r- ~

dp=

PETROLEUM

TRANSACTIONS
+wr o@
4iif34
em -@

Water Flooding - Down - Structure Displacement

In the Presence of a Gas Cap
J. F. WILSON
MEMBER AIME

ABSTRACT
Steady-state flow theory, previously applied to disphrcenrents with two mobile phases, is extended fo cover downstructure flow involving three mobile phases: oil, gas and
water. When used with norinal reservoir fhiid properties,
the theory predicts the existence of four distinct flow
regimes and the conditions under which each regime
exists. The predicted behavioris verified by a parallel-plate
model study,

UNION OIL CO. OF CALIFORNIA

Bi?EA, CALIF.

eneous porous medium, The transition zone between the

fluids is assumed to be of negligible extent so that the
displaced and displacing fluids are separated by a sharply
defined interface, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The density and
mobility of the displacing fluid are constant over the
region behind the interface, and the same properties of
the displaced fluid are constant over the region ahead of
the interface.
,
In such a system, if

(e E)

<g(pap,

INTRODUCTION
Special problems exist when a water flood is contemplated in adipping reservoir having a substantial gascap.
Normally, the gas-cap region is one of very low oil saturation. If oil is moved into tfregas cap during the flood, a
loss in recovery results. Efficient recovery of the oil under-
lying thegasis therefore difficult.
In two reported field water floods, injection into the gas
cap has been used to solve these problems, At tire West
Norfolk Ciarr Sand Unit, injection into the up-structure
region of the reservoir was made for the stated purpose of
filling up the gas cap with water. The purpose in the
Sholem Alechem Fault Block A Sims Sand Unit was
to form a continuous water barrier between the gas cap
and oil band. A laboratory model study preceded. this
flood and was described in the same publication,
Both of these gas-cap water injections gave satisfactory
results, but the published data are insufficient to allow
generalizing to other field conditions. The present investigation was also undertaken to obtain results for a specific
field problem. However, these results will be shown to be
in agreement with an extension of the Dletz36mathematical model to three-phase flowing systems. The agreement
between the theory and the model studies indicates that
the mathematical model can be used to describe completely the flowing system under some conditions, and to
indicate the generaI type of flow to be expected under all
condhions.
FLOW THEORY
The Dletz equations for two.phase flow are derive&
for the case of constant-velocity linear flow in a homog-

(1)

a stable. (nontingering) flow will result in which the tilt of

the interface will approach a steady-state value at which

-~=(,Y

(H)

+tana
,.
&J(P: - p,) Cosa
where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the displaced
displacing phases, respectively.

tany=

(,,

and

To extend the Dietz equations to three-phase systems,

we. postulate the flowing system shown in Fig. 2 and
determine the conditions under which it can exist. The

FIG, 1DIETZ FLOW MODEL, TWO-PIiASIZ FLOW.

--%

Or[ginal manuscript
received in Society of Petroleum Engineers
otlke Aug. 6, 1962. Revised manuscript received Nov. 2, 1962. Paner
presented at 37th Annual Fall kketing of sPE, Oct. 7.10, 1962, in
Las Axrgeles.
References given rt end of paper.
Disct&slon of this and all followlng techni&J DaDem Is invited. Dis.
cuss16n [n writ[ rig- (three copies) may be sent to the otlica of the
Jav477Lal of Petrpkwn
!lkchnologrf. Any diecusskm offered after Dec. s 1,
1062 ehordd he in the form of a new paper. No discussion should ezceed 10 Der cent of the manuscript heimx discussed,
DEcEMBER,

)sinrr,

FIG.

1962

2FLew MODEL,

THaIiE.PHASE

Fr.ow.
1sss

...

cotiguration
is assumed to be stable. That is, all flow
vectors are parallel to the top and bottom edges of the
section and are equal in magnitude. Along each interface
the pressure in one phase differs from that in the other
by the capillary pressure, a constant for each two-phase
system. Therefore, the pressure gradients taken along an
interface are equal in each of the two fluids. As in a
two-phase system:-a the pressure gradients are obtained
from Darcys law and then equated, giving an equation
identical with Eq. 2 for each interface.
When tan y becomes zero, the interface is parallel to
the top or bottom of the section and the displacement is
unstable, Setting tan y = O in Eq. 2, we can solve for a
critical velocity u=.
u==

