5 p~ 4r7

e...

Some Effects of Pressure on Forward and

Reverse Combustion
LAWRENCE A, WILSON
RONALD L. REED
MEMBERS AlME
DENZEL W. REED
ROBERT R. CLAY
NICHOLAS H. HARRISON

ABSTRACT

Experiments
have been perjormed in a linear nearsystem /or the purpose of extending data
adiabatic
on reverse and forward combustion from atmospheric
pressure to i,000 psig.
R esrdts obtained from reverse combustion appear
to conform qualitatively
w itbthe existing descnption
of the process when reaction kinetics
are suitably
modified to account for the increase irr pressure, i, e.,
increasing the pressure decreases
the peak temperature and increases
the combustion zoae ve[ocity.
Forward combustion appears to be a /uel dominated
process
wherein peak temperature
ad combustion
zone velocity
are not very sensitive
to changes in
pressure.
The moderate effects of pressure that do
exist at low flux virtually
disappear
at high f[ux
providing all oxygen is consumed. With this provision,
increasing the pressure decreases
the frontal velocit) and increases the pe~k temperature.
Results
are shown grapbicall;, which demonstrate
the effects of pressrue on peak temperature, rate of
advance,
oil recovery,
air/oil rat io, c,arbon oxides
prodrced and temperature distributions.

,.

INTRODUCTION
Numerous field tests of oil recovery using the
technique
of underground combustion are now in
progress. Operating pressures used are always substantially in excess of atmospheric pressure. Nevertheless,
the literature contains no laboratory data
pertaining to the effects of pressure except for those
of Martin, Alexander and Dew. 1 Unfortunateely, these
data appear to reflect heat losses which may have
obscured some of the effects of increased pressure.
The underground combustion processes
are exceedingly complex, and general concepts relating to
them have necesssri~y been described in relatively
simple terms. Particularly
with regard to forward

GULF RESEARCH 8 DEVELOPMENT

PITTSBURGH,
PA.

CO.

combustion, the interaction between multiphase fluid

flow, heat transport and various rate mechanisms is
so involved that to date a rigorous treatment is not
available,
In this paper a linear near-adiabatic
system is
described which was found capable of operating at
pressures
up to 1,000 psig and temperatures of at
least 11100 F. Using this equipment, experiments
on both forward and reverse combustion were accomplished at elevated pressures and thedata presented
as a function of air flux or temperature.
It will be assumed that the reader is familiar with
the papers of Wilsori, Wygal, Reed, Gergina arid
Henderson2 on forward combustion and that of Reed,
Reed end Tracht3 orJ reverse combustion, so that it
is not necessary to repeat the details of the two
processes.
EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURE
It was decided to study the effects of pressure
over the interval 0-1,000 psig using a near-adiabatic
system. Since satisfactory operation of such a system
requires very thin tubing walls, it proved necessary
to insert the entire combustion tube and heater assembly into a high pressure jacket in such a way
that the internal tube txessure codd be counterbalanced by pressurizi~g
the annulus. This meant
that che numerous heater and thermocouple wires
had to pass through gas-tight seals that required
con siderable effort to maintain effective.
An unexpected difficult . arose in connection with
the nature of the annulus pressuring gas. It turned
out that the composition of this gas critically affected
the functioning of the adiabatic control system.
Operation of the equipment at elevated pressures
was not particularly difficult. The problems that did
ariae were a direct consequence of the large numbers
of connections and seals involved.
EQUIPMENT

I1.
r

Originat manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers

office Aug. 12, 1962. Revised manuscript received Jan, 29, 1963,
Pqer presented at 37th Annuaf F afl Mcetlng of SPE, Oct. ,7.10,
1962, W Los Angeles, CaItf.
1~eferences
JU?JE, 1963

given at end d Pm-.

The equipment consisted of the combustion tube

which fitted within the pressure jacket. This jacket
was in turn mounted on a wheeled carriage which
facilitated movement and provided for rotatioir of the
12?

;.
.+

. -z----~-.-...

combustion tube assembly. Auxiliary equipment included the adiabatic controllers, 3 the air injection
and metering devices and the product separation
equipment.
Tube Assembly

The construction of the combustion tube is similar

COthat used in earlier work,s except for slight modif ic ations necessitated
by the relatively small internal diameter of the pressure jacket. The tube was
calcium
covered with preformed, high-temperature
silicate insulation to protect the heater and thermocouples during handling, and the end fl sages were
carefully polished and sealed with metallic O-rings.
A sketch of the combustion cube assembly is shown
in the bottom drawing of Fig. L A photograph of the
tube as it is ready for insertion into the jacket is
shown in Fig, 2.
Pressure

Jacket

A sketch of the pressure jacket is shown at the

top of Fig. 1. It was constructed in two sections
which were fktnged and bolted together. Gas-right
seals were effected at the flanges with O-gaskets.
AH electrical leads were brought through the jacket
wall by means of fittings using a lava seal. Only the
wires necessary to operate and control one station
.
are shown in Fig. 1.
In order to minimize gravity segregation effects
during the experimen~s, the jacket was supported on
a special carriage equipped with steel rollers which
cradled the jacket and allowed it to rotate whi Ie
the experiment was in progress. The jacket rotated
one revolution per minute and the direction was
reversed automatically
after it had turned through
about 360. Pressure tight rotating connectors were
used on the air injection and the product withdrawal
tubing. The jacket and carriage assembly are shown

FIG. 2 JACKET ASSEMBLY (UPPER); COMBUSTION

TUBE ASSEMBLY (LOWER).

in Fig. 2.
Pressuring

Gas

During this work it was found important to select

the proper gas composition with which to pressure
the jacket. For example, at 1,000 psig the use of
pure nitrogen resulted in a large heat input but pure
helium gave essentiality adiabatic operation; however,
at 500 psig, the use of pure helium resulted in high
heat Ioss and pure nitrogen gave a net heat input.
It eventually became evident that for operating preaaures less than 1,000 psig it would be ndcessary to
pressure the annulus with a helium-nitrogen mixture
of such a composition that the same weight of gas
was present regardless
of the pressure,
By this,
technique near-adiabatic operation was achieved over
the pressure range investigated,
Unfortunately,
it
was found that the particular gas composition pressure curve required is system dependent so that no
generalizations
can be made.
VERMICULITE

