Further Engineering Dynamics

Further Engineering Dynamics
Also from Macmillan Education
An Introduction to Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Second Edition

J. A. Fox
Basic Engineering Mechanics
J. H. Hughes and K. F. Martin
Introduction to Control Theory
S. A. Marshall
Mechanics of Machines
G. H. Ryder and M.D. Bennett
Further Engineering Dynamics
J. C. Maltbaek
Senior Lecturer,
Department of ~ngineering Science,
University of Exeter
J. C. Maltbaek 1980
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission.
First published 1980 by
THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
London and Basingstoke
Associated companies in Delhi Dublin
Hong Kong Johannesburg Lagos Melbourne
New York Singapore and Tokyo
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Maltbaek, Jorgen C
Further engineering dynamics.
1. Dynamics
I. Title
620.1'04
TA352
ISBN 978-0-333-24531-6
DOI
10.1007/978-1-349-16321-2
ISBN 978-1-349-16321-2 (eBook)
This book is sold subject to the standard conditions of the

Net Book Agreement.
The paperback edition of this book is sold subject to the condition that it shall
not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise
circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or
cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition
including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
To Kirsten, Peter and Christian
Contents
Preface
ix
1 Dynamics of a System of Particles
Equations of Motion
1.2 Impulse and Momentum
1.3 Energy and Work
Problems
1.1
2 Systems with Variable Mass
2.1 Equation of Motion for a System with Variable Mass

2.2 Systems with Total Mass Increasing with Time
2.3 Systems with Total Mass Decreasing with Time
Problems
3 Lagrange's Equations for Systems with Constraints Depending on

Time, and Impulsive Motion
3.1 Some Important Concepts and Definitions in Lagrangian
18
24
28
28
29
31
34
36
Dynamics
36
of a Function of Several Variables
41
Problems
53
59
3.2 Some Useful Relationships for Partial and Time Derivatives

3.3 Development of Lagrange's Equations
3.4 Lagrange's Equations for Impulsive Motion
4
44
Vibrations with Two Degrees of Freedom
62
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
63
69
74
76
79
84
Free Vibrations without Damping

Free Vibrations with Viscous Damping
Forced Vibrations without Damping
Forced Vibrations with Viscous Damping
The Undamped Dynamic Vibration Absorber
Problems
CONTENTS
viii
5 Rotation about a Fixed Point-Gyroscopic Motion

5.1 Kinematics of Rotation about a Fixed Point
5.2 Dynamics of a Rigid Body Rotating about a Fixed Point
Problems
6 Gyroscopic Effects in Machinery
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
Gyroscopic Effects in Rolling Mills

Gyroscopic Effects of Turbines and Dynamos in Ships
Gyroscopic Effects in Locomotive Wheels Rounding a Curve
Gyroscopic Effects in Aircraft
Problems
7 Some Applications of Gyroscopes

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
Rate Gyroscope
The Gyroscope as Direction Indicator
The Gyroscopic Compass
Monorail Stabilisation
Problems
8 Dimensional Analysis and the Theory of Models

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
Units and Dimensions

Dimensional Homogeneity
Dimensional Analysis
Buckingham's Pi-theorem
The Theory of Models
Problems
9 An Introduction to Automatic Control

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9. 7
9.8
9.9
Introduction
Open-loop and Closed-loop Control Systems
Transfer Functions
A Remote Position Control System
Derivative Control
Routh's Criterion for Stability
Harmonic Response Loci
Nyquist's Criterion for Stability
Bode Diagrams-Logarithmic Plotting
Problems
89
89
95
109
112
112
114
116
117
119
121
121
123
124
126
131
132
132
133
134
138
140
144
146
146
147
148
152
154
157
159
162
165
167
Answers to Problems
169
Index
175
Preface
The rapid developments in engineering and science mean that today's

engineering and science students meet new and more challenging situations in
dynamics. To deal with these problems, further developments in dynamics
beyond the usual courses in elementary to intermediate dynamics are
increasingly necessary. It is hoped that this book will be of help on such
courses for second and third-year students in any branch of engineering and
physics, both at universities and polytechnics.
The book has been arranged in self-contained chapters so that they may be
studied in any combination and order.
Chapter 1 deals with the dynamics of a system of particles; several examples
of fluid motion are included, although the necessarily brief discussion of this
subject is only intended to give a broader view of a subject which is usually
treated in depth in specialised courses in fluid mechanics. Chapter 2 gives a
short introduction to systems where the total mass of the system is increasing
or decreasing.
In chapter 3 Lagrange's equations of motion are introduced in a general
form, including constraints depending on time. Previous experience in these
equations is useful but is not essential since the equations are developed from
fundamental ideas. Lagrange's equations are probably the most powerful
method known in engineering dynamics for the determination of the
equations of motion of a dynamic system and they allow for the solution of
very complex dynamic systems. The equations have been generalised to
include the problems of impact and impulsive motion.
Chapter 4 introduces vibrations with two degrees of freedom and includes
examples on both linear and torsional systems with and without damping.
Chapter 5 gives a general discussion of rotation about a fixed point and
general gyroscopic motion. It introduces the Euler angles as generalised
coordinates and the equations of motion are developed both by the
Lagrangian method and by the more common Euler method; various types of
special cases are considered in detail. Chapter 6 deals with gyroscopic effects
in machinery and chapter 7 with the applications of gyroscopes in the fields of
direction indication and stabilisation.
In chapter 8 the subject of dimensional analysis and its applications are
discussed, including Buckingham's pi-theorem. The chapter ends with a
discussion of the theory of models.
PREFACE
The final chapter gives a short introduction to the subject of automatic

control, a subject that is intimately linked with the basic subject of dynamics.
Included is a discussion of transfer functions and Routh's and Nyquist's
stability criteria.
The necessary background in dynamics is that which is provided in most
cases in elementary to intermediate dynamics in universities and polytechnics.
This part of the subject has been given extensive treatment in the author's
earlier book Essential Engineering Dynamics (published by Crosby
Lockwood).
The author takes the opportunity to thank his wife Kathleen for typing the
original manuscript, and to express his appreciation and thanks to the
publishers, especially to Malcolm Stewart, for suggestions for improvements
and encouragement during the writing of the book.
Exeter
J. C. MALTBAEK
1 Dynamics of a System
of Particles
1.1 Equations of Motion
Consider a system of particles enclosed within a region of space, as shown in
figure 1.1. No restriction is placed on the manner in which the particles are
connected-the system may consist of particles of a fluid or gas, an elastic or
rigid body.
Figure 1.1
Isolating a particular particle of mass m;. there may be internal forces acting
due to interaction with the other particles of the system; external forces may
also be acting on the particle, due to interactions with the surroundings of the
system. Taking the resultant external force on the particle as F.; and the
resultant internal force as Fii, Newton's second law for the particle may be
stated as F.; + Fii = m;i;, where i; is the absolute acceleration of the particle,
that is, the acceleration in the system xyz which is assumed inertial.
Writing the above equation for all the particles in the system and adding the
equations leads to IF.;+ IF;; = Im;i";. By Newton's third law the internal
forces occur in equal, opposite and collinear pairs, except for electromagnetic
forces between moving particles which are not collinear (these systems are not
considered here). In the summation of internal forces for the system we have
then IF;; = 0; taking the resultant of the external forces IF.;= F, we have
F = Im;i;. Writing Im;r; = (Im;)Rc, we define by this expression a point C by
the position vector Rc = Im;r;/Im;. Denoting the total mass of the system by
FURTHER ENGINEERING DYNAMICS
M we have l:m; = M and Rc = l:m;r) M. The point C is called the centre of

mass of the system. Assuming that no mass is leaving or entering the system so
that M is constant, we have l:m;ri = M Rc and finally
(1.1)
The motion of the centre of mass is then the same as the motion of a particle
of mass equal to the total mass of the system placed at the centre of mass and
acted on by the resultant external force. Although the vector M Rc has the same
direction and magnitude as the vector F, the resultant force does not in general
pass through the centre of mass but may be moved parallel to itself to the
centre of mass for the equation 1.1.
In rectangular coordinates the three scalar equations for the motion of the
centre of mass are F-' = Mxc, Fy = Myc and Fz = Mz 0 where the most
convenient location of the xyz system is used. The location of the centre of
mass was determined by Rc = l:m;r;/ M; now if the origin of xyz is taken at C
we have
(1.2)
We find also
l:m-r=
I I
l:~(m-r-)
= ~(l:m-r-)
=0
dt
dt
I
(1.3)
These two formulae are useful in further developments in dynamics. The

coordinates of the mass centre are given by the expressions
l:m;Y;
l:m;x;
xc=~Yc=~
an
l:m;z;
zc=~
Example 1.1
Figure 1.2 shows two particles each of mass m connected by a light rigid bar of
length I. The system moves on a horizontal frictionless plane under the action
JI
rm
Figure 1.2
x2 ~
DYNAMICS OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
of a force F which is constant in magnitude and direction. The system is at rest

at t = 0 in the position shown in the figure.
Determine the motion ofthe centre of mass using equation 1.1 and also by
setting up the equations of motion of each particle.
Solution
F, = F = M:Xc = 2m:Xc
and
FY = 0 = 2m.Yc
integrating the equations gives the results

.
xc
= 2m t
an
xc
= 4m t 2 + b
.Yc = 0 so Yc = constant; since Yc = 0 at t = 0 we have Yc = 0 and

Yc
(constant)
=d+2
The centre of mass moves on a straight line parallel to the x-axis and at a
distanced+ (1/2) from the x-axis; the motion is given by
F
Xc = 4mt2+b
The equations of motion for each of the particles at time t are
F -S cos/3 = mx 1
and
S sin/3 = mji 1
S cos/3 = mx 2
-S sin/3 = mji2
The equations in x lead to
and
F
x 1 +x2 = 2mt 2 +2b
the centre of mass motion is then determined by
Xc =
xt+x2
2
= -F t2 +bas before
4m
They equations give m(ji 1 + ji2) = 0,
y1 + y2 =constant; since at t = 0, y1
= y2 = 0, we have Yt + Yz = 0 and Yt + y 2 = constant, or y 1 + y 2 = 2d + 1, so
that
Yc
.
= -Yt +2- Y2 = d + 21 at all times
Example 1.2
Figure 1.3 shows a body of mass M which slides on a frictionless horizontal

plane due to the action of a constant force F as shown. A small body of mass m
slides on the first body with a coefficient of friction p. between the two bodies.
Figure 1.3
The system is at rest at t = 0.