(m-p)

/41 k

k,

sina

(3)
MODEL STUDY

k,

This equation is not too helpful, however, because it does

not indicate whether the range of stable velocities for a
given interface lies above or below the critical value.
Consideration of the behavior of various systems as the
velocity approaches u. leads to the more informative
Eq. 1, Eq, 1 may be applied in turn to each of the three
displacements (water displacing oil, water displacing gas
and gas displacing oil) which make up the sy~tem illustrated by Fig. 2.
The displacement of oil by water is stable if
(f+)sg(p-pu)sina
- a)
The direction of fiow is down-structure, so sin a is negative
and the right-hand member of Eq. la is negative. Therefore, the left-hand member must also be negative. Because
the velocity is alwttys taken positive, the mobility ratio
Wt

At rates below the critical for the displacement of oil

by water, both the water-oil and water-gas interface angles
calculate to be less than zero, and water will finger along
the bottom of the section. The gas will not move downstructure, and oil displacement efficiency will be poor: At
rates between the critical values for the displacement of
oil by water and of gas by water, the water-oil interface
angle is greater than zero; the water-gas interface angle
is less than zero, The water-oil displacement will take place
in a stable manner, but the gas cap will again not move
down. At rates above the critical for the displacement of
oil by gas, the interface angle is calculated as greater than
180. The displacement is unstable, therefore, and the gas
fingers along the top of the structure, moving at a faster
rate than the stable water-oil interface,

; otherwise, the displacement

~>~
be avOrab*e ()k. k.

could not be stable. Stability exists at high flow rates, and

the critical velocity defined by Eq. 3 is the minimum rate
at which a stable displacement can be conducted.
The same general conclusions are reached from a study
of Eq, 1 written for the displacement of gas by water.

The extension of the Dletz flow theory just presented

was developed to explain the behavior observed in a
laboratory model study, The essential properties of the
prototype reservoir and reservoir fluids are listed in Tables
1 and 2.
SCALING
The scaling laws for reservoir model studies have been
discussed by several authors. A recent and complete treatment was given by Geertsma, Croes and Schwarz?
The laboratory study was designed to determine the
gross behavior of the fluid-fluid boundaries in a reasonablyhomogeneous sandstone oil reservoir. Scaling groups in.
volving the pore size distribution and capillary pressure
can be expected to affect the microscopic fluid dktribution
but not the gross flow behavior, other than indirectly
through. the relative-permeability curves and mobility ratios, If the Dietz assumptions are assumed to fit the reservoir, the dimensionless groups that must be the same in
the model and prototype are: (1) the ratio of Iength to
thickness; (2) the angle of formation dip, a: (3) the fluid
mobility ratios, A,O/A.and AJAC; and (4) the ratios of
gravity to viscous forces,
rABLE l-PROTOrYPE

AND MODEL PROPERrlES

Property

,<g(p,.

p,)

sin a .

(lb)

(?+-)
For normal reservoir fluid properties, the critical velocity
will be somewhat higher than for the water-oil system.
The situation is different for the displacement of oil by
gas, Eq. 1 becomes
~

P.
() kO

P@ <g(p,
k.

pg) sina.

(It)

Both sin LYand the density difference are negative, so the

right-hand member is positive. The mobility ratio is

Prototype

Descrfpttan

Typical

section

Lmath

[ftl

1~*,, . .....
.

Medal
Flow channel betwmen
two Vertically.
oriented parallel
class plates

1990

Thlcknas$ift]

14
0.204
1

29
1

DIP

Permeablllty (dorcias)
Single Nuld
011 In Oil Zone

0.300

2.102

10!

0.1s1

2,102

10!

Water Sehtnd Flood Front

0.0251

2.102 x 104

0.181

2,102

Gas In Gas COP

POrOslty (fraction)

10*

1 ,Wo

0.226

TABLE 2-FLUID

unfavorable so that ~

> ~, and the left-hand member

.9
is also positive. Stability, therefore, exists only at low flow
rates. The critical velocity is a maximum,
The criteria for the existence of the stable system shown
in Fig. 2, therefore, are: (1) oil mobility greater than
water mob~lty, and (2) a flow rate greater, than the
critical velocities for both the water-oil and water-gas
displacements, but less than the critical velocity for the
gas-oil displacement. When these conditions are met, Eq. 2
may be applied to each displacement to calculate the three
interface tilt angles in the system.