OUT

FIG, 1 COMBUSTION
12-s

TUBE

AND JACKET.
sOCIETY

OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS

JOURNAL

PROCEDURE

Crushed Berea sandstone was sifted until most of

the fines smaller than U.S. Series 140 mesh were
removed. The sand, with fines removed, was then
dried overnight at an oven temperature of approximately
240F. After coo[ing to room temperature, a
weighed quantity of the prepared sand was mixed
with a weighed quantity of water inside a polyethylene bag. The purpose of the plastic bag was to minimize loss ofthe liquid components by evaporation
during the mixing process. After the sand and water
had been thoroughly mixed, a weighed quantity of
oil was added to the plastic bag and blended with
the sand and water until a homogeneous mixture was
obtained. The relative amounts of sand, water and
oil used were determined by the porosity and the
water and oil saturations desired in the packed com. bustion tube. The prepared mixture was tamped into
the tube at room temperature.
All the reverse combustion experiments
were
carried otit using Athabasca tar sand; this material
required a different preparation procedure from that
described above for the Beres sand-oil mixture. The
tar sand was dried overnight at an oven temperature
of approximately
150F while being flushed with
nitrogen to remove excess water. * [n order to increase
the fluidity of the tar sand during the packing process,
it was tamped into the tube while warm arid the tube
walls were prewarmed to about 150F using the combustion tube heaters.
During the packing operation three samples were
taken at equal intervals snd retained for oil and
water analyses. The total weight of the charge was
recorded, the tube K~s sealed for positioning in the
jacket and pressure tested. Subsequent to this it
was inserted in the jacket and final assembly completed. The annulus was then charged to the desired
pressure with the appropriate gas mixture.
The Run

A typical forward combustion experiment

was
begun by heating the flange and adjacent station at
the inlet end of the tube until the inside thermocouple
at this station indicated a temperature between 600F
and 800F, depending on the operating flux and pressure. Ignition of the sand pack was then easily obtained by beginning air injection at the desired flux.
The two heateis involved in this initial heating
process were manually controlled by separate variacs.
After a definite combustion zone had been established,
the heaters were placed on automatic controI. Successful
ignition was indicated by an increasing
amount of carbon dioxide in the effluent gas, as well
as increasing slope of the temperature profiles. A
similar procedure was followed when conducting a
reverse cornbuation experiment, the only changes
being that the outlet end of the tube was heated
rather than the inlet and the initial temperature was
governed by the pressure and flux.
Gas samples of the exit gas were obtained period...

. .

*When received, the tar sand wae covered

pre eumably from melted ice.

with water-

icrdly throughout the run and retained for , mass

spectrometer
analyses. or sat analyses of the exit
gases were also made to determine carbon dioxide,
oxygen and carbon monoxide concentrations.
Additional data obtained periodically
were cumulative
gas, oil and water production, injection pressure,
tube outlet pressure and jacket pressure. The temperature profiles were recorded automatically.
RESULTS
The mechanisms operative in forward and reverse
combustion are fundamentally clifferent, so that it
wiH be expedient to treat them separately.
In the
discussion
of reverse combuetion, it will become
apparent that there is no reason to depart from the
basic features of the ptocess established
in earlier
low-pressure
work. 3 Similarly, the concepts of the
fluid banks which precede a forward combustion
front and determine r% saturation and disposition
of oil available to thethermal wave, will be retained. z
Numerical results are listed in Tables 1 and 2.
Unless otherwise iridicated the oil used was SAE-40
lubricating
base stock (GP-4o). The properties of
the oils used are shown in Table 3.
REVERSE

Peak

COMBUSTION

Temperature

and Velocity

of the Combustion

Zorze

Fig. 3 shows the dependence of combustion zone

velocity and peak temperature on air flux, with pressitre as a parameter. It can be seen that both variables
are increasing functions, of the air flux at all pressures studied. At a fixed flux, increasing the pressure
decreases
the peak temperature and increaaes the
velocity. This kind of dependence was suggested by
Berry and Parrishq and reflects the notion that the
principal effect of increasing the press tie is to increase the rate of reaction. Although kinetic data
are available to support this contention qualitatively,
the quantitative results are not yet firm. However,
Fig. 4 illustrates
the nature of the dependence of
oxidation rate on pressure for the reaction between
air and an Eaat Venezuela crude. These data were
obtained from differential thermal analyses of the
crude oil (see, for example, Ref. 5 for a description
of che method).
Oil Recovery

It has been established that oil recovery during

reverse combustion at atmospheric pressure is primarily temperature dependent, i.e., it depends on air
flux only inasmuch aa peak temperature depends on
air flux. This idea continues to hold at the higher
pressures (Fig. 5). Furthermore, it can be seen that
oil recovery is a decreasing function of pressure at
any fixed temperature. This result is to be expected
in view of the decreaae in hydrocarbon partial pressure with increase in pressure and the concomitant
decrease in the extent of vaporization achieved.
Air-Oil Ratio

The -dependence, of the ratio of air injected

to oil
1!49

JUNE, 1963
.-

striking feature of reverse combustion that the conversion of oxygen to carbon dioxide is completely
independent of absoIute pressure and air flux, except
inso,far as these quantities are related to peak temperature,
Thus, it is possible in principle, to estimate
the peak temperature from the product gas analysis.
In the figure there are two sets of data for both the
CO/02 and C02 /02 ratios. The dashed lines represent data taken on a low pressure
s ystern maintained in a stationary vertical position; whereas,
the data points refer to a rotated, horizontal high
pressure system, It is not readily apparent how these
configurational factors could account for the observed
differences, An alternative explanation derives from

produced (AOR) on pressure, with air flux as a parameter, is shown in Fig. 6. The rapid increase in
AOR at high pressures refIects the decrease in oil
recovery observed above. Even at a flux of 53, which
is at Ieaat an order of magnitude higher than encountered in most field applications, the AOR approaches
100,000 scf/bbl (measured at GO F and 1 awn) at
1,000 psi~ This becomes an important consideration
in view of the dominance of air costs with respect
to the economics of combustion.
Carbon Oxriies

The mole ratios C% /02 and CO/02 are graphed

as a function of peak temperature in Fig. 7. It is a
TABLE

Initlol

Run

01[

~6

-I

Oi I
Saturatimr
.