(a) Determine the equations of motion of the two bodies and show that they
combine to give the equation of motion of the centre of mass.
(b) Determine-the distance moved by the large body when the small body has
moved a distance b along the large body.
Assume that F > p.g(M +m).
Solution
(a)
F-p.mg = Mx1
(1)
p.mg = mx2
(2)
The sum of these equations gives F = Mx 1 +mx2

Im;X;
Xc= Im; =
..
c-
Mx 1 +mx 2
M+m
Mx1 +m:X2
M+m
--=------=-
the equation of motion of the centre of mass is

F = (M +m).ic = M.i 1 +mx2 as above
(b) The conditions at t = 0 are

have from (2) above
x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x 1 = 0 and x 2 = l-1 1 We
From (1) above

1
.
1
1
x1 = M(FtJmg), x 1 = M(F- tJmg)t and x 1 = 2 M(F- tJmg)t 2
When the small body has moved a distance b along the large body, x 2
l- b -I h so that
1 2
2_1Jgt + l-x 1
= x1+
1
2
l
= 2M(FtJmg)t + l-b- 1
from which
t
2Mb
F-tJg(M+m)
and
1.2 Impulse and Momentum

1.2.1 Linear Momentum
The linear momentum G of a system of particles is defined as the vector sum of

the linear momenta of all the particles in the system, that is, G = l:m; r;
= l:m;V;. Since MRc = l:m;r;, the total linear momentum is G = l:m;r;
= M Rc From the previous expression F = l:m;i; we find
F
dr;
= l:m.=G
dt = -(l:mr)
dt
I
(1.4)
Integrating this leads to
Fdt
= (l:m;i-;) 2 - (l:m;i-;) 1 =
(l:m)~)z- (l:m;;)
(1.5)
This equation states that the total impulse of the resultant force F in a time
interval is equal to the change in linear momentum in the same time. The
equation is called the impulse-momentum equation. Introducing l: m;r; = M Rc
gives the equation
Fdt = M[(Rch-(Rc)1] = M(Vc2 -
Vd
(1.6)
This is the impulse-momentum equation for the centre of mass of a system of

particles. The term M Rc has the direction and magnitude of the total
momentum of the system but does not determine the line of action of the
momentum vector since this does not generally pass through the centre of
mass. The above equations assume that M is constant. Equation 1.6 is a vector
equation but the three scalar equations may be used instead-in the xdirection the equation is
(1.7)
where Vx is the x-component of the velocity of the centre of mass.
Example 1.3
Figure 1.4 shows a system of three particles sliding on a horizontal frictionless

plane. At t = 0 all the particles are located on the x-axis as shown. The velocity
factor V is constant.
Figure 1.4
Determine the total momentum vector of the system and the path of motion
of the centre of mass.
Solution
We have M = 6m and
MVc
= 1:m;V; = mV[ ( - ~2 i+ ~2 j )-r6j+(3i+3J3j)
= m V(2.29i + 11.90j)
Since J~ F dt = 0, MVcis constant in magnitude and direction, the direction is
determined by the vector expression above for MVc The velocity of the centre
of mass is
vc = ~(2.29i + 11.90j)
constant in magnitude and direction. At t = 0

_ I:mx _
J.
Xc----66
I:m
the centre of mass then moves on a straight line through (6i, 0) and with the
direction of V c. The total momentum vector MVc does not pass through the
centre of mass when t = 0.
A rigid body is defined as a system of an infinite number of particles for
which the relative positions remain unchanged. Dynamics of rigid bodies is an
important branch of dynamics and much of this field has been covered in the
author's previous book on engineering dynamics. The definitions and the
equations derived for a system of particles hold unchanged for a rigid body.
Example 1.4
Figure 1.5 shows a rotating disc located in bearings bolted to a rigid

foundation. The disc is rotating with a constant angular velocity w and the
centre of mass of the disc is at a distance e from the axis of rotation 0; the mass
of the disc is M.
Figure 1.5
Determine the components of the forces exerted by the disc on the

foundation.
Solution
The centre of mass C describes a circle of radius e about 0. Introducing x and

y-axes as shown, we find xc = e cos wt and Yc = e sin wt.
The varying gravity torque and the constant gravity force are balanced by
the external driving torque on the disc and the constant vertical bearing forces.
Considering the dynamic forces only, we have, from equation 1.1, the external
bearing forces on the disc Fx = M.Xc and Fy = M Yc. or Fx = -Mew 2 coswt

and F Y = - M ew 2 sin wt.
The forces on the bearings are equal and opposite to these and, together with
the gravity forces of the disc and the bearing blocks, they represent the forces
exerted by the disc on the foundation.
The impulse-momentum equations are also useful in determining the wave
propagation in elastic bodies, a simple example of which follows.
Example 1.5
Figure 1.6 shows a horizontal, uniform, homogeneous bar of an elastic

material which follows Hooke's law. The cross-sectional area is A and the
modulus of elasticity is E. A blow giving a compressive force P is suddenly
applied to the end as shown.
Figure 1.6
Determine the velocity of the compressive stress wave in the bar.

Solution
The blow produces a compressive stress PI A and a compressive strain

e = P/(AE), which is propagated along the bar with velocity V. At timet the
wavefront has progressed to the section ab at a distance Vt from the end of the
bar; after an additional time dt the front has moved to section cd a distance
V dt from a b. The compressed zone of the bar has in the time dt moved a
distance equal to the compression of the element of length V dt, that is, a
distance e V dt, the velocity of the mass centre C is then
p
Vc = eV= AE V
The increase in momentum of the compressed zone during the time dt is the
momentum of the element ac which has zero velocity at time t and ends with
velocity VC so the increase is ( Ap V dt) VC where p is the density of the
material; this increase is
Ap V dt :E V
= ~ V2 P dt
From equation 1.6 we have

P dt =
~V
2 P dt
and V =
J(f)
The velocity of wave propagation depends only on E and p and not on the
cross-sectional area.
The momentum equation is widely used in the field of fluid dynamics, as
shown in the following example.
Example 1.6
Figure 1. 7 shows the steady flow of an incompressible fluid through a curved

tube of variable cross-section. The tube is located in a vertical plane.
Figure 1.7
Determine the resultant force of the pressures exerted by the walls of the
tube on the fluid and the pressures from the fluid outside the tube.
Solution
The 'system of particles' we take here is the fluid in the tube between sections a
and bat timet. At timet+ dt the same fluid occupies the tube between sections
a 1 and b 1 The change in momentum is due to the volume of fluid bb 1 which
appears instead of the volume aa 1 . Taking Q as the volume of fluid, density p,
passing any cross-section in unit time, the mass rate of flow is Qp for uniform
velocity distribution over any cross-section. The change in momentum
in the time dt is dG = Qp( V2 - V1 ) dt and the rate of change is dGjdt
= Qp( v2- VI).
The resultant external force F is F = G = Qp( V 2 - Vd, which is the
10
resultant of the gravity force Won the volume ab and surface forces from the
pressures from the walls and by fluids on cross-sections a and b. Taking the
resultant of all the pressure forces equal to R we have
W + R = Qp ( V2 - Vd
This is sometimes called Euler's equation. The law of continuity of flow for an
incompressible fluid is Q = A V, where A is the cross-sectional area of any
section of the tube and V the corresponding velocity. If the rate of flow Q, the
density p and the dimensions of the tube are known, W may be determined
and the resultant pressure force R on the fluid may be determined from
Euler's equation.
Since the equation states that W + R- QpV2 + QpV1 = 0, the four vectors
must form a closed polygon of forces.
If the impulse on a system of particles is zero we have, from equations 1.5
and 1.6
I:m;~ =constant vector and MVc =constant vector
These equations state that if the impulse acting on a system of particles is
zero in a certain time interval, then the momentum is constant in that time
or the momentum is conserved. This is the principle of conservation of
momentum.
The principle has important applications in rigid body dynamics. For
instance, if a rifle of mass M fires a bullet of mass m with muzzle velocity V, the
rifle will recoil with a velocity Vr. The impulses on the bullet and the rifle are
equal and opposite and, since no external forces are acting, the total
momentum is conserved so that M Vr + m V = 0; Vr and V are in opposite
directions and in magnitude vr = mvIM' so that vr has been determined
without knowledge of the internal forces acting.
1.2.2 Moment of Momentum