reservoir

PROPERTIES
Labaratc.rv 28t

Propartf
Re$erv61r

Density [sin/cc]

%$
.0591

water
011

. No. 2

.No. 3

No. 4

0.0012

:~4;

o.oot2
y;:

0.000s

,7525

0.ss41

.98S9

m.1817

1:1s17

0.01S5
4.73
te.59

0.035
4.73
18.59

0,255
O.OQ1O

0.255
0.0019

0.22s
0.0037

0.238
0.0069

0.254

9.253

0.249

0,249

Vi$co::g [Cp]
water

. No. 1

.0134
,a4
.50

0.8S7S
1.1s20

0,0155
.:;;4

Meb[~fyyR~tie
kwbg

.233
.0037

DmdW Dlff.
Ratio

(Pw.Po]/(Pw.Pg],254

JOURNAL

OF PETROLEUM

TECRNOLOCY

..

..-;

(p.
--

f%)

g km

~~~

(pm

Pa)

refined oil was used in the flow control system. The oil
displaced the inj?ction fluid into the model from a Plexiglass vessel. The flow control set-up is shown schematically in Fig. 3.

~ k.
1

u pm

u p.

or
(P.

p.)

gkto

,*~

U.

,._

u p.m
p, pg
A Buckley-Leverett calculation using the measured relative-permeability curve for the reservoir indicated, as
would be expected from the favorable mobility ratio, that
the displacement of oil by water proceeds with little nlovcment of oil behind the flood front. Thus the Dietz model,
which posttdrdes no oil flow behind the front, should be a
good approximation. The same can be assumed for the
displacement of gas by water. Although the displacement
of oil by gns would not be expected to. flt the Dietz
assumptions very closely, Hawthornes studies in a porousmedia model showed that the theory adequately describes
such systems,
WE \fol)EI,
A Hele-Shnw (or spaced-pl@e) type of model was
chosen for the study. In this model, flow takes place
between two closely spaced plates. To simulate a vertical
section, the plane through the two major dimensions of
the crack is oriented vertically.
Poiseuilles law for fluid flow between two parallel
plates may

.;==

be written

VI

12\L
Darcys law for flow in a porous medium is
;.

k
~

v 4J

(4)

(5)

Comparison of Eqs. 4 and 5 shows that they are completely analogous, and that the parallel plate model has a
permeability of (lt2/12) sq cm, or (1.013 X 10hz/12)
darcies.
The analogy has been appreciated for a long time and
has been utilized extensively by hydrologists. It has been
used for petroleum reservoir modeling only recently in
studies of water coning: gravity drainage: viscous ftngerin~ and displacements in vertical sections.~
The. flow channel of the model, 2.45-in, high x 14-ft
long, was formed by two pieces of %-in. plate glass separated at the top and bottom edges by 0.020-in. cellulose
acetate strips, C-clamps were spaced 3-in. apart along
the top and bottom edges to hold the assembly together.
Strips of cold-finish steel bar of rectangular cross-section
(% X ?4 in,) were placed between the clamps and the
glass to distribute the load. The clamps were adjusted to
give a spacing of 0.019 to 0.020 in., as measured in the
%-in. section Ieft between the outer edges of the spacer
strips and the outer edges of the glass. This outer groove
was then tilled with epoxy resin. Connections for flow into
and out of the model were made through Plexiglass end
fittings cemented to the model with epoxy resin. The completed model was set at a dip angle of 1.
From single-fluid flow tests made at both the minimum
and maximum pressure drops used in the waterflood
studies, the plate spacing was calculated by Eq. 4 as
0,0499 cm (0,0196 in.), Model properties are compared
with those of the prototype reservoir section in Table 1.
F1OWcontrol was achieved by using a controlleric to hold
a constant pressure drop across various sections of porous
media selected to give the desired flow rate. A 28-cp

tVSJIDS
Four different sets of fluids were used in the laboratory.
Their properties, together with the reservoir fluid properties, are listed in Table 2. The two waters were made
from water, glycerine, potassium iodide and Schiilings
blue food coloring. The three oils consisted of blends of
kerosene, light mineral oil, Kel F No. 1 oil and Schillings
red food coloring. The two gases were air and neon.
The sets were designed to give different gas nobilities