Pressure

Porosit
(Psi.a)(vol. %r

1 FORWARD COMBUSTION

Initial
water
Saturation

ln@cted
Avg.
Ah
Peak
Flux
(scf/hr f?2) RP

DATA
Mole Ratio of Produced Gas
TO Iniected Oxygen

V%.gif
Comb.
(ft\D)

coa/o* co/02 02/02

Heat***
LOS.
(per cent)

43.5

47,7

15*9

, 20

805

2,85

0.533

0,0545

0,0

250

41.7

51.4

16.8

20

829

2,78

0.624

0.139

0,0

3*9

500

42.9.

48.9

16>2

20

854

2,56

0,660

04113

0.0

8,5

500

42.0

57*7

19.0

50

895

6.88

0.65

0.1464

0.0

- 4*B

1000

40.6

53,8

18,3

20

900

2*OO

0,686

0.0828

0,0

1000

41.6

58.7

190a

50

905

6*88

0.662

0.1226

0,0

-9.5

40,4

63.5

20

815

3,00

0,583

0.191

0,0

-%5

42,1

25.3

20

804

3,03

0,582

0,196

O*O

H.9

4104

39* 1

20

811

2,90

0.576

0,206

0,0

H. 10

41.0

39.7

50

887

6.62

0.596

0,222

0,0176

H-13

40.8

40.0

H-20

38*5

44

H.21

41.4

39

H-88

41,8

48.3

H.90

1000

43.4

H.76

40.6

H.91

B.

42,2

H-36

A
A
A
A

H-85

H-7
H-8

H.43
H.42
H.86

O*O
2.0

78tl

0.765

0,524

0.189

0.0

-1.0

6.72

0.522

0,1204

0.00656

-1.0

7.07

779

1.16

0.516

00199

0.0

19.3

77,0

884

7*9

0,522

0.1518

0.1116

54.4

18.8

80,0

906

10.25

0,696

0.1372

0.0

60.2

20.4

20.0

813

2.73

0.718

0.163

0,0

47,6

18,4

50.0

873

5.3

0,689

0.1685

0,0515

1LO

0,692

0.1475

0.0

- 1*O

899

H-92

500

43,3

5342

17.8

80,0

892

1000

4100

46.0

18.4

30,0

1075

H-96

42.1

47,8

18.5

35,0

812

4.0

H.97

41.3

49.2

19,8

45*O

917

5,56

9.0

53*1**

H-95

7,8

6,5

5,6
6,2
16,4
0,0

-2.0

Inlected as 7.4 per cent 02 in N2 at flux of 20.0 scf/hr sq ft

flux Of 2000scf/hr sq ft

* lnlect~ ~~54,5 per cent 02 IrIN2at

remaining in burned sand after test t heat in produced flulds - heat of ignltlon~]
.
Ha,at generated
where datum Is ambfent temperature and heat generated is based an 500 Btu per scf of OKygen consumed.

*** Per cent heat loss =

...
.

,oo T1-(Haat

-.

TABLE

2 REVERSE

~
=.

COMBUSTION

DATA,

ATHABASCA

TAR SAND
Specific

Initial

Initial
Pressure
Run

~.

~3
G.34
G-27
G.39
G-45

(P5i9)

O
500
1000
1000
500

Parosity it

(vol. %) (wgt, ~)

126
38
399
12,6
,40.7
12.6
40,0
11,7
37.7
11,7

* Per cent heat less =

.

1s0

1:----::

aturatlon

1001-(
[

Sot~~;on

%&

(wgt, ~)

60.0
55.4
53.5
52,3
5S,2

O*49
0,21
0.27
O*OO
0.00

oil
Gra#ty
Avg.
Avg. Vel. of Recovery
AOR
Rev.
Pro$;ed
Peak
Comb. b/O~by
Temp. Zone
Comb.
Irrf@) (F) .
(ft/D)
(wgt. %) (=f/B)
(OAp O
.
.
20.2
53,0
854
3.22
45.3 , 18200
24950
22.3
53.6
627
5.49
16.8
95300
23,6
52.4
500
2.4
7.70
93900
19.7
100,0
6!30
9.71
11.4
96,0
733
26.1
19000
23.14
7.3
Air
Flux
(scf/

Heat remaining in burned sand after test+

fdole Ratio of
Produced Ciaste
Iniected Oxygen

c0202

0.565
0,351
0.253
0,386
0.457

heat in produced fluids -

Cooz

Heat*
LOSS
WoR (per centl

0.1068
0.0885
0,0643
0.0763
0.0719

0.458
0,913
Z63
1057
0.888

5.5
1.0
2.0
5.6
3.4

heat of ignitlcm
)]

Heat generoted

wh we dotum is ambient temperature and heat generated is based an 500 Btu par scf of oxygen consumed.

SOCIETY

OF PETROLEUM

ENGINEERS

JO IIRN AI.

profile with decreasing flux at constant pressure is

not as prominent at high pressures as itwas shown
to be at atmospheric pressure. 6

TABLE 3PROPERTIES
OF OILS USEO IN
FORWARD COMBUSTION TESTS

c
Easterh
Venezuela

B
A GP-40 Mld.Cant.

D
=

E
South
Selridgo

Crarbcrn,%

86.3

86* 1

85.98

84.34

86.02

Hydrogen, %

1304

12.01

11.78

12,11

I 1.25

0.22
0.17

6.27
7.9

7.17
9

4,52
5.9

5,86
6,5

Carbmr Residue, %
Ramsbattom
Ceirradsmr (barn
ASTM Cor.)