Figure 1.8 shows a system of particles with centre of mass C and a
representative particle of mass m;. The external forces acting on the system are
not shown. Point Pis a point moving in any fashion. It is assumed that the total
mass M of the system stays constant. Newton's second law for the particle of
mass m; is
where Fe; is the resultant external and Fii the resultant internal force on the
particle.
The moment of F; in point P is
II
z
Figure 1.8
Summing this type of equation for all the particles gives the result
The first term is the moment Mp of all external forces in P so that Mp = 1:rp
x Fei The internal forces occur in equal and opposite pairs so 1:rp x Fii = 0
and we have
Mp = 1:rp x m-r
= ~(1:rp
x m.f.)1:rp x m.f.
I I
dt
I I
I I
Introducing ri = Rp + rp in the second term we have
LTp X miri = LTp X mjRp = - Rp
(Lmjrp)
so that
The vector mii is the absolute momentum vector of the particle mi> and
the expression rp x miri is the moment of momentum of the particle in
point P.
We define the moment of momentum Hpofthe system in Pas the sum of the
moment of momentum vectors of all the particles in P, so that Hp = 1:rp
x miri. Thus
Introducing rp = ri- Rp = Rc + rc- Rp in the second term leads to
Rp x (1:mjrp) = Rp x Rc 1:mi + Rp x 1:mirc- Rp x Rp1:mj = Rp x ReM
12
We now have
Mp = Hp+Rp xRcM
This reduces to the simpler expression Mp = Hp in the following cases
(1) Rp = 0, P is a fixed point
(2) Rp = Rc, Pis the centre of mass
(3) Rc = 0, the centre of mass is fixed, P may be any point
(4) Rp is parallel to Rc, or the velocity of Pis parallel to the velocity of the
centre of mass.
The points for P under (3) and (4) are difficult to locate or non-existent in
most problems, and only a fixed point or the moving centre of mass is
important, so we have the basic relationship for the moment of momentum.
(1.8)
where the moments of external forces are taken in a fixed point or in the centre
of mass.
The expression Mp = 1:rp x m;r; may also be transformed in a different
manner: since r; = Rp + rp we have
Mp
= 1:rp x
m;ilp + 1:rp x m;rp = (1:m;rp) x Rp + 1:rp x m;rp
Introducing rp = rpc + rc in the first term gives

1:m;rp
= 1:m;rpc+1:m;rc = 1:m;rpc = (1:m;)rpc = Mrpc
The second term in Mp is
d (~
= dt ""'P x m;rp) = Hp
where Hp' = 1:rp x m;i-p is the relative moment of momentum about point P,
determined by using the relative velocities of the particles with respect to P.
We now have
Mp
This reduces to the form Mp
= Mrpc
= Hp'
x Rp+Hp'
in the following cases
(1) Rp = 0 and Rp = 0, Pis a fixed point

(2) rpc = 0, P is the centre of mass
(3) rpc is parallel to Rp, P is accelerating towards or away from the mass
centre
(4) Rp = 0, P is moving at constant velocity in a fixed direction.
13
Of these points only the first two are important so we have

M= il'
(1.9)
where the moments are taken in a fixed point orin the centre of mass, and H' is
the relative moment of momentum. For a fixed point Hp = Hp' since velocities
relative to a fixed point are also absolute velocities. It may be seen that ilc
=He'; in calculating the moment of momentum in the centre of mass the
absolute velocities or the relative velocities about the centre of mass may be
used. Since He= I:re x m;f;, we find by introducing f; = Rc+fe that
He= I:rc x m;Rc + I:re x m;fe = (I:m;rc) x Rc + I:re x m;fe
=
I:re x m;fe = He'
From the equations 1.8 and 1.9 we find by integration

Mdt
= H2-H1
(1.10)
This equation states that the angular impulse in a fixed point or the centre of
mass is equal to the change in moment of momentum in the same point and in
the same time interval.
Example 1.7
Figure 1.9 shows a light rigid circular rim of radius r which is rolling without
sliding on a horizontal plane under the action of a force Pas shown. Four
concentrated masses each of mass m are attached to the rim as shown and, at
the moment considered, the angular velocity of the rim is wand the coordinate
of the centre of mass C is Xc.
(a) Determine the moment of momentum about the fixed point 0, about the
centre of mass and about the point of contact S.
(b) Determine the equations of motion of the rim in terms of P, rand M = 4m.
y
p
Figure 1.9
14
Solution
(a) Using Cas a pole, the velocities are V1 =xci+rwj, V2 =(xc+rw)i,

v3 = .Xci -rwj and v4 = 0.
The position vectors from 0 are r 01 = (xc- r)i + rj, r 02 = xci + 2rj,
r 03 = (xc + r)i + rj and r 04 = Xci.
introducing rw = .Xc and M = 4m, the result is

H0
-2Mr.Xck
The relative velocities about Care V1r = rwj = .Xd, V2r = .Xci, V3r = - .Xd
and v4r = -.Xci.
The relative position vectors are rc 1 = -ri, rc2 = rj, rC3 = ri and
'c4 = -rj.
Hs = Irs x mi Vi = mirs x Vi, the velocities are the same as for the
determination of H 0 , the position vectors are rs 1 = - ri + rj, rs 2 = 2rj,
rs 3 = ri + rj and rs4 = 0, the result is
Hs = -2Mr.Xck
(b) M 0 = H0 . Since Yc = 0, the vertical forces are balanced; the friction

force is through 0, only the force P has a moment in 0, so
M 0 = rj x Pi= -rPk =
H0 =
-2Mrxck
The scalar equation of motion is P = 2M .ic or .ic = P /2M; .Xc = rw and

.ic = rw, so the motion of the rim is determined by
.
Xc
r
P
2Mr
W=-=--
We have also Me= He, with Me= -rj x ( -Fi) = -rFk. He= -Mrxck
so that F = M .Xc. The horizontal motion of Cis determined by P- F = M Xc,
so F = P /2 and .Xc = P /2M as above.
Since the contact point S accelerates towards the centre of mass it may be
used in the momentum equation Ms = Hs'; since Sis the instantaneous centre
of rotation the velocities relative to S are the absolute velocities and Hs' = Hs
= -2Mr.Xck; Ms = rj x Pi= -rPk so that P = 2M.icas before.
The equation of moment of momentum is widely used in fluid dynamics, as
shown by the following example.
IS
Example 1.8
Figure 1.10 shows the horizontal wheel of a water reaction turbine. The
vertical axis of rotation is through point 0 and the angular velocity of the
turbine is ro. Water flows under pressure from the outside of the wheel to the
inside through channels, one of which is shown in the figure as abed. The radii
of the wheel are r 1 and r2 as shown and the absolute velocities of the water
entering and leaving are V 1 and V 2 with angles a and p to the tangential
direction.
Figure 1.10
If Q is the total rate of flow through the wheel and pis the density, determine
the torque developed by the turbine and its power.
Solution
The system of particles considered at any instant t is the water between crosssections ab and cd. After a time dt the same water occupies the volume
a 1 b 1c 1d 1
Assuming steady flow, the change in the moment of momentum about the
vertical axis in the time dt is the moment of momentum of the mass cdc 1 d 1 less
the moment of momentum of the mass aba 1 b 1 If q is the rate of flow through
one channel we have
dH 0 = qp(V2 r2 cosP- V1 r1 cosa)dt
16
For the total rate of flow Q of all channels, we have

dH 0
~ =
Qp ( V2 r2 cos P- V1 r 1 cos a)
The forces consist of gravity forces which are parallel to the axis and the
pressure forces across the surfaces ab and cd which are radial and intersect the
axis; the only moment of forces about the axis is then due to pressure forces of
the wheel on the flowing water, that is, M 0 = ii 0 . The opposite moment is the
moment of the water on the wheel, which is the torque developed by the
turbine, so that
M 1 = Qp( V 1 r 1 cos a- V 2 r 2 cosp)
This equation is known as Euler's turbine formula.
The power developed is M 1w.
The moment of momentum equation finds many applications in rigid body
dynamics, for example, in the development of Euler's equations for rotational
motion and in impact problems, as shown in the following example.
Example 1.9
Figure 1.11 shows a sphere of radius r and mass M which is falling on to a

horizontal plane. The angular velocity of the sphere is wand the velocity of the
centre of mass is Vc as shown. The coefficient of friction between the sphere
and the plane is J1 and the moment of inertia about a diameter of the sphere is
lc = (2/5)Mr 2
Figure 1.11
(a) Set up the momentum and moment of momentum equations for the
sphere just after impact.
(b) Assuming no rebound or slipping and inelastic impact, determine the
components of impulse at 0 and the motion of the sphere after impact.
17
Solution
(a) The time of impact e is so short that we may assume that there is no motion
during impact, and since the impact forces are very large compared to other
forces, we consider only the impact forces during impact. The components of
the impact force are X and Y as shown, and the impulse components are
I~ X dt andY'= I~ Ydt
X'=
After impact the motion is determined by the components of the velocity of the
centre of mass :icc' and .Yc' and the angular velocity w'. Equations 1.6 and 1.10
give the results
X'= M(xc'- Vc cosp)
Y' = M(.Yc' + Vc sinp)
2
X'r = -Mr 2 (w' -w)
These equations contain five variables and further assumptions must be made
for a solution to be possible.
(b) For no rebound or slip and inelastic impact we have .Yc' = 0 and :icc' =
- rw', taking w positive in the anticlockwise direction. Substituting in the
previous equations leads to
X'= M(xc'- Vc cosp)