relative to the other fluids. Water-gas mobility ratios of
0.0010, 0.0019, 0.0037 and 0.0069 were used to find if is
reasonable degree of uncertainty in the gas mobility would
have a marked effect on results.
Exploratory runs showed that cleaning the model to is
completely uniform surface wettabllity was difficult. As a
result, irregularly shaped and nonreproducible interface
configurations were obtained, caused by differences in the
capillary pressure across the interface at various points in
the model. To minimize this probIem, a cleaning procedure was adopted designed to leave a low surfactant
concentration on the glass, and 500 ppm of the same
surfactant was used in both the oil and water phases. This
reduced the oil-water interracial tension to about 1 dyne/
cm and eliminated the irregular-interfiice problem:
RUN PKOCEINJRIi
The procedure for a run was as follows. The previously
cleaned and dried model was filled with oil, A portion of
the oil was replaced by gas to form a gas cap. The flow
control system was started and tluid allowed to flow
briefly into the burette shown in Fig, 3, Then both the
burette and pump were opened to the bottom of the model
inlet

causing

the contents

to be rapidly

purged

out

C.OTriton X-1OO

--
Ftc.

~Moore Prcducts Model 68 BU,

DECEM13EII, 196z

fitting,

the top fitting. The run was started with the simultaneous
closing of the line to the burette and the top inlet fitting,
and the opening of the line from the model outlet fitting to
the production graduate.
The run was recorded on 16-mm motion picture film
by a camera controlled by a device that r+owed variation
in the picture-takkg rate. From 40 to 100 ft of film was
taken for each run, Production-vs-time data were taken
to check the rate, and a clock was kept in camera focus
at all times to relate the observed behavior to time. Numbered markers l-ft apart along the length of model also
aided following the progress of the displacement.

3FLOW DIAGRAM.

1ss5

In the prototype reservoir, Type 1 flow takes place at

ft/D.

Individual frames from the movie of each run were projected and traced, Interface tilt angles were measured and
compared with the values calculated by Eq. 2. Run conditions are listed in Table 3, and the measured tilt angles
at various stages of the displacements are compared with
the calculated equilibrium values in Table 4, Three of the
four predicted flow regimes were studied experimentally.
Figs. 4, 5 and 6 are copies of the tracings included to
illustrate the flow behavior.

U <0.00074

TYPE 2 I)ISPLACEMENTS
One run was made at a flow rate greater than the critical
for the displacement of oil by water, but less than the
criticai for the displacement of gas by water, The behavior
is illustrated in Fig. 4, taken from the picture record of
Run 5. As predicted, the initially-horizontal gas-oil interface tiltg down-structure, butthe gascap is not displaced.
On the other hand, the oil is, moved from under the gas
with 100 percent vertical sweep efficiency.

DISCUSSION
For convenience in the subsequent discussion, the four
flow regimes defined by the critical velocities for the three
displacements will be referred to as Types 1, 2, 3 and 4,
in order of increasing rate,

Data given in Table 4 show that the water-oil interface

tilt angle during the early stages of the run is slightly
greater than predicted byEq, 2. There aretwo reasons for
this, First, the initial interface angle is much greater than
the calculated equilibrium value, and a transient period
must be expected before the difference between the actual
and calculated angles becomes negligible. Second, while
the interface is under the gas cap, the area available to
flow is less than the cross-sectional area of the model, The
actual velocity, therefore, is greater than the superficial
velocity listed in the table.

TYPE 1 DISPLACEMENTS
Rates below the critical for the displacement of oil by
water were not studied for the three-phase system, The
general description of Type 1 flow given in the Flow