FORWARD

Peak Temperature and Velocity

Combustion Zone

126.7
55.3

25 I
97,3

28,7

22

Gravity, oAPI

34.1
17*4

8,9
5,72

24

1922
437

30.6

of the

Pertinent resuits are shown in Fig. 3. It will be,

noted that there are several instances in which data
pointe fall substantially off the curves which putport
to represent them. The data points are plotted as
obtained from the experiment. The velocity curves

v;ylyitp
Cp
at 130 F

COMBUSTION

12.9

aging
of che tat sand. Although the sand used in all
these experiments came from the same batch, an
interval of about three to four years passed between
the taking of the two sets of data. During thie period
no precautions were taken to exclude airr so that
any low temperature oxidation that might have occ urred could re suit in the redistribution
of oxygen
between CO and C02.

Temperature

Profiles

Average quasi-steady
state temperature profiles
are shown in Fig. 8. They reflect, primarily, the
effects of flux and pressure on peak temperature. A
peculiarity
is that the lengthening of the temperature

ABSOLUTE

PRESSURE,

PSI

FIG. 4 QUALITATIVE
RATE OF REACTION
CRUDE OIL AND AIR.

I
ER3
z
a
U
n

400

1I&

I
I

I /

J
1 ,

>
a
c1
\

BETWEEN

10-

.//

A1

8 -

>
1-

/
6 4 F

/ :2:01

FORWARD

FORWARD O 500
& 1000 ]
-{
REVERSE

..

$ ;$
{

REVERSE
.

7.4/0OXYGEN

@ 54.5% OXYGEN
o MID-CONTINENT,22%PI
!
$ pu&T:,:ELRlDGy2694
w

CJ

1.!
00

.1.
20

F VENEhELA.
24 i
-----------.,-.
I

60

100

80

120

AIR YLux,SCFiHR.03t2.F~)

~~G.3

JU?4E, 1963
-.

TEMPERATURE
AND
TRE COMBUSTION ZO~.

PEAK

VELOCITY OF
-

-If

8
{ A

5:0
IO(2O
1

~
{

IL-&J&JJ
400

e,

10001100
PEAK TEMPERATUREfF

FIG. 5 Om

RECOVERY.
131

are drawn after correcting these points to zero heat

loss. In doing this, it was assumed that the peak
temperature will be the same and any heat loss is
reflected solely in the observed velocity.
The strong relation between flus andvelocity~s
been reported in earlier publications. 1~7/SA note=
worthy feature of the curves in Fig. 3 is the weak
dependence of velocity on pressure. Even at a flux
of 20, an increase in pressure of 1,000 psi reduces
the velocity by only about 0.7 ft/day below the
atmospheric value; and above a flux of about 50, the
differences
are virtually negligible,
providing all
oxygen is consumed. Ac very low fluxes the pressure
dependence appears CObe significant. Departure of
the atmospheric curve from the high flux trend exhibited at higher pressures corresponds to the onset of
unreacted oxygen in the produced gases. Since no
other basic differences were observed, the diminishing
increase in velocity is attributed directly to this
1
AIR FLUX
100
,

SCFfHRJSQ. FT.)
05
A
80 -
m
m
\
IA
u
~
60 -

FORWARO

~
{ 0
V
O
{

R&VER&

Ii
11

;:
80
52.4 -53.0
96- Ioo

/l,/

o
.
g
<
E
J

40 -,

$2

0-

g==_-

_--

,/;

~/

~
<

l?l!:l.l:.(..:l
400

200

00

Soo

600

PRESSURE,

1000

PSIG

FIG. 6 RATIO OF AIR INJECTED

TO OIL PRODUCED.

,7
1

0.8P

0.6.0

--

FOR.REV.

Oox

o
i=

5000
1000 A

,/

7.4% OXYGEN

,x

f;

0.4-

phenomenon.
At low values of flux, peak temperature depends
on pressure in an inverse fashion to that exhibited
by combustion zone velocity. As flux increases,
peak temperature becomes insensitive
COpressure;
and as pressure increases, peak temperature becomes
insensitive
to air flux. For example, at 1,000 psig
it can be seen that the peak temperature is nearly
constant at 900F for the (GP -40)J3 erea Sand s yscem.
From a practical viewpoint, it is noteworthy that the
peak temperature probably varies only about 150F
for all conditions studied.
It is not possible to assemble this evidence into
an unequivocal picture of the forward combustion
process. There has been no direct measurement of
fuel consumed, and there ia the further complication
that heat generated per unit weight of fuel may increase with pressure at low pressures. The work of
Alexander, Martin and Dew$ on fuel availability does
not seem applicable since the oil saturation available to form coke must be determined by the hydrodynamics of three-phase flow in the steam bank. In
their work the system was too small for banks to
form.
Nevertheless,
certain observations
can be made
which are at least compatible with the data. For
example, at any fixed flux che velocity decrease and
temperature increase with increasing pressure would
be expected if there were a gteater quantity of fuel
available. The bankJ concept of forward comb ustion2
predicts higher oil saturations ahead of the combustion zone at higher pressures, the imposed gas ,drive
becomes less efficient and the volatility of the oil
is reduced. Hence it is reasonable that increasing
the pressure resuks in more oil burned, higher temperatures and lower frontal velocities. The magnitude
of these effects diminishes with increasing flux. If
there is an effecc of flux at constant pressure, ir
should be to reduce the oil salutation available for
the combustion front: whereas. increased tmessure
has Che opposite effe~t. Thus, -it may be th~t these
opposing tendencies
have a compensating effect on
ultimate fuel deposition,
At 1,000 psig it appears
that the amount of fuel deposited is nearly the same
at all fluxes, the combustion zone moves at a velocity proportional to the rate at which oxygen is sup-

500

DATA

o,~ :/

Of REF.

o
1

800

1
I
10001100

.-

----

53

100

.\
~+...

~\\>>

-=-. _ .-

DISTANCE, IN.