Y' = MVc sinp
2M('xc +rw
=-5
I
the solution is
. , = -5 V c cos P- -rw
2
. , = 0 an d w , = -w-2
5 -cos
Vc
P
xc
Yc
7
7 '
7
7 r
The components of the impulse are
X'= -
1M(rw+ Vccosp)
Y' = MVc sinp

The condition of no sliding means that
Jl. >
rw
rX' I or Jl. > 72 ( Vcsinp
+cotp )
18
If there is no external moment acting on a system in a certain time interval

we have M = ii = 0 so that His a vector of constant length and magnitude
during the time interval. This is the principle of conservation of moment of
momentum; if there is no moment about the x-axis the component H x is
conserved even if H Y and Hz are not conserved.
If two discs of moments of inertia I 1 and I 2 are connected by an elastic
horizontal shaft, twisted in opposite directions and then released from rest,
there are no external moments acting on the system about the axis of the shaft
and the moment of momentum about that axis is conserved so that I 1 w 1
+I 2 w 2 = 0 or
I2
It
WI
W2
The subsequent rotations of the discs are always opposite and in a fixed
ratio.
The impact example 1.9 may also be solved by the principle of conservation
of moment of momentum. During the impact, point 0 may be considered as a
fixed point and M 0 = 0 = il0 , so that H 0 is a constant vector. The magnitude
of H 0 just before impact may be shown to be
2 2
H 10 = -MVcrcosfJ+ 5Mr w
just after impact it is
H 20 = - M"xcr + 2 M r 2 w '
equating these two expressions gives the equation
52rw -
Vc cos pa + xc
. ' - 2 rw ' = 0
5
substituting rw' = -icc' gives the previous result for icc'.
1.3 Energy and Work

1.3.1 Kinetic Energy of a System of Particles
The total kinetic energy T of the system of particles in figure 1.8 is the sum of
the kinetic energies of all the particles, or
T=
1
2
~-m.V.
I
By involving the centre of mass of the system, this expression may be given a
more useful form. We haver;

determined by
19
= Rc + r 0 and the velocity V; of the particle is
V/ = (i-;) (i-J = (Rc + i-o) (Rc + i-o)

=
Rc +2Rcr0 +rCi
so the kinetic energy is

1.2
.d
1.2
T = I:2m;Rc + Rc dt (I:m;r0 ) + I:2.m;r0
The first term is !Rc2I:m; = !M Rc 2 , where M is the total mass ofthe system.
The second term is zero since I:m;r0 = 0
1
T= -MRc
+-I:m-rc
2
2
I
(1.11)
The total kinetic energy may be taken as the sum of the kinetic energy of the
total mass concentrated at the centre of mass plus the kinetic energy of the
system for the relative motion about the centre of mass.
Example 1.10
Determine the total kinetic energy of the system in example 1. 7 (figure 1.9).
Show that the same result is obtained by summing the kinetic energies of the
four particles.
Solution
xc and c; = rw =
1.11 gives the result
M = 4m, Vc =
xc for each of the four particles. Equation
1M. 2 1 4" 2
=2
xc + 2m xc =
. 2
M xc
The velocities of the individual particles are, from example 1.7
V/
V/
= xc 2 + r 2w2 = 2xc 2
T=
~m8xc 2 = Mxc 2
= xc 2 + r 2w 2 = 2xc 2,
V/
= (xc + rw) 2 = 4xc 2
and
V/
= 0
as before
1.3.2 Work-Energy Equation
If the resultant external force on a particle of mass m; is denoted by F0 and the

resultant internal force by Fii the work done by the forces for a displacement
20
dr; of the particle is (F.;+ F;;) dr;, and for a displacement from position ril to
position r; 2 the work is
f~ (F.;+ F;;) dr;
r r
r r r
The total work done by all the forces of the system is then
W.D.
= l:
=
(F.;+ Fli) dr; =
(l:F.;) dRc +
l: (F.;+ F;;) (dRc + drCi)
(l:F;;) dRc +
l:(F.; + F;;) drCi
Taking the resultant external force on the system, F = l:F.;, and noticing that
the sum of internal forces vanishes so that l:Fii = 0, we have
r r
F-dRc +
W.D. =
l:(F.; + F;;) drCi
The work-energy equation for a particle states that the work done is equal to
the change in kinetic energy of the particle. We can therefore equate the total
work done on the system to the change in total kinetic energy, thus
r r
FdRc+
l:(F.;+F;;)dr0 =
~MRc2 l: +~l:m;fc/ 1:
Equation 1.1 states that F = M Rc, from which
. dRc
.
.
1
.
.
FdRc = MdRcdt= M(dRc)Rc =lMd(RcRc)
so that
r
r
FdRc=~MRc2 l:
Substituting this in the above expression gives as a result the two independent
equations
FdRc=~MRc 2 l:
l:(F.;+Fi;)drCi =
~l:m;fc/1:
(1.12)
Equations 1.12 express the work-energy equation for a system of particles.
21
Example 1.11
Figure 1.12 shows two particles, each of mass m, connected by a light rigid bar
oflength l; the particles slide in a vertical plane without friction on the x andyaxes as shown. The coordinate of the system is taken as the angle (J as shown.
y
Figure 1.12
Determine the equation of motion of the system by the work-energy

equation.
Solution
The total kinetic energy is
T=
From the geometry xA
T
1 . 2 1 . 2
2mxA + 2my 8
= l sin 0, y8 = l cos 0 and
= ~m(l 2 lF cos 2 0 + 12 ()2 sin 2 lJ) = ~m/ 2 0 2

2
For a rigid bar the work by internal forces is zero, only the gravity force does
work; for a change dO in the coordinate 0 the change in the height of the centre
of mass for a coordinate Yc = (l/2) cos 0 is
dye=
-~sinO
dO
2
and
d(W.D.)
= - mgl sin 0 dO
dT=mFOdO
22
and equation 1.12 gives the result

m/ 2 0 dO= - mgl sin(} d(}
or
so that the equation of motion is

iJ+}sinO = 0
this is the equation for a simple pendulum of length I, so the motion is a
vibratory motion about the equilibrium position(} = 0. For small motion sin(}
~ (} and the equation is
iJ+}O =
this is simple harmonic motion with frequency (1/2n) j(g/1).

The work-energy equation is very useful in rigid body dynamics and also in
the dynamics of fluids as shown in the following example.
Example 1.12
Figure 1.13 shows the steady flow of an ideal incompressible fluid through a
streamline tube. ab represents an arbitrary length of the tube. The system
consists of the fluid contained between sections a and b at time t.
y
Figure 1.13
23
Determine a relationship between the velocity V of the fluid at any crosssection, the pressure p on the cross-section and the height y above the datum
plane.
Solution
At timet+ dt the fluid mass occupies the volume a 1 b 1 . External forces are the
weight force on the fluid and the pressure forces distributed over its surface.
Taking the cross-sectional area of the tube as A at section a and B at section b,
the volume of fluid passing any cross-section in unit time as Q and the specific
weight of the fluid as w, the work done by gravity is the work done in moving
the volume aa 1 at elevation y 1 down to the volume bb 1 at elevation y 2 The
gravity work is therefore Qw dt(Yt- y 2 ).
The pressure forces on the surface of the tube are normal to the direction of
motion and do no work. With pressures p 1 and p2 on cross-sections a and b, the
work of the pressure forces is p 1 AV1 dt- p2BV2 dt. Since AV1 dt = BV2 dt
= Q dt, wehavethework ofthepressureforcesequal to (p 1 - p 2 )Q dt,and the
total work of external forces is [w(y 1 - y 2) + (p 1 - p 2)]Q dt.
The velocity of the particles in the region a 1 b does not change, so the total
change in kinetic energy is the difference between the kinetic energies of the
volumes bb 1 and aa 1 ; thus
T2- Tt =
1 w
2Qg(V2
- Vt ) dt
The work-energy equation gives the result
lw
2
2Qg(V2
- Vt 2 )dt = [ w(yt- Y2) + (Pt- P2) ]Qdt
which reduces to
v1 2
Pt
v2 2 P2
- + - + Yt = - + - + Y2
2g w
2g
w
Since the cross-sections a and b were arbitrary, we have in general for any
cross-section
v2 P
-2 +- + y = constant
g w
This is Bernoulli's theorem.
If a particle is acted on by potential or conservative forces only, the

difference in potential energy between two positions is by definition
V2 - V1 = -
F ds
24
The work-energy equation states that

