of mer (g.mol-1)

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The degree of polymerisation gives the average number of mer units joined together to
form each polymer chain. This allows differentiation between polymers with the same
composition but different chain lengths, which can have significant effects on the
overall material properties.
TeX format: n = \frac{M_{wp}}{\bar{m}}

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Interlaminate Shear Strength (ILSS)

ILSS=

3 Pmax
4 Bd

ILSS = Interlaminate shear strength (Pa)

Pmax = Maximum force reached during test (N)
B = Sample width (m)
d = Sample thickness (m)
This equation is used to determine the interlaminate shear strength of a composite
material, based upon the force at failure during a 3 point bend test. The test is typically
standardised, with B = 10mm, d = 2mm and the distance between the two
support points = 20mm.
TeX format: ILSS = \frac{3 P_{max}}{4Bd}

Beam theory method for DCB test

GIc =
GIc
P

B
a

3 P
2 Ba

= Mode I fracture energy (J.m-2)

= Force (N)
= Displacement at point of force (m)
= Sample width (m)
= Distance from P to crack tip (m)

The Double Cantilever Beam (DCB) test is used to assess the mode I failure strength of
a composite sample. This equation gives a rough value for the mode I fracture energy,
as it assumes that the beam is perfectly built in at the crack tip.
TeX format: G_{Ic} = \frac{3 P \delta}{2Ba}

Corrected beam theory method for

DCB test
GIc =
GIc
P

B
a

3 P
2 B ( a+ )

= Mode I fracture energy (J.m-2)

= Force (N)
= Displacement at point of force (m)
= Sample width (m)
= Distance from P to crack tip (m)
= Distance ahead of crack tip to area where beam is perfectly built in (m)

This modified beam theory equation assumes that the crack is effectively longer than
that measured during the Double Cantilever Beam (DCB) test. The additional crack
length is calculated from the samples compliance ( C = /P ). Plotting C1 /3
against a yields a linear graph in which the line of best fit crosses the x-axis at some
negative value of a . The magnitude of this value is the additional crack length, .
TeX format: G_{Ic} = \frac{3 P \delta}{2B(a+\Delta)}

Experimental compliance method

for DCB test
GIc =
GIc
n
P

B
a

nP
2 Ba

= Mode I fracture energy (J.m-2)

= gradient of log ( C) vs log ( a) (no units)
= Force (N)
= Displacement at point of force (m)
= Sample width (m)
= Distance from P to crack tip (m)

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In the DCB test, a measure of mode I fracture energy can be obtained using the
experimental compliance method. It is assumed that the compliance ( C = / P )
is related to the crack length ( a ) by the equation C=k an , where k and n are
constants. A plot of
to n .

log ( C)

vs

log ( a) gives a linear graph with the gradient equal

TeX format: G_{Ic} = \frac{n P \delta}{2Ba}

Mode II fracture energy for ENF

test
GIIc =

9 a2 P 2
16 E B2 h3

GIIc = Mode II fracture energy (J.m-2)

a = Distance from end support to crack tip (m)
P = Force (N)
E = Youngs modulus (Pa)
B = Sample width (m)
2 h = Sample thickness (m)
The End Notch Flexure (ENF) test is used to determine the mode II fracture energy of a
composite material.
TeX format: G_{IIc} = \frac{9a^2P^2}{16EB^2h^3}

Mixed mode (I/II) fracture energy

for SCB test
GI / IIc=

3 m a2 P 2
2B

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GI / IIc = Mixed mode (I/II) fracture energy (J.m-2)

m = gradient of line from plot of C vs a3 (N-1m-2)
a = Distance from end support to crack tip (m)
P = Force (N)
B = Sample width (m)
For the Single Cantilever Beam (SCB) test, the specimen compliance ( C= / P ) is
assumed to follow the equation
graph with a gradient equal to

C=C0 + ma3 . Plotting

m .

