Effect of Eccentric Loading of Columns

It is well known that if a load on a column is eccentric, its strength is

considerably less than when the resultant line of pressure passes through the axis of
the column. The theoretical demonstration of the amount of this eccentricity
depends on assumptions which may or may not be found in practice. The following
formula is given without proof or demonstration, in Taylor and Thompson's treatise
on Concrete:
Let e = Eccentricity of load; b = Breadth of column; f = Average unit-pressure;
f' = Total unit-pressure of outer fibre nearest to line of vertical pressure
Then, f' = f (1 + 6e/b).. (1)
As an illustration of this formula, if the eccentricity on a 12-inch column were 2
inches, we should have b = 12, and e = 2. Substituting these values in Equation 1,
we should have f' = 2f, which means that the maximum pressure would equal twice
the average pressure. In the extreme case, where the line of pressure came to the
outside of the column, or when e = 1/2b, we should have that the maximum
pressure on the edge of the column would equal four times the average pressure.

Advantages of doubly reinforced beam:

Reduces long term deflections (less compressive stress on concrete reduces
creep)
Increased ductility (smaller compression block means larger strain in tension
steel at failure)
Forces mode of failure into tension (member is much stronger in
compression)
Easier to fabricate (provides more places to tie shear steel)
Limitations of doubly reinforced beam:
If the bending moment for which the beam is to be designed is less than the
M.O.R. (Moment of Resistance) of the section (i.e. Size of the beam), a singly
reinforced beam is provided. But in case of Doubly Reinforced Beams

Reinforcement bars are used both on tension face and as well as compression face
of the beams.
Fixed Beams
It is supported at both ends. It allows neither vertical movement nor rotation at the
supports. This is the basic difference between a fixed beam and simply supported
beam. So in a fixed beam the supports generate vertical reactions as well as
rotational moments.
Simply Supported Beams
It is supported at both ends. It allows rotation at either end (support) but doesn't
allow for vertical movement. As a result of this vertical reactions are produced at
the supports as movement or displacement is not allowed in the vertical direction.
But the supports are free from rotational moments (reactions).
Comparison:
The deflection in the beam is reduced. For instance the maximum deflection
for a fixed beam when uniformly distributed load is acting throughout is 5
times lesser than that of simply supported beam with similar loading.
Moment resisting capacity of fixed beams is very high compared to that of
simply supported beam. Hence more loads can be made to act over the fixed
beam.