W.D. =
Fds = T 2 - T 1
Combining these expressions we see that
- ( V 2 - Vd = T 2 - T1 or T 1 + V1 = T 2 + V 2
so that in general
T + V = constant
The sum of the kinetic and potential energy, that is, the mechanical energy, is
constant for a particle moving under the action of conservative forces only.
For a system of particles the internal forces do work since the distances
between the particles change; for a rigid body the internal forces produce no
work. If the internal forces and the external forces are all conservative, we have
T; + V; = constant for any particle during motion of the system, and by
summing up for all the particles we find that
(1.13)
T + V = constant
This is the principle of conservation of mechanical energy for a system of

particles. As an example, consider the system in example 1.11, where we have
T0 =
~ml 2 lP
Only the gravity force on body B does work in returning the system to the
datum position()'= 0 where we take V = 0; thus we have V0 = mg/(1-cos 0).
Applying the principle 1.13 we have
1
2ml 2 fP + mgl(l -cos 0) =
constant
differentiating with respect to time gives
ml2 0iJ + mglOsin ()
=0
or
iJ +}-sin() = 0 as before
Problems
1.1 Two boats of mass M and 2M are connected by a rope of length I. The
rope is shortened to l/2 by the turning of a windlass on one of the boats.
25
Determine the distance moved by the boat of mass 2M, assuming that any
frictional resistance may be neglected.
1.2 Two prisms are held as shown in figure 1.14 and then released. Neglecting
all friction, determine the distance moved by the lower prism when the upper
prism is just touching the plane.
J.
Figure 1.14
1.3 0.283 m 3 js of water at a pressure of 27.6 x 104 Njm 2 flows through a

circular elbow of a horizontal pipe of 30.5 em diameter. Determine the
resultant force exerted on the elbow by the moving water.
1.4 Figure 1.15 shows a tank filled with a fluid of specific weight w. The
horizontal jet has a cross-sectional area A and a velocity (2gh ). The tank rolls
without friction. Determine the force R.
Figure 1.15
1.5 Figure 1.16 shows a frame suspended by a thin thread. A rotor is located
in the frame as shown. The rotor has an initial angular velocity w 0 and the
frame is stationary. The frame is brought into rotation by the friction torque
between the frame and the rotor, which is assumed constant. Determine the
friction torque if it takes t seconds for the rotor to come to rest relative to the
frame. The moment of inertia of the frame about 0-0 is I 1 and that of the
rotor I 2 Assume that the thread offers no resistance to rotation.
26
LLL / / / / /
0
l
II\
0
Figure 1.16
1.6 A circular turntable can rotate freely about its vertical axis about which
its moment of inertia is I 0 . A toy car of mass m runs in a circle of radius r about
0. Initially the car and the turntable are at rest. Determine the angular velocity
of the turntable when the car has acquired a relative velocity V.
1.7 A homogeneous circular disc rotates in its own plane with angular
velocity w about a point A on its circumference. Determine the angular
velocity of the disc if point A is suddenly released and another point B on the
circumference is fixed. The arc AB subtends a central angle ex.
1.8 A thin circular disc of radius rand mass M rolls without slipping along a
horizontal circular track of radius R. The velocity of the centre of mass of the
disc is V. Determine the kinetic energy of the disc.
1.9. Figure 1.17 shows a uniform flexible chain of length I and weight w/
which rests on a smooth horizontal table with an overhang oflength Xo Derive,
by using the energy equation, the general expression for the velocity of the
chain after release from rest.
-X
Figure 1.17
27
Figure 1.18
1.10 Figure 1.18 showsaslenderuniform bar AB ofmassM 1 which is hinged

at A and swings in the vertical plane. A roller of mass M 2 and radius r is
attached to the end of the bar and rolls without slipping along a circular track
of radius R as shown. Determine the period of the system for small oscillations
about A.
2 Systems with Variable

Mass
In Newtonian dynamics the mass of each of the particles of a system is

considered constant. The variation of the mass of a particle with the velocity is
considered in relativistic mechanics and is not involved in the problems
considered here.
Although the mass of individual particles is considered constant, there are
systems where the total mass of the system may change because the system
expels particles-for example, in a rocket, if we exclude the exhaust gases from
the system, the number of particles in the system diminishes with time. In other
cases the system may take up additional material as in the case of a steam
locomotive scooping up water on the run or a snowball rolling downhill and
increasing in size.
2.1 Equation of Motion for a System with Variable Mass

Figure 2.1 shows a system with a total mass M (t) which is a function of time.
The instantaneous value of the mass is M and the instantaneous velocity is V.
The system is in rectilinear motion under the action of an external resultant
force P as shown.
M=M{t)
7777
~....l!_.
';;
77
Figure 2.1
Applying Newton's law for the system, P = M d V/dt gives an erroneous

result since this equation was derived for the centre of mass of a system with
constant mass; it is therefore incorrect to write the equation in the form
p = d(MV)/dt = MV + VM.
We assume that the mass taken up or ejected has a velocity V1 parallel to V.
If V1 is in the same direction as V we take it as positive, otherwise as negative.
The mass taken up or ejected in the time dt is dM, so that the rate of change of
mass is dM /dt = M. If the total mass is increasing we take M as positive,
otherwise as negative. Considering the system to include the mass M and the
SYSTEMS WITH VARIABLE MASS
29
ejected or acquired mass dM, we apply the impulse-momentum equation to

this system of constant total mass.
During the time dt the momentum of the system changes by the amount
M ( V + d V)- M V + dM ( V + d V)- dM V1 = Md V + (V- VddM + dM d V.
Equating the total change in momentum to the impulse P dt of the acting
external force and neglecting the term dM d Vas small (of second order), we
have MdV+(V- V1 )dM = Pdt, and the equation of motion is
(2.1)
The exact solution of the problem involves the concept of an accelerating
volume which is not considered here.
2.2 Systems with Total Mass Increasing with Time

The equation of motion is equation 2.1 with M as a positive quantity; the
application of this equation is shown in the following two examples.
Example 2.1
Figure 2.2 shows a chain oflength I and mass per unit length p. which is being
lifted vertically at a constant velocity V by a force F as shown.
F
X
Figure 2.2
Determine the magnitude of F as a function of x as shown.

Solution
The equation of motion is equation 2.1. In this case we have V constant so that
V = 0, V1 = 0, since the chain is initially at rest; also M = p.x, so M = p.x
=p.V.
30
Substituting in equation 2.1 gives the result J1. V 2 = P, where P is the

resultant external force; thus we have P = F - Jl.gX and J1. V 2 = F- Jl.gx, with
the result that F = J1. ( V 2 + gx ); this result is valid for x ::s:; I.
Example 2.2
Figure 2.3 shows a body of mass M 0 which slides down a frictionless plane
inclined at an angle P to horizontal. A chain of mass J1. per unit length is
attached to the body and coiled at the top of the plane as shown.
Figure 1.3
Determine the equation of motion of the system. Assuming that the body
starts from rest at position x = 0 at t = 0, determine the velocity of the body as
a function of x, the distance moved.
Solution
For any position x we have M = M 0 + Jl.X and M = Jl.X = J1. V. The coiled
chain is at rest so that V1 = 0 and the external force in the direction of motion
is the gravity force component Mg sinp = (M 0 + Jl.X)g sinp.
Equation 2.1 gives the equation of motion of the system MV + VM
= Mg sinp. The equation of motion may be integrated by writing it in the
form d(Mv) = Mg sinp dt and multiplying by MV; this gives
MVd(MV) = Mgsinp(dt)MV = (M 0 + Jl.X) 2 gsinp dx
integrating gives
~(MV) 2 =
:Jl. sinp(M 0 + Jl.X) 3 +C
when t = 0, x = 0 and V = 0 which gives

C = _.!._ sinp M 0 3 and
3J1.
V2
= 2g sinp (M 3 3JJ.M 2
M 0 3)
31
If p.x is small compared to M 0 , we may take M 3 = (M 0 +p.x) 3

+ 3p.xM 0 2 and M 2 :::::: M 0 2 ; this gives the result
V2
::::::
::::::
M0 3
(2g sinP)x
as for a constant mass.
2.3 Systems with Total Mass Decreasing with Time

The equation of motion is equation 2.1 with Mas a negative quantity. The
following four examples show the application of this equation to problems of
systems with decreasing mass.
Example 2.3
Neglecting air resistance and gravity, determine the equation of motion of a

rocket with total mass M = M 0 - A.t where M 0 and A. are constants; also
determine the thrust on the rocket.
Solution
The equation of motion is equation 2.1 with Mas a negative quantity. We have
M = - A., and, denoting the relative velocity of ejection of mass from the
rocket by u, we have V- V1 = V- ( V- u) = u, and P = 0. The equation of
motion of the rocket is then
MV -A.u = 0 or (M 0 -A.t) V =
A.u
In the time dt the amount of ejected mass is dm with the force F acting on
dm, and the impulse-momentum equation for the ejected mass gives the result
Fdt = (dm)u or
dm
F = -u
dt
The force on the rocket is equal and opposite to F and is the thrust
T = (dm/dt)u. We have dm/dt = -dM/dt =A., so that
T=i..u=A.(V-V 1 )
Example 2.4
Figure 2.4 shows a rocket in vertical flight. The instantaneous velocity of the
rocket is V and the instantaneous value of the mass is M, the aerodynamic
resistance is R as shown and the static pressure across the nozzle area A is p.
32
PA
Figure 2.4
Determine the equation of motion of the rocket if the exhaust gases are
ejected with a velocity u relative to the rocket.
Solution
The equation of motion is equation 2.1 and we have P = - R- Mg + pA; also

v- vl = v- (v- u) = u so that the equation of motion becomes
MV+uM = -R-Mg+pA
or
pA-R-Mg-uM = MV
Calling the rate of ejected material m, we have m= - M and the term - uM

u(- m) = um = T, the thrust; the equation of motion of the rocket now
takes the form
= -
pA -R-Mg+ T= MV
Example 2.5
Determine expressions for the velocity and distance travelled as functions of