PROFILES
S TEMPERATURE
cOMBUSTION.
sOC2ETY

1s2

ATH~811SK~ TARSANO
AlR FLUX , SCF/HR.(SW

TEM PERATURE,F

7 CARBON OXIDES PRODUCED.

FIG.
FIG.

T60pSig

1%
u
&
z 20

,
./-&H~-.

/y?

PEAK

i:-%
\

_JqoQ_.A

<

W--+=g
1
1
0400
600

R$>go- -

$2

FOR REVERSE

OF PETROLEK.iM ENGrNEERs
. .

JO LIRNAI.

plied and the peak temperature is almost constant in

view of a constant amount of heat generation per
unit volume. The role of convection appears minimized
by the stabilizing effect of the steam plateau, i.e.,
the temperature of the steam plateau is independent
of flux in the range studied (see Temperature Profiles).
There are se~eral phenomena which may contribute
individually
or collectively
to the appearance of
unreacted oxygen ac high flux and atmospheric pressure, but not ac higher pressures. First, it may be
influenced by the relation between the residence time
of oxygen in the combustion zone and a diffusion
rate, for example, the rate of diffusion of oxygen
through the products of combustion to the coked surface. If this were the only consideration,
one might
expect urrreacted oxygen to appear at lower fluxes
when pressure increaaes, but this is not observed.
Second, the rate of reaction increases with pressure,
so that if reaction rare were a limiting factor, one
might expecr that unreacted oxygen would not appear
until a higher flux was reached when operating at
higher pressures.
The results are consistent
with
this at lease to the extent that no unreacted oxygen
was observed at higher pressures. Two experiments
were carried out at a total gas flux of 20 scf/hr
(sq ft) with oxygen contents of 7.4 per cent and
54.5 per cent. It can be seen in Fig. 3 that the peak
temperature
and the velocity conform to the data
obtained with air. This result militates against a
mechanism dominated by oxygen partial pressure.
Third, oxygen can react in the steam bank as well
as in the coked zone, and the steam bank temperat ute
increases with pressure. Thus, it could happen that
vhereas little oxygen bypassing the coked zone at
atmospheric pressure can react in the steam bank,
substantial
further reaction may occur at 500 psig.
The threshold of reaction between GP-40 and oxygen
is about 400F, which ia above the steam bank temperature at O psig and below it at 500 psig. Thus, it
may happen that the appearance of unrea,cted oxygen
is associated with the relation between the temperature of the steam bank and that of the oil-oxygen
reaction threshold. There are yet other possibilities.
O t? Recovery
Sufficient data points relating to oil recovery have
been plotted in Fig. 5 so it can be seen that within
practical limits, oil recovery is not strongly affected
by peak temperature, flux or pressure. What relations
do exist among these variables are masked by data
scatter resulting from differences in initial oil saturations. Since a[l oil not burned is produced, ,one
would expect recovery to<be related topeak temperature only to the slight extent chat a little more is
burned in attaining higher temperatures.

reverse combustion can be attributed to the differences

in the magnitudes of recoveries and the manner in
which they depend on cempetature, respectively.
Carbon Oxides

In Fig.
formation
anything
increases

7, scatter of data representing carbon oxide

is sufficient that,it is difficult to conclud~
except that conversion to carbon dioxide
with temperature.
Air Requirements

Fig. 9 is shown only because the air consumed

per unit volume of rock burned is a figure frequently
quoted. It is not particularly meaningful since no
direct measure of the coke consumed is included.
The tnosc interesting feature of this figure is art
illustracicm of the profound effect of heat loss. The
uncorrected data .points do not exhibit anv. rrarticular
.
trend whereas the curves, which have been corrected
for heat loss, are at least consistent with the other
results and interpretations.
Nature

oi the Oi!

Returning to Fig. 3, several runs are reported

where the nature of the oil was changed. The MidContinent crude seems to conform nicely to the peak
temperat~e curve defined by GP-40, The corresponding high flux point is considerably off the velocity
curve for GP-40 in view of two factors heat loss
was considerable and unreacted oxygen had already
appeared.
The relatively light Kuwait oil lies below the GP40 curve, consistent with a smaller fuel deposition;
but it is hard to account for Che deviation of the
velocity point from the GP-40 curve in terms of heat
loss alone. In this connection, the velocity may not
have been a good measurement since it appeared
uncertain for some time whether or not combustion
would be sustained.
The behavior exhibited by the East Venezuela
crude in comparison to the Mid-Continent crude illustrates that gravity is not a unique index of fuel
deposition.
The greatest deviation is shown by the very heavy
South Belridge crude, with a peak temperature some
176F above GP-40. Again, this is attributed to an
increased
quantity of fueI deposited. The corresponding velocity point is not shown because the
experiment waa terminated early in view of a Ieak
which developed in the system and because insufficient temperature di stribut ions were obtained to de-

Air-Oil Ratio e
Inspection of Fig. 6 shows AOR to be substantially
independent of presaute, temperature and air flux.
This result derives from the behavior of oil recovery
discussed
previously.
The large quantitative
and
qualitative differences between AOR in forward and
JUNE,

PRESSURE,

FIG,

9 AIR REQUIRE~NTS
TION.

PSIG

IN FORWARD COMBUS

1s3

196S

termine an average velocity.