Theory secti~n. has been deduced from the nature of
Type 2 flow and from the behavior of slow down-structure
displacements with the gas cap absent.

In the prototype reservoir,

ft/D,
0.00074< U <0.00224
.TASLK 2-RUN

Model
[cm/se.)

size

of
GypvVI

Pree:pe

0:34s
0.209
1,044
0.34s
0.209
0.34s
0,209

3
3
4

0.039
0.039
0.039
0.039
0.039
0.039
0.039
0.039
0.142
0.142
0.142
0.142
0.142

0<0062
0.0062
0.0334
0.0965
0.0015
0.02s7
0,0095
0.005s
0.02s7
0,0095
0.003s
0.0095
0,0058

TYPE 3 DISPLACENENTS
Five runs were made under conditions at which a[l three
displacements are stable, Scaled prototype rate, density
differences and thewater-oil mobility ratio were held substantially constant. The mobility of the gas re[ative to the
other two fluids and the size of the gas cap were varied.
Run data are shown in Tables 3 and 4, and typical flow
behavior is shown in Fig. 5 (Run 8).

Type
ef Flow

0.05s3
0.0577
0.312
0.900
yX:9

;
4
4
3
4
A

The data show that changing the water-gas mobility

ratio from 0,0010 to 0.0069 has virtually no effect on either
the calculated or measured behavior.
.

4
3

TASIE
Run No,
1

pv.

Y..

0.009
0.210
0.273
0.571
:.,5:

&
.*
**
..
**

7.3
6.4
6.7
6.3
6,0
6.6

1;.8

;::
6,6
6.3

179.6
179.7
!79.8
~;:j

:::
6,5

I79:7
179.s

4-RUN

0.044
0.110
0.2S4
0.434
0.573
:;9;
0.066
0.105
0.142
0.325
0.575
0,857
0.;2;

Pv*

0.182
0.226
0.512
:;s4;

0.130
0.2
0,8
Eq. 2

0.113
0.41s
:.3;

0.115

32.0

G. S. T.***
31.7
33.3
32.0
29.S
29.S
34,9

10

179.0
179,0

2.8
1.4
i::

0.143
0.4S6
:7s;

33.6
33,2
31,7
34,1

s.

T.

13.s
13.6
13.3
13.0

0.261

7.2
2:
4.9

Eq. 2

34,2
33.7
33.8
34.1

-0.07
0.141
0.381
Eq. 2

14.1
13,7
12.0

12

0.079
0.169
y;

I ,4
,1,5
1,7
I ,5

G. S. T.

-0.04
0.375
0.541
0.791

0,23s
0.506
::5:

13

~
G. B. 1.

0!500
0.s07
Eq. 2

11

G. B. T,
-63?
-63}
63.S

DATA

Run No.

s
2

2 flow occurs at

CONDITIONS

.%pdlclal Velocity

SeO. Table

Type

179.6
179,s
;;;,;

G. 8. T.

179.a
1So.o
180.3
179.s

sol
7,6
7.4
6.9

12,9
12.s
12.0

0.165
0,305
0.500
gG713;

G. S. T.

2.2

7.9

:::
I .5
1.5

,.

179.5
179.5
179.6
179.7
179.s

Pore volumas bf wafer infected.

**ln*u~clentcelOr
contrast to measure,

**OaS breakthrough.
\?Appreclable

curvature f.a Interface.

JOURNAL

OF PETRGLEUM

TRC23NOL0CY

Runs 1, 2 and 8 were made with a gas-cap size of

0,039 PV. Runs 11 and 13 were made with a 0.142-PV
cap. In the latter case, gas breakthrough occurred at about
0,32PV injected. Run behavior after breakthrough is influenced by the relative amounts of gas and oii produced,
The disagreement between the calculated and measured
angles in the latter stages of Run 11 is believed to have
resulted from an inadvertent restriction in gas flow from
the model, With the smaller gas cap, breakthrough occurred at about 0.75-PV injected, so the greater portion of
these runs was not affected by two-phase producing difficulties.
In general, the steady-state tilt angles are approached
fairly rapidly and, with the exception of Run 11, the
agreement with theory is good,
Type 3 flow takes place in die prototype reservoir at
ft/D.
0.00224< U <0,00725
TYPE

4 DISPLACEMENTS

remaining seven runs were made at rates above the

critical for the displacement of oil by gas. As in the Type 3
displacements, four different gas nobilities relative to the
other fluids and two different gas-cap sizes were studied.
Typi~al behavior is shown in Fig. 6, taken from the record
of Run 7. Decreasing the gas mobility has a slight but
consistently observable effect in slowing the movement of
the gas relative to the water-oil front. Increasing the size
of the gas cap also slows the gas movement, Increasing
the rate increases the rate of gas movement relative to the
water-oil front.
Quantitative evaluation of these effects would be of
doubtful value, In the parallel-plate model, the gas remains
in a single bubble and has a constant mobility, In the
reservoir, the rapidly moving gas zone will probably spread
over a larger area because of viscous fingering, The region
The

A:

PORE

B:

0,21

VOLUMES

INJECTED

13

Ik