against

a3

yields a linear

TeX format: G_{I/IIc} = \frac{3ma^2P^2}{2B}

Fouriers law
J=

T T 1
q
=k 2
A
x

J = flux (Jm-2s-1)
dq/dt = heat transfer rate (Js-1)
A = cross-sectional area (m-2)
T2 = hot source (>T1) temperature (K)
T1 = cold source (<T2) temperature (K)
x = distance between sources. (m)
k = thermal conductivity of substance between sources. (Js -1m-1K-1)
Fouriers Law of thermal conduction can have several forms and describes the transfer
of thermal energy from a hot source to a cold one.
TeX format: J = \frac{\dot{q}}{A} = -k\frac{T_2 - T_1}{x}

Arrhenius equation
k =A e

Ea
RT

k = reaction rate coefficient (s-1)

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A = prefactor (mol-1)
T = temperature (K)
R = universal gas constant (JK-1)
Ea = Activation energy (J.mol-1)
The Arrhenius equation quantises the effect of temperature on a chemical reaction
rates.
TeX format: {k}= {Ae^{ -E_a\mathrm/RT}}

Daltons law of partial pressures

n

Ptotal= pi
i=1

Ptotal = total pressure (Pa)

p1, p2 .. = partial pressures (Pa)
Daltons law states that the pressure exerted by a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum
of the partial pressures of the constituent gasses. Remains valid up to high pressures.
TeX format: P_{total} = \sum_{i = 1}^{n}p_i

Nernst equation
Ee =E 0

[ reduced ]
2.303 RT
log
zF
[ oxidised ]

Ee = electrode potential (V)

E0 = standard potential (V)
R = universal gas constant (J K-1 mol-1)
T = temperature (K)
z = number of moles of electrons
F = Faraday constant (Cmol-1)

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The Nernst equation links the equilibrium potential of an electrode to its standard
potential and the concentrations or pressures of the reacting components at a given
temperature. It describes the electrode potential for a given reaction as a function of
the concentrations (or pressures) of all participating chemical species.
The notation [reduced] represents the product of the concentrations (or pressures where gases
are involved) of all the species that appear on the reduced side of the electrode reaction, raised
to the power of their stoichiometric coefficients. The notation [oxidised] represents the same for
the oxidised side of the electrode reaction.

TeX format: E_e = E^0 - \frac{2.303RT}{zF}\log{ \left|\frac{[reduced]}

{[oxidised]}\right |}

Butler-Volmer equation

( ( ) (

I =i 0 exp

nF
( 1 ) nF
exp
RT
RT

))

I = current (A)
i0 = exchange current density (A)
= transfer coefficient
F = Faraday constant (Cmol-1)
R = universal gas constant (J K-1 mol-1)
T = temperature (K)
n = number of electrons
= overpotential - the difference between electrode potential and equilibrium potential
(V)
The Butler-Volmer equation describes how electrical current in an electrochemical
reaction depends on the electrode potential, considering both a cathodic and an anodic
reaction occur on the same electrode.
TeX format: I = i_0\left( exp\left( \frac{\alpha nF\eta}{RT}\right) - exp\left(\frac{(1-\alpha)nF\eta}{RT}\right)\right)

Tafel equation

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V == A ln

( ii )
0

V = overpotential (V)
A = Tafel slope (V)
i {i} = current density (Am-2) {Am^{-2}}
i0 {i_0} = exchange current density (Am-2) {Am^{-2}}
The Tafel equation relates the electrochemical reaction rate to overpotential.
TeX format: \Delta V = A ln\left(\frac{i}{i_0}\right)

Energy density of a laser beam

E =

2P
rV

E = Laser energy density (J.m-2)

P = Laser power (W)
r = Beam radius (m)
V = Scan velocity (m.s-1)
In materials processing, the above equation describes the energy density of a laser
beam (also known as beam exposure). At high enough energy densities lasers can be
used to cut through sheet metals, weld materials together, sinter powders together to
form solids, etc.
TeX format: E_{\rho} = \frac{2P}{\pi r V}

Required laser power in SLM

P=

2 rVtC T m
1R

P = Laser power required to cause melting (J.m-2)

r = Laser beam radius (m)