Terzperature

Profiles

The effects of flux and pressure on the temperature

distributions are shown in Fig. 10. These are instantaneous distributions
in the. sense that as time progresses, the length of the steam plateau increases.
However, the temperature of the steam plateau changes
only slightly to accommodate the decrease in pressure between injection and production ends of the
tube. Ft@ter, the temperature distribution between
the steam bank and the peak is independent of time.
Itshould be noted that even when there was zero
initial water saturation, a steam bank had commenced
to form. These data should help remove any doubt
concerning the reaIity and importance of the steam
plateau. 10
Most of the features of these curves have been
observed earlier in other contexts and will not be
restated. It is interesting that flux has little effect
on the steam plateau temperature (at least at 500
and 1,000 psig) and appears to contribute primarily
to a cooling effect ahead of the steam bank.
FINAL REMARKS
Results obtained from reverse combustion under
various pressures appear to conform; to the mechanism
established
during Iow pressure work;s thus, once
the necessary kinetic
information ia available it
should be possible to check these data using existing theory.4,6
The situation with forward combustion is far more
complex and in less satisfactory condition. Although
severaI of the contributing factora have been pointed
out it has not been found possible to formulate a
unique picture of the combustion process which com...
~
,/

,,,

,/-

,...

prehends all of the facets observed. However, it

appears that most of the features are consistent with
a process which is dominated byfuel deposition. AH
of the fuel deposited must be burned and changes in
the pressure and air flux give effects which ate small
relative to those observed with reverse combustion,
The effects which are observed are qualitatively
consistent with expectations based on consideration
of the fluid dynamics of the displacement process.
It has been shown in the case of reverse combustion that the reaction rate can be written proportional
to de ERT,
where C is the oxygen concentration
in the buIk gas phase, T is the absolute temperature
and n is the order of reaction with respect to C. This
description
was possible only because there was
always an excess of fuel. In the case of forward
combustion, the situation is more complex. There is
a deficiency of fuel where oxygen first cent acts fuel,
and there ia a deficiency of oxygen where oxygen
finally disappears. This means that the general form
of the reaction rate should appear proportional to
where F is the fraction of surface
@ Free-E/R<
area remaining covered with fuel and m is the order
of reaction with respect to F. Thus, a detailed description
of the forward combustion zone would
require three coupled different ial equations rather
in
than two in order to account for the distributions
temperature, oxygen and hydrocarbon fuel. However,
experimental
evident e (see Peak Ternperat me and
Velocity
oi the Combustion
Zone under Forward
Combustion)
suggests
that the roIe of Cn is minor
when all oxygen is consumed. If so, then perhaps a
good starti~~ point would be to empioy the ;orm
~me-E/RT

Accomplishing
experiments of the kind reported
herein is time consuming. It ..,ay require as much as
a week to prepare for a single experiment and another
..-.
.
.

;-

FLUX * 20 SCF/HR(SCLF

------

FLUX

----

NO CONNATE

SO

,,

II

WATER

,.

!-

900

-------

-------. ..

-l.-..

\
60 0________
40 0-

200-

AL-.I

-as.

----

,~

12.

24G810
DISTANCE

FIG. 10 TEMPERATURE
194

--A

PSIG

!-

01

-_
-

, IN.

PROFILES

IN FORWARD COMBUSTION.
SOCIETY

OF PETROLEUM

ENGINEERS

JOURNAL

week to conduct the experiment and dia-aaaemble

the equipment. It is for this reaaon that the experimental data are not as voluminous and complete aa
might be desired. However, it is hoped that the information which has been discIosed will be of use
in the formulation of a theory of forward combustion
which will take suitable cognizance of the interaction
between the fluid dynamics of bank formation and
the thermal regime of the steam plateau and combustion zone via the oiI saturation available to fuel
deposition.

only

The authors would like to express their appreciation to L. Weber and R. L. Gergins for siipplying the
Differential Thermal Analyais data.
REFERENCES
L

REVERSE

COMBUSTION

COMBUSTION

1. Increased pressure results in decreased peak

temperature and increased rate of advance.
2. Increased pressure results in draatic reductions
in oil recoveries and sharply increased AOR.
3, Carbon dioxide formation is a linear function
of temperature and depends on pressure and air flux

Martin, William L., Alexander, John D, and Dew,

John N.: ffprocess Variables of In-Situ Combustion)
Trans.,

CONCLUSIONS

L Increasing
the pressure increases
the peak
temperature and decreases the veIocity of the combustion zone. When the air flux is sufficiently high,
both peak temperature and combustion zone velocity
become virtually independent of pressure, providing
all oxygen is consumed.
2. Peak temperature increases with air flux, but
becomes independent of air flux at sufficiently high
pressures,
3. Combustion zone velocity is nearly linear in
air flux, provided all oxygen is consumed.
4. Oil recovery and AOR are insensitive to temperature, pressure or air flux.

on temperature.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

2,

FORWARD

through their influence

3.

4.

AIME

(195S)

VOL 213,

2S.

Wilson, L, A., Wygsl, R. J,, Reed, D, W., Gergine, R.

L, and Henderson, J. H.: ~IFIUM Dynamics During an

Underground. Combustion
Process),
Trans.,
AIME
(1958) Vol. 213, 146.
Reed, R. L., Reed, D, W. and Tracht, J. H.: Experimental Aspects of Reverse Combustion in Tar Sande,
Trans., AIME (1%0) Vol. 219, 99.
Berry, V. J. and Psrrish, D, R.: A Theoretical
Combustion,
Anslysia
of Heat Flow in Reverse
~fU?X.,

5? Tadema,

AIME (1960) Vol. 219,

H. J.: t Mechanism

124.
of Oil

Production

Underground Combustion, Proc,, Fifth World

6.

by
Pet.

Cong., Section
Warren, J. E.,

II (1959) 279.
Reed, R. L, snd Price, H, S.: Theoretical Considerations of Reverse Combustion in Tar
Sands , Trans., AIME (1960) Vol. 219, 109.

Moss, J. T,, White, P. D. and McNiel, J. S., Jr.: InSitu Combustion

Process Results
of a Five Well
Field
Experiment
in Southern Oklahoms ~, Trans.,
AIME (1959) Vol. 216, 55,
8. Benham, A. L. snd Poettmsn, Fred H.: The Thermal
Recovery Process An Analysis of Laboratory Combustion Data, Trams., AIME (1958) Vol. 213, 406.
John D., Martin, W. L, and Dew, John N.:
9. Alexsnder,
and ComposiI~Factor~ Affecting
Fuel Availability

7.

tion During In-situ ComtmstIon, Joor. Pet. Tech.

(Oct., 1962).
10. Baker, p, E.: C[Temperature Profiles in Undergro~d
Combustion,

Sot,

Pet,

f3rJg. Jour. (March, 1962).