time for a rocket in vertical flight, assuming that the air pressure and air
resistance may be neglected and that the gravitational field is constant. The
rocket starts from rest and ejects gas at a constant rate so that M = M 0 - let.
The gas is ejected with a constant velocity u relative to the rocket.
33
Solution
From the previous example, the equation of motion is
'T-Mg
= MV
The thrust T = - uM = - u(- .A.)= .A.u, so that
We have now
dV
A.u
-d-t = - g + _M_0___.A.,-t
Integrating and taking V = 0 when t = 0 leads to
V= u
ln(M~~.A.t)-gt
Integrating V = dxjdt and taking x = 0 when t = 0 gives
x = ut+u (M 0 -A.t) 1n
A.
(M
These solutions hold only forM = M 0 - .A.t

rocket at burn-out.
-.A.t) --gt
1 2
M0
Mb, where Mb is the mass of the
Example 2.6
For the rocket in example 2.5, determine expressions for the maximum velocity
reached by the rocket, its maximum altitude and the total time taken to reach
this altitude. Assume that the mass of the rocket at burn-out is Mb.
Solution
Taking the time at burn-out as tb, we have
At this instant the velocity is a maximum, and we find
34
The altitude at burn-out is
At burn-out the rocket is moving with constant mass Mb and initial velocity Vb
vertically against gravity. Taking the distance moved as x 1 and taking x1 = Vb
whent 1 =0,wehavei 1 = -g,x 1 = -gt 1 +Vbandx 1 = -!-gt 1 2 +Vbt 1 .The
maximum height occurs when x1 = 0 or t 1m = Vbjg, from which
vb2
xlm
2ii
The maximum altitude of the rocket is xb + x lm and the total time involved
is tb + t 1m
Problems
2.1 Figure 2.5 shows a chain on a smooth plane. Determine the velocity of
the chain as a function of x, if the chain starts from rest with x = 0. The mass of
the chain is Jl per unit length.
I-X
Figure 2.5
2.2 The chain shown in figure 2.6 moves through the hole in the support.
Neglecting friction, determine the velocity of the chain as a function of x.
2.3 A spherical raindrop falls through the air and increases its mass at a rate
proportional to the surface area, so that dm = 41tr 2 kp dt, where k is a constant
and r the variable radius of the drop. Neglecting air resistance, determine the
equation of motion of the drop and the velocity as a function of time if r = 0
and v = 0 at t = 0.
35
Figure 2.6
2.4 A rocket car when empty has a weight of 1780 N. The car is starting from
rest along a horizontal track and carries fuel of weight 1335 N which is burned
at a constant rate of 66.8 N/s. The total resistance to the motion is 0.00069 V
where V is the velocity in m/s. Determine the maximum velocity attained by
the car.
3 Lagrange's Equations for

Systems with Constraints
Depending on Time,
and Impulsive Motion
Lagrange's equations were developed by the great French mathematician J. L.
Lagrange and published in his celebrated book Analytical Mechanics, (Paris,
1788). Lagrange's equations are of great importance and are widely used in
engineering and physics.
3.1 Some Important Concepts and Definitions in Lagrangian

Dynamics
3.1.1 Degrees of Freedom
The number of degrees of freedom of a system is defined as the number of
independent coordinates required to specify the position of every particle or
component part of the system.
Component parts are bars, discs, etc., of a system which must be treated as a
rigid body rather than as a particle.
Time is never included as a degree of freedom.
3.1.2 Equations of Constraints
Consider the simple pendulum in figure 3.1 which swings in the vertical xyplane. The system has one degree of freedom and the position of the pendulum
may be given by the coordinate 0. The position of the bob may also be given by
the rectangular coordinates x, y; these are not independent, however, but are
Figure 3.1
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
37
connected by the equation of constraint

x2
+ y2
= 12
A second equation of constraint for this system is z = 0; usually this

equation is not stated, but is included in the statement that this is a plane
system. Equations of constraints limit the number of degrees of freedom of a
system.
If the centre of support 0 of the pendulum in figure 3.1 is given an
oscillatory vertical motion y0 = b sin pt, where band pare constants, we have
x = l sin(} and y = b sin pt + l cos 6. The equation of constraint is now
x 2 +(y-bsinpt) 2 = 12
This equation involves time explicitly. The system still has only one degree of
freedom.
3.1.3 Generalised Coordinates
In most cases the positions of the components of a system may be given in
rectangular coordinates; in general these coordinates are not independent but
are connected by equations of constraints, and these equations may be of great
complexity. To avoid the complications of the equations of constraints, it is
convenient, if some independent quantities can be found, to specify the
position of the system. From the above definition of degrees of freedom it
follows that these independent quantities must be equal in number to the
number of degrees of freedom of the system.
Generally several sets of independent coordinates may be determined for a
system, so it is convenient to use the symbol q for these coordinates, regardless
of their nature; q is referred to as a generalised coordinate.
If a system has n degrees of freedom, the generalised coordinates of the
system are taken as (q 1 , q 2 , , q").
3.1.4 Holonomic and Non-holonomic Systems
If a system with n degrees offreedom has equations of constraints which can be
expressed in the form
F(q 1, q 2 ,
q"' t) = 0
that is, in a form containing only the coordinates and time, then the system is
said to be holonomic. If this is not possible, the system is said to be nonholonomic. Non-holonomic systems are generally much more difficult to work
with than holonomic systems, and are outside the scope of this book; the
equations of constraints for such systems generally also contain derivatives of
the coordinates.
For holonomic systems the equations of constraints contain the n
38
generalised coordinates q 1 , . . , q", and may also contain the time t explicitly;
if this is the case, the rectangular coordinates of the system may be stated
as certain functions of the generalised coordinates and time
X; =
G;(q., q2, ... ' q"' t)
Y; = H;(q., q2, ... , q"' t)

Z; =
(3.1)
K;(q., q2, ... ' q"' t)
For example, the system in figure 3.1 with an oscillatory origin has one
degree of freedom; taking() as the generalised coordinate, we have q 1 =()and
x = G(qd = lsinq 1
y = H(q 1 ,t) = lcosq 1 +bsinpt
3.1.5 Forces of Constraints and Other Forces

Forces of constraints include reactions from bearings, supports and guides of
any type, compression or tension in rods, tension in inextensible strings and
belts, and pressure from gear teeth.
Frictional forces are not included in forces of constraints; they generally
depend on forces of constraints and do work which is dissipated as heat.
As ideal systems, we consider systems with rigid components and frictionless
joints. Internal forces in an ideal system do no work since they occur in equal
and opposite pairs; the forces of constraints also do no work in an ideal system
with small displacements compatible with the constraints.
For a non-ideal system, the internal elastic forces may do work on the system;
these forces are dealt with by omitting the elastic member, assuming it is light,
and applying the forces from the elastic member as they act on the rest of the
system-the forces are then counted as external forces. Friction forces, for a
non-ideal system, must also be counted as external forces.
3.1.6 Virtual Displacements and Virtual Work

We define a virtual displacement i>s, with components (i>x, i>y, i>z) of a system, as
an infinitesimal displacement in conformity with the system constraints. Time
is not considered in a virtual displacement, the displacement must be
compatible with the constraints at any instant and the displacement is
performed with time kept constant, that is, i>t = 0. This means that moving
constraints are kept fixed during a virtual displacement. It is assumed that the
forces acting do not change in magnitude or direction during a virtual
displacement.
An actual or real displacement ds, with components (dx, dy, dz), happens in a
time dt in which the forces may change in magnitude and direction, and any
moving constraints may have moved a small distance.
39
The work done by a force F on a virtual displacement os is called the virtual

work. The virtual work done o(W.D.) is then
o(W.D.) = F-os = Fxox+Fyoy+F.oz
and for a system with p particles
o(W.D.) =
L (Fx,oxi+Fy,OYi+F.,ozi)
p
i = 1
Since the displacements are compatible with the constraints, the forces of
constraints do no work on a virtual displacement and do not enter the
expression for virtual work; this fact is one of the great advantages of the
Lagrangian method.
As an example consider the system of the simple pendulum shown in figure
3.2. The point of suspension 0 performs a prescribed motion along the vertical
axis. At the instant t, the bob is in the position B, and, keeping time constant,
(that is, taking Ot = 0 and the moving constraint fixed at 0), a virtual
displacement is an infinitesimal circular arc from B to B 1. The force of
constraint, the string tension, does no work on this displacement.
Figure 3.2
The actual displacement happens in a time dt in which 0 moves to 0 1 and

the bob moves from position B to position B2 This displacement BB 2 has a
component BB 1 , along the circular arc and a radial component B1 B2 . The
constraining force does work on the displacement B 1 B2
3.1.7 Potential Energy

Forces of such a nature that, when they are displaced from one position to
another the work done by the forces depends only on their initial and final
positions, are called conservative forces or potential forces. The most common
examples are gravity forces and elastic forces. The work done by these forces is
independent of the path followed between the positions.
40
For non-conservative forces the work done depends on the path followed or
on the velocity-examples are dry and viscous friction forces, and any external
driving forces or torques.
Systems with only conservative forces acting are called conservative systems.
The potential energy, V, of a system in any general configuration is defined as
the work done by the acting conservative forces when the system is moved
from the general position to a reference position often called the datum
position.
Any convenient position may be used as a datum position and the potential
energy at this position is usually taken as zero.
Potential energy is a relative quantity and any fixed value assigned to it in
any particular datum position is of no consequence, since we always use the
difference in potential energy between two positions, or the derivative oVfoq
of the potential energy function.
In the case of moving constraints, the potential energy is defined and
expressed as above by taking t constant at any position, that is, by fixing the
moving constraints and determining the potential energy for the system with
fixed constraints. This expression for the potential energy will generally
contain time explicitly in the case of systems with moving constraints.
3.1.8 Generalised Forces