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V = Scan velocity of beam (m.s-1)

t = Layer thickness (m)
= Powder density (kg.m-3)
C = Specific heat capacity of powder (J.kg-1.K-1)
T m = Melt temperature of powder (K)
R = Reflectivity of powder (no units)
The rapid prototyping methods Selective Laser Melting (SLM) and Selective Laser
Sintering use a medium to high power laser beam to fuse adjacent powder particles
together. By scanning the beam back and forth across a powder bed, a thin layer of
sintered or melted material is formed. The powder bed then drops by one layer
thickness, fresh powder is wiped across the surface and the process is repeated. In this
way a complete 3D solid metallic model can be produced.
TeX format: P = \frac{2rVt\rho C T_m}{1-R}

Minimum spot size for a laser

W 0=

4 M 2 f
DL

W 0 = Minimum spot radius (m)

M = Beam mode (no units)
f = Focal length of lens (m)
= Wavelength of laser (m)
DL = Diameter of laser beam at lens (m)
This equation gives the minimum spot radius for a laser beam, based on beam mode
and optic geometry. This corresponds to the part of the beam with highest radiant
power.
TeX format: W_0 = \frac{4M^2f \lambda}{\pi D_L}

Irradiance at minimum spot in a

laser beam

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of CORE Materials

24

H (r ,0)=H max

2 r2
2
W0

( )
exp

H (r ,0) = Irradiance at a distance r from beam centre at

H max = Irradiance at centre of beam at z = 0. (W.m-2)
r = radius from centre of beam (m)
W 0 = Minimum spot radius (m)

= 0. (W.m-2)

In rapid prototyping processes such as Stereolithography (SLA), it is important to

determine the laser beams interaction with the prototype resin. Specifically, the
distribution of the laser beams radiant power at the surface of the resin and below will
determine the voxel (volume pixel) geometry. The above equation describes the
distribution of beam power at zero depth when the laser beams minimum radius
coincides with the resin surface.

TeX format: H_{(r,0)} = H_{max} exp^{-\left(\frac{2r^2}{{W_0}^2}\right)}

Irradiance distribution within SLA

resin
H (r ,z )=H ( r ,0 )

z
(
)
exp Dp

H (r ,z ) = Irradiance at a distance r from beam centre at a depth of z (W.m-2)

H (r ,0) = Irradiance at a distance r from beam centre at z = 0. (W.m-2)
z = Depth below resin surface (m)
D p = Beam penetration depth, (when irradiance has reached 37% that of the
surface) (m)
In rapid prototyping processes such as Stereolithography (SLA), it is important to
determine the laser beams interaction with the prototype resin. Specifically, the
distribution of the laser beams radiant power at the surface of the resin and below will
determine the voxel (volume pixel) geometry. The above equation describes the
distribution of beam power at a depth = z when the laser beams minimum radius
coincides with the resin surface, and assumes a Beer-Lambert law of absorption for the
resin.
TeX format: H_{(r,z)} = H_{(r,0)} exp^{\left(\frac{-z}{D_p}\right)}

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of CORE Materials

25

Laser exposure within resin for SLA

[ ]

2 PL
E ( r , z) =
. exp
W0Vs

z 2r 2

Dp W 20

E(r , z) = Laser exposure at depth z and distance r from the beam centre (J.m-2)
P = Beam power (W)
W 0 = Effective beam radius (m)
V s = Scan velocity of beam (m.s-1)
z = Depth below resin surface (m)
D p = Beam penetration depth, (when irradiance has reached 37% that of the
surface) (m)
r = radius from centre of beam (m)
In the rapid prototyping process stereolithography (SLA), the resin cures when exposed
to energies above a critical exposure. The above equation describes the exposure on
the surface of and within the resin for a laser beam of power PL moving at a velocity

Vs .
TeX format: E_{(r,z)} = \sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi}} \left [\frac{P_L}{W_0 V_s} \right ] \cdot
exp^{-\left (\frac{z}{D_p}-\frac{2r^2}{{W_0}^2} \right )}

This document has been released under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 licence courtesy
of CORE Materials

26