DISCUSS1ON
WILLIAM L. MARTIN
MEMBER AIME
JOHN D. ALEXANDER
JUNIOR MEMBER AIME
JOHN N. DEW
MEMBER AIME

The authors of this paper should be complimented

for some e~cellent experimental work of a sort that
is notoriously tedious. We are pleased that this moredetailed and independent work h?e verified many of
our earlier conclusions,
particularly that the effect
of pressure on forward combustion is small when
oxygen utilization is high. 1
The authors have stated, and rightly so, that forward combustion appears to be a fuel dominated
process. However, they apparently feel that the application of combustion stoichiometry does not provide an adequate measure of the amount of fuel
consumed during the process since they report the
lack of direct measurements
and have elected to
omit results of such calculations.
It is apparent that
. the reader c-an approximate these calculations within
JUNE, 196.S

CONTINENTAL
Oli. Co.
PONCA CITY, OftLA.

the accuracy of the data provided by the authors

(flux, rate of advance and gas analyses~ yet it may
be of interest to obtain their views on this subject.
We feel that inclusion of the amount of fuel consumed
and its composition, as calculated by the authors,
would have increased the utility and value of the
paper.
We have previously demonstrated the effect of oil
saturation on fuel availability by means of our fire
flood-pot method. 2This method usea ~rogrmned timetemperamtre relationships to subject radiaI core samples or short linear tubes COany specified envirortmental sequence; and it provides datri comparable
to that resulting from the long combustion tube experiment with a considerable economy of time, effort
and money.
19s

-.

The authors have stated that the oil saturation

available
to provide fuel for the process must be
determined by the hydrodynamics ofthree-phase
flow
in the steam bank, and that our fire flood-pot work
does not seem applicable since our system is too
small for banks to form. We have not made a detailed
scaling study on the effect of model size (length and
diame~er) on steam bank formation; however, in addition to down-stream relative permeability y effects, we
feel that there are also other powerful influences,
such as low temperature oxidation, which contribute
to the establishment of residual oil saturation at the
combustion front and ultimately determine the fuel
consumed during the in-situ combustion process.
These influences appear to be adequately scaled,
with respect to the combustion tube experiment, by
our fire flood-pot technique. There is good agreement
between the two methods as performed in our own
laboratory an~with che results of independent work
in other laboratories.
For instance, Showalters explored the effect of crude oil API gravity on fuel
consumption and air requirements with a sand-packed
tube 10-in. OD x 10-ft long. His data, expressed in
the proper units, fit the trend we obtained with a
sand-packed cube 3.5-in. OD x .5.5-in, long as shown
(Fig. D- I). Considering the complicated mechanisms
involved, and the fact that oiI gravity is not a unique
index of fuel consumption, the agreement between
these results is amazingly good. There is a direct
comp erison between our flood-pot data and Showalters
combustion-tube data for the Guadalupe ( 11.00 API)
and South J3elridge ( 12.5 N,I) crude oils.
It is of interest that Mr. Showalter chose ro disCard about 6 ft of his combustion tube data because of instabilities observed during and subsequent

5,0

v
\

10 OTTAWA SAND
LONG TUBE RESULTS
o SHOWALTER a

I
10
20
30
CRUOE OIL GRAVITY , API
I

0.00

FIG. D-1 EFFECT

FUEL AVAILABILITY

OF CRUDE
(~EPEATED

I
40

OIL GRAVITY
FIG. S OF REF.

ON
2),

to ignition, and when the front approached the fIanges

at the end of the tube. Presumably, any banks which
formed were stabilized in the middle four ft of his
tube. We wonder if the authors would care to make
any further comments on the stability of the banks
observed in their 2.2-in. OD x 3LS-in. combustion
tube.
REFERENCES
1. Martin, W. L,; AIexander, John D, and Dew, John N.:
Process Variables of In-Situ Combustion, Trams,,
AIME (19S8) vol. 213, 2S,
2, Alexander,
John D., Martin, W. L. and Dew, John N,:
~tFactors Affectkg
Fuel AvaiiabiIity and CoInPosition
Durtng In-Situ Combustion,
jour. Pet, Tech. (Oct.,
1962)

3.

1154,

ShOwalter,
Pet. Eng,

W. E.: ~~COmbust~On Drive

(Metch, 1963) 53.

Teststs,

Sot.

.Jow.

AUTHORS REPLY TOW. L. MARTIN, J. D. ALEXANDER

AND J. N. DEW
We want to thank W, L. Martin, J. D. Alexander
and J. N. Dew for their comments regarding out paper.
[t ia through the medium of discussion that errors and
ambiguities can be minimized in the technical literature. We hope this reply serves this purpose.
STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS
The uae of combustion stoichiometry is quite adequate for determining fuet consumption providing it
is weH defined. Unfortunately this is not neceasatily
the case for the underground combustion processes.
The oxidation of multicomponent hydrocarbon mixtures
is very complex involving several mechanisms, some
of which result in the production of carbon oxides
and water, and others in which oxygen adds to a
hydrocarbon molecule. In a flowing system, partially
oxidized materials can move out of the reaction zone.
Therefore, it can be erroneous and misleading to aasume that all reacted oxygen appears in carbon oxides
and water. similarly, it is not necessarily true that
only. the carbon which appears as carbo,n oxides
laa

serves as fuel. The heat release per mole of oxygen

react ed is approximately the same, regardless of the
mechanism. For these reasons we consider the oxygen reacted a better index of air requirements than
the carbon oxides formed.
These points can be demonstrated for some of the
runs listed in Table 1. For example in Run H- 13, the
injected oxygen was utilized as follows: 52 per cent
carbon dioxide, 9.5 per cent carbon monoxide, 18.5
per cent water of combustion and 20 per centoxygenated hydrocarbons appesxing in both the aqueous and
oleic phases. The oxygen produced in the liquid
phases represented only about 4 per cent of the injected air but it accounts for 20 per cent of the heat
generated. Thus estimates of air requirements based
solely on the amount of carbon oxides would be 20
per cent low.
As another example consider Run H-10 in which
the distribution of the injected oxygen waa as follows:
60 per cent carbon dioxide, 11 per cent carbon monoxide, 24 per cent water of combustion, 1,7 per cent
SOCIETY