Consider the system in figure 3.1. If a small increment M is given to the
generalised coordinate 0, the pendulum bob moves up a distance
[I cos 0 -I cos(O + 00)] =I[cos 0- cos 0 cos 00 +sin 0 sin 00]
-+I sinOOO
M-+0
The acting forces are the gravity force and the string tension s. The work done
in this process is
o(W.D.) = - mgl sin 0 M
Introducing the expression [ Q 11] M for the work done, we have
o(W.D.) = [Q 11]M
= -mgl sin OM
or
Q11 = -mglsinO
The quantity or expression Q11 is called the generalised force corresponding to
the generalised coordinate 0. Here it has the dimensions of a moment. In
general for a system with generalised coordinates (q 1> , q"), we may give an
increment oq; to the generalised coordinate q;, while keeping all the other
coordinates constant; this is possible since generalised coordinates, by
definition, are independent. Determining the work done by all acting forces for
41
this change flq; in the position of the system, we write

fi(W.D.) = [Q;]flq;
The expression Q; is then defined as the generalised force corresponding to

the generalised coordinate q;. Q; is an expression containing the acting forces
and the dimensions of the system. Forces of constraints and internal forces of
rigid components do not enter the expression for fi(W.D.).
For conservative systems the potential energy function may be expressed by
V=J(ql, ,qn,t)
Giving an increment flq; to the coordinate q; and keeping the other coordinates
and time constant, thereby changing the position of the system from position 1
to position 2, the change in potential energy is
fl v =
G:
)flq;
= V2- V1 = (W.D.h -(W.D.)t = fi(W.D.h-1 = -fi(W.D.)t-2

= -fi(W.D.) = -[Q;]flq;
so that
Q
ov
= -oq;
-
(3.2)
For conservative systems the generalised forces may thus be determined by

partial differentiation of the potential energy function expressed in generalised
coordinates. This method of determining generalised forces for conservative
systems is usually simpler than application of the basic definition fi(W.D.)
= [Q;]flq;.
In the case of moving constraints, the generalised forces are determined

exactly as above by keeping t constant, that is, by imagining the moving
constraints at rest and proceeding as if the system had fixed constraints.
3.2 Some Useful Relationships for Partial and Time Derivatives of a

Function of Several Variables
From the equations 3.1, the rectangular coordinate
X;= G;(ql, q2, ' qn, t)

For any x coordinate we find from this function
. dx ox .
ox . ox
X= -d = ::;-ql + ... +::;-qn +-;t uq;
uqn
ut
42
Differentiating
x partially with respect to ti 1 gives the result

ox ox
oti1 = oql
(3.3)
(This operation is sometimes called 'removing the dots'.) Differentiating

partially with respect to q 1 leads to
ox
uq1
o2 x
o2 x
o2 x
+-;--;-tin+~
uq 1
uq 1uqn
uq 1ut
G(qh ... , qn, t) we have
ox
-;- = F(qh ' qn, t)
uql
-;-=~tit+
From the function x =
and
:t (:~) =
o: (:~)tit+ + o:n (:~)tin+ :t (:~)

1
o2 x
uq1
=~til+
o2 x
o2 x
+-;--;-tin+~
uq 1uqn
uq 1ut
Comparing this to the previous expression for
ox
oq1
oxjoq 1shows that
d (ox)
dt oq1
(3.4)
In the derivation of Lagrange's equation we shall meet expressions of the

type xoxjoql; to obtain this expression in terms of first-order derivatives we
write
.. ox
xoql
d (. ox ) . d (ox )
dt xoql -xdt oql
using expressions 3.3 and 3.4 on this we find
x~ = ~(x ox )-x ox
oql dt oti1
oq1
~(ox 2 !2)- o(x 2 /2)

dt oti1
oq1
(3.5)
Expressions similar to 3.5 may be found for any of the generalised coordinates
(q 1 , , qn) and also for the functions of y = H(q 1, ... , qn, t) and
Z= K(q 1, ... , qn, t).
Example 3.1
A particle moves in the xy-plane with polar coordinates (r, lJ). The origin 0 of
the xy system oscillates along the y-axis with a simple harmonic motion
43
Yo = b sin pt, where band p are constants. The rectangular coordinates of the
particle are x = r cos(;} and y = r sin(;} + b sin pt.
Show that the relationships 3.3 and 3.4 are valid.
Solution
The particle has two degrees of freedom. Using generalised coordinates

q 1 =rand q 2 = 9, we have
x = q 1 cosq 2
y= q 1 sinq 2 +b sinpt
The partial derivatives are

ox
uql
ox
.
= cosq 2, ~ = -q 1 smq 2
uq2
oy
.
d
= smq 2 an
uql
oy
= q 1 cosq 2
uq2
The time derivatives are
x = q1 cosq2 -qtq 2 sinq2

Y = tlt sin q2 + q 1 q 2 cos q 2 + bpcos pt
Taking partial derivatives of these expressions gives
ox
-;-:-=COS
uq2
o.Y
ox
q2,-;-:- = - ql Sin q2
uq2
-;-:- = sm q2
uql
an
o.Y
-;-:- = q 1 cos q2
uq2
Comparing these with the partial derivatives the expressions are the same, as
they should be according to relationship 3.3.
The partial derivatives of x and y with respect to q 1 and q2 are
ox
uql
o.Y
. .
ox
. .
= -q 2 smq 2 ,~ = -q 1 smq 2 -q 1q 2 cosq 2
uq2
= q 2 cosq 2 an
oql
o.Y = q. cosq -q q. smq2

.
2 1 2
1
uq2
The time derivatives of oxjoq and oyjoq are
44
Comparison with the partial derivatives of x and y shows directly that the
expressions are the same, as they should be according to relationship 3.4.
3.3 Development of Lagrange's Equations

Consider a system of p particles in plane motion; the masses of the particles are
. . , mP and the resultant force on each particle is F 1 , . , FP. The system
of particles may include one or several rigid bodies as part of the system.
Introducing a coordinate system xy in the plane of motion, and assuming
this to be inertial, we write Newton's second law of motion for each particle,
using components of forces and accelerations
m1 ,
mPxP
= Fx.
mPjiP
= FY.
Imagine now that each particle undergoes a virtual displacement with

components (ox, oy): we multiply m1 x1 = Fx, by ox 1 and md 1 = Fy, by oy 1 .
Carrying through this operation for all particles and adding all the equations
leads to the following
p
i= 1
m;(X; OX;+ Yi oy;) =
i= 1
(F x, OX;+ F y, oy;)
(3.6)
which is D'Alembert's equation.

The total work done by the acting forces is
o(W.D.) =
L (Fx OX;+ Fy, oy;)

p
= 1
which is the right-hand side of expression 3.6. Since the virtual displacements
are in conformity with the constraints, no work is done by the forces of
constraints and these are therefore effectively eliminated from expression 3.6.
If the system has n degrees of freedom (n ~ 2p), and the (2p- n) equations of
constraints are of the form
X;=
Gi(q1, 'qn,t)
Y1 = Hi(qt> , q", t)
we have a holonomic system. The appearance of t explicitly in the above

equations indicates moving constraints or a moving frame of reference or
both.
Since the generalised co-ordinates (qt> . .. , q") are independent, we may
change one of them without changing the others. Thus giving an increment oq 1
to q 1 and keeping all other coordinates and time constant, so that Oq; =
0 (i # 1) and Ot = 0, we have
45
ox;
OX;= -oql and

oql
()yi
oyj
= -oql
oql
Substituting this in expression 3.6 we find
Since the right-hand side of this expression is the total work done by all forces
on an increment oq~> it is by definition equal to [Q 1 ]oq 1 , so that
Ql
P (
OX
oy.)
= i=l
L Fx,~+Fy,~
ql
ql
(3.7)
The expression 3.7 may be used to determine the generalised force Q1 , with
similar expressions for the other generalised forces Q2 , , Qn. Usually this
expression leads to excessive work in determining generalised forces, so it is
seldom used.
Substituting the expression for Q 1 in the previous expression leads to
Using equation 3.5 for
or
x; oxjoq 1 and a similar expression for Y; oyjoq 1 gives
2
p
/2) - c(x//2) +d (oy//2)
_
L
m. [ -d (ox;
-- - - o(y//2)] -Q
= 1
dt
Oq 1
oq 1
dt
oq 1
oq
1
m; [~(c(x; 2 _:t:};; 2 )/2)-(c(x; 2 +j;/)/2)] = Q1

i= 1
dt
Cql
Oql
Introducing the kinetic energy of the system
gives the result
d ar ar
-----Q
dt aq_l oql - 1
which is Lagrange's equation for the coordinate q 1 It is obvious that, by

including z terms for a system of particles in three-dimensional motion, we
shall find exactly the same Lagrange equation, so the equation is also valid for
three-dimensional motion.
Repeating the development with an increment of oq 2 given to coordinate q 2
leads to a similar equation in q 2 Thus we shall find n Lagrangian equations for
the system equal to the number of degrees of freedom. Lagrange's equations
46
may now be stated in the general form
~aT_ aT= Q
aq_j oqj
dt
(i = 1, ... , n)
(3.8)
It is evident that equation 3.8 is the usual form for Lagrange's equation, and
that the form of the equation is the same as for systems without moving
constraints. Equation 3.8 is valid for all holonomic systems, both conservative
and non-conservative, and with or without moving constraints.
For conservative systems, the generalised forces may be determined by using
the potential energy function V with Qi = -oVjoqj from equation 3.2.
Substituting in equation 3.8 gives the result
~aT_ aT+ av = 0
dt aq_j oqj oqj
Defining a Lagrangian function L = T- V, we have
and
oL
oqj
aT av
oqj oqj
Substituting this gives an alternative form of Lagrange's equations

~
dt
oL _ aL =O
aq_j oqj
(i = 1, ... , n)
(3.9)
Equation 3.9 is valid for conservative systems only.