PORE

VOLUMES

Ii

0,57

PORE

.. . .

VOLUMES

INJECTEO

FLOW _

NOMENCLATURE
g = gravitational constant
k = plate spacing in FIele-Shaw model
k = permeability
u = superficial velocity (flow rate per unit area)
u. = critical velocity defined by Eq. 3
x = Cartesian co-ordinate in direction of flow

WATER ~

OIL=

as=

The experimental study was limited to cover only the

condhions expected in the reservoir being modeled, Nevertheless, the excellent agreement obtained with extended
Dietz theory gives confidence that the theory can be
applied to all systems where the assumption that only one
fluid is flowing in a given region of the porous medium
at a given time is reasonable,
If water is injected into the up-structure region of a
dipping reservoir containing a gas cap and the water-oil
mobility ratio is less than 1.0, four distinct types of flow
can occur.
Type IWater fingers along the bottom of the formation, the gas cap does not flow and oil recovery is poor.
This type of flow occurs at rates from zero to the critical
velocity for the displacement of oil by water,
Type 2The gas cap does not flow, and oil is displaced
from under the gas in a stable manner. This type of flow
occurs at rates lying between the critical velocities for the
displacement of oil by water and of gas by water,
Type 3Both gas and oil are displaced in a stable
manner. This type of flow occurs at rates between the
critical velocities for the displacement of gas by water and
of oil by gas,
Type 4Gas fingers along the top of the formation,
moving faster than the stable displacement of oil by water.
This type of flow occurs at rates greater than the critical
for the displacement of oil by gas.
The recognki~n and definition of these flow regimes can
be used in the planning, control and interpretation of field
water floods,

I
_.._.m___=..

Ik

C:

CONCLUSIONS

INJECTED

-==--+

of l-sigh gas saturation will be one of reduced mobility,

therefcre, and the effects seen in the model will be damped
in the reservoir,
Type 4 flow takes place in the prototype reservoir at
K >0,00725
ft/D.

A:
FIG.

~.

poRE

4-TYPE

VOLUMES

FLOW-RUN

INJEcTED

,tJ
0.29

VOLUMES

PORE

4
OIL

Fm.

c:

0,0s

PoRE

VOLUME

Ii

PORE

VOLUMES

DECEMBER,

19G2

Ii

INJECTEO

II
FLOW -

WATER m

,.

lNdECTEO

i?

D: 0,23

5-TYPE

INJECTEO

[2

FLOW
GAS m

-.. ,:,.;/.,:% ,,

.INJEOTEO

VOLUMES

13

.VOLUMES

PORE

0.04

INJECTED

II
0.73

INJECTEO
[

fi

C:

VOLUMES

13

12

PORE

PORE
I

S\

S:

5.

FLOWRUN

8.

OIL

OAs n
FIG.

&TvPE

WATER ~

~
4

FLOW-RUN

7.

1s87

Y = Cartesian co-ordinate normal to flow

a = angle of formation dip

Y = angle between interface
(see Fig, 2)
A = fluid mobility (k/p)
P = viscosity
P = density
@= potential

!.

and edge of formation

6,
7,
80
9,

A.:

Flooding
of Gas Cap in the Norfolk Garr
Jour, Pet. Tech. (Oct., 1958) 10, No. 10, 14,

Griffith, J. D., RHey,

H. G,, Craig,

F. F., Jr.

and

Wagner,

A Study of Gas-CapWater Injection in a Peripheral

Water Flood, Trans., AIME ( 1960) 219, 216.
R. J,:

of

B56, 3&

Ertghedzg,
Second Ed., Mc.
Graw-Hill Book Co,, Inc., N, Y. (1958) 429-432,
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11, Chuoke,

Instability
tiacement

12.

REFERENCES

2.

Proldem

Kcmikl, Ned, Akad.

81.

The author is indebted to the Union Oil Co. of Canada

and to Hudsons Bay Oil & Gas Co. for permission to
publish the results of this work.

H,
Unit,

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

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1 = displaced fluid
2 = displacing fluid
~ = gas
o = oil
w = water

1}, N,:

Encroaching
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of S1OW, Immiscible Viscous Liquid.Lfquid
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188,
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Interface in a Waterflood, by hfeans of a Hele.Shaw
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Vertical
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***

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