OF PilTROLl!UM

ENGINEERs

JOURNA1,

h.

unreacted oxygen, and 3 per cent oxygenated hydrocarbons. In this case estimates of air requirements
based orr the effhrent gasaaalyses
would be only 3
per cent low.
The data contained in Table lare adequate to arrive at air requitemenes based either on the carbon
oxides formedor the oxygen reacted. They have been
presented objectively with the interpretation of this
point left to the discretion of the individual reader.
EFFECT

OF INITIAL OIL SATURATION

For a given oil, porous medium and pressure, the

oil saturation in the steam bank is the same regardless
of initiaI oil Satuation, 1 The ~e5ervoir or combustion
tube may be initially at irreducible water or residual
oil or at any intermediate saturation and the oil saturation in the bank will still be the same. It is self-evident that the combustion zone immediately behind
the steam bank can only consume a certain fraction
of the oil in the bank. Hence fuel consumption is
completely independent of initial oil saturation, but
is intimately connected to the bank saturation and
hence the hydrodynamics of three-phase flow in the
steam bank, as stated, * Alexander, Martin and Dew
claim their fire flood-pot method gives data comparable to that resulring from the long combustion
tube experiment. At least with regard to the effect
of initial oil saturation, we do not believe this has
been established. They show in Fig. 3 of their paper3
(a graph of fuel availability vs initial oil saturation)
a single point for a long consolidated
Berea core.
This is of no value in demonstrating an effect of
initial saturation since the initial saturation was not
varied. They show two points for long tubes filled
with Ottawa sand. These two points suggest that
{fuel availability
increases from about 0.95- to 1.1Ib carbon/(100-lb rock) as initial saturation varies
from about 6.7 to 10 per cent by weight. In Fig. 4 of
their paper, they show for these same two runs that
the post distillation plateau residual oil .vaturations
. are equal, precisely .as we would expect them to
be. How it can happen that the post distillation
pIateau residual oil saturations
are the same and
different is
the corresponding fuel availabilities
not clear to us. We conclude that either an error has
been made in reporting or describing the data or else
the variation in fuel availability
is a reflection
of data scatter for the long tube experiments. In either
case a dependence of fuel consumed on initial oil
saturation has rrot been proven.
CORRELATION
As stated,

API

WITH API GRAVITY

gravity

is

not

a unique

index

of

fuel consumed;
therefore,
it would be wise to pursue
some other approach to the problem. The *correlation
with
Showalter$s
dsta 4 further
substantiates
this
point

and shows

a maximum

deviation

from the curve

*fn thfs connection see the recent paper of Raimondi and

Toceaao. ~ Although thel? work does not comprehend the combusit
tion case since gas saturation in the bank waa not atded,
aninteraatins mechsntsm for part of the fuel deposition
provides
end 1s in accord with the above remnrtm

JUNE,

.1969

of about 43 per cent and a standard deviation of about

0.25-Ib csrbon/( IOO-lb sand), We do not regard this
as an Camazingly good correl at ion; rather it is
quite the reverse.
Chus points out that under reasonable
circumstances,
an increase of 0.2 Ib of fuel per cu ft (a
figure which is close to the error with which one is
concerned when employing the API correlation) will
double the propagat ion range of a radial heat wave.
If errors of this magnitude are to be considered commonplace in laboratory work where everything is
presumably under control, think of the uncertainties
involved with the corresponding reservoir applications!

STABILITY OF THE BANKS

We do not find any mention of instabilities
Showalters

paper.

He chose

an intermediate

in
section

d-k long because

in that section
burning
had been
as uniform
as possible.
However,
supposing
that
of Martin, Alexander and Dew is
the interpretation

correct,

we have the following

comments.

lt

is well

favored by
decreasing
the diameter. Hence one would expect
greater difficulties on this score in Showalters 10in, tube than in our 2.2-in, tube. Further, the fact
that Showalter repo~ts unreacted oxygen as high as
4.6 per cent under circumstances
where we report
zero per cent suggests very strongly that he experienced non-uniformities in packing with resu!tant bypassing of oxygen, or eI se he employed a sand with
an tu-tfortunate pore size distribution. These factors
would have a strong effect on any transient behavior
near the =wrdsof his system.
With teg=d to our specific 2. 2-irr. x 31.8-in. tube,
we experienced no, difficulties
with bank stability.
For example, irr Run H-36 the steam bank commenced
to form and was subsequently stable (as far as one
can tell from the temperature distribution anti production history) only 3 in. from the inlet end. This
kind of behavior. was typical. We have never been
confronted with the need of discarding 60 per cent
of a combustion run because of ~instabilities
or
end effects.
known

that

stability

of displacement

is

REFERENCES
1. Wilson, L. A,, Wygal, R, J,, Raed, D. W., Gergina, R,
Datingm
L. and Henderson, J. H,: c4Fl~d Dynafics
Underground
Combustion
Frocea St t, Tmrna,, AIME
(19S8) vol. 213, 146.
Pietro and Torcaso,
Michael A,: A Study
2. Raimondi,
of ths Oil Phase Obtained Upon
of the Distribution
Imbibition
of Water, Paper SPE-570
presented
at
Production-Research
Symposium,
U. of Oklahoma,
Norman, Okla, (April 29-30, 1963).
John D., MartLrr, W, L, and Dew, John N,:
3. Alexander,
I#Fa&ora Affect~g
Fuel Availability
and ComPOaition
During In 8itu Combuationg], Joan PeL Tech. (Oct.,
1962) 1154,
4. Showalter, W. E,: ~~combua~on Drive Tests, .%x2.pet.
Eng, JOW, (March, 1963) 53.
~~Two Dimensional
Analysis
of a Radial
5. Chu, Chieh
X-feat Wave, Papet SPE-560 presented at ProductionReaearch
Symposium, U. of Oklahoma$ Norman, Okla,
/
(April 29-30, 1963).
** it
M?