For a system with both conservative and non-conservative forces acting, it is
obvious that Lagrange's equations may be given the form
d
dt
oL oL
aq_j - aqj = QiN
(i = 1, ... , n)
(3.10)
where QiN is determined in the usual way for the coordinate qj, but taking into
account non-conservative forces only. The conservative forces have already
been accounted for in the Lagrangian function L. Equation 3.10 holds for the
same types of systems as 3.8.
Example 3.2
Figure 3.3 shows a simple pendulum which swings in the vertical xy-plane. The
length I of the pendulum may be varied by pulling a string at A. Assume that I is
a given function f(t) of time.
47
Figure 3.3
(a) Determine the equation of motion of the system.

(b) Simplify the equation of motion for small values of 8 and discuss the
motion in detail.
(c) Determine the equation of motion as under (b) if the bob is an elevator
with I increasing or decreasing at a constant rate I = a+ bt, where a and b are
constants.
Solution
(a) The system is conservative and has one degree of freedom, since I= f(t)is a
given function of time. Taking the generalised coordinate as 8, we have
x = I sin 8 and y = I cos 8; these expressions contain time explicitly since
I= f(t).
We find x = i sin (J + 10 cos (J and y = i cos (J -18 sin e. The velocity v of the
mass is v2 = x2 + y2 = f2 + l 2 F, and the kinetic energy is T = !mv 2 = !m
(i2 + [2(}2).
Taking the datum position for potential energy at the horizontal x-axis, and
keeping t constant, we find
V= -mglcosO
so that
Both T, V and L contain time explicitly since I = f(t). Taking equation 3.9 as
the equation of motion
i_ a~_ aL = 0
dt ae ae
48
We have
,
zn
ao = ml u, dtd oL
ao = 2ml1u+ml
oL
2,
and
oL
- = -mg
o8
ISID
. 8
The equation of motion is
ml 2 lJ + 2mllO + mgl sin 8 = 0

or
(b) For small values of 8 we may set sin 8
8, so the equation of motion is
21 g
li+-0+-8 = 0
l
Comparing this to the equation of motion of a linear, damped vibratory

system, which is x + (c/m)x + (k/m)x = 0, it may be seen that the term 2(ijl)O
takes the place of the term (c/m)x representing damping. If l is increasing, (is
positive and the equivalent damping is the usual positive damping which gives
a decreasing amplitude 8 with time. If l is decreasing, i is negative and
the equivalent damping is negative so that the amplitude 0 increases with
time.
(c) If I = a+ bt, [ = b and the equation of motion is
2b
g
lJ+--0+--8 = 0
a+bt
a+bt
This equation may be solved by numerical methods; an exact solution may also
be found by using Bessel's functions.
Example 3.3
Figure 3.4 shows a flywheel in torsional vibrations. The moment of
inertia of the wheel varies with time due to the motion of symmetrically located
masses m which are forced to move along two spokes of the wheel. The variable
moment of inertia is given by the function I= 10 (1 +asinwt), where
0 < a < 1 and a and ware constants. The torsional spring constant of the shaft
is K and the mass of the shaft and damping may be neglected.
Determine the equation of motion of the flywheel.
49
Figure 3.4
Solution
The system has one degree of freedom, and taking the generalised coordinate
as the angle of twist 0, the equation of motion is
_! oL _ oL
dt
_0
ao ao -
We
find T=tl0 2 =!I 0 (l+asinwt)0 2 ,

= ti 0 (1 +a sinwt)0 2 -tK02
:t ~~
~~ =
V=tK0 2
and
L=T-V
I 0 (1 +a sin wt)O
= I 0 (aw cos wt)(} +I 0 (1 +a sin wt)ii
oL =
ao
-KO
The equation of motion is

I 0 (1 +a sin wt)ii +I 0 (aw cos wt)O + KO = 0
or
ii
awcoswt (}
+ 1 +a sinwt + I 0 (1 +a sinwt)
0= 0
Example 3.4
Figure 3.5 shows a horizontal turntable of mass M and moment of inertia I
about the vertical z-axis. A smooth tube is fixed to the turntable as shown, the
50
Figure 3.5
axis of the tube is in a vertical plane through the z-axis. A body of mass m slides
in the tube and is connected to the lower end of the tube by a spring of constant
K. The turntable is mounted on the floor of an elevator which accelerates
upwards with constant acceleration a. A driving motor, not shown, supplies a
torque M 1 to the turntable which rotates at a constant angular velocity w. The
unstressed length of the spring is I.
Determine the equations of motion of the system.
Solution
The system has three degrees of freedom. Taking generalised coordinates x, ()

and z as shown, we have() = w (constant) and z = a (constant). The equations
of motion are given by equation 3.8
d
dt
oT oT _ Q
oq; - oq; - ;
The kinetic energy of the disc is !MV 2 +!Iw 2 = !Mz 2 +!102 The kinetic
energy of the mass m is !m Vm2 , where the velocity Vm = Vbase + Vrei The base
velocity has a vertical component i and a horizontal component inwards of
magnitude (b + x cos a)O; the relative velocity is x along the tube. Using
components of velocity, we find
51
The kinetic energy of the system is then
The necessary derivatives of T are as follows
oT
ox =
(. .
.
m z sm oc + x)
oT
.
(. . . )
oz = Mz+m z+x smoc
d -oT
(.. .
.. ) =mx+asmoc
(..
. )
. =mzsmoc+x
dt ox
d oT 2 b
) .
dt oO = m( + x cos oc wx cos oc
d -oT
(" .. . ) = M a + mxsmoc
(.. . + a)
. = M..z+mz+xsmoc
dt oz
oT
ox = m(b + x cos oc)0 2 cos oc = m(b + x cos oc)w 2 cos oc
oT
o(J =
O,
oT =
oz
The generalised forces are found as follows, keeping (} and

giving an increment ox to x
o(W.D.) = - mg sin oc ox- K(x -I) ox = Qx ox
therefore
Qx= -mgsinoc-K(x-1)
For (} we find
o(W.D.) = M 1 00 = Q8 00
Qe=Mt
For z we have
o(W.D.) = - Mg oz- mg oz + F oz = Qz oz
Qz = F-(M +m)g
constant and
52
Substitution in Lagrange's equations gives directly

m(x +a sin IX)- m(b + x cos 1X)w 2 cos IX = - mg sin IX- K (x -I)
2m(b + x cos 1X)wx cos IX = M,
Ma +m(x sin IX +a)= F- (M +m)g
The equations of motion may be given in the following form
x + ( ~- w 2 cos 2 IX) x +
[(a+ g) sin IX- ( bw 2 cos
IX+~ I) J= 0
M 1 = 2mwx cos IX{b + x cos IX)

F = (M +m)(a +g) +mx sin IX
For given numerical values of K, M, m, w, IX, a, band I, the first equation may be
integrated to give x as a function of time; substituting in the other two
equations gives M 1 and F as functions of time.
The moment of inertia I of the disc does not enter the equations since w is
constant.
The first equation contains only the coordinate x and system constants. This
is the equation ofrelative motion of the mass m, that is, the equation of motion
of m relative to the rest of the system. For Kjm > w 2 cos 2 IX this is simple
harmonic motion with circular frequency
for K/m < w 2 cos 2 IX or w > (1/cosiX)J(K/m), the mass m will move to an
outer position in the tube and rest against a stop or on a fully stretched spring.
The second equation indicates the Coriolis force on the mass. Coriolis
acceleration is C = 2w x V,. In magnitude I = 2wx sin (90- IX)
= 2wx cos IX. For x > 0 the direction of Cis horizontal, perpendicular to the
tube and inwards. The Coriolis force is 2mwx cos IX on the tube and outwards,
and the moment arm of the force is (b + x cos IX), giving a retarding torque
equal to 2mwx cos 1X(b + x cos IX); this torque must be supplied by the driving
motor to keep w constant, and the torque is, of course, M 1 as determined from
the second equation of motion. When x changes direction and becomes
negative, the torque changes direction and the drive must supply a braking
torque for constant w.
The third equation gives the external force F supplied by pressure from the
elevator floor. This equation is a statement of Newton's second law for the
total system. The elevator acceleration has the effect of increasing g by the
amount a. The external force must be sufficient to overcome the gravity force
(M + m)g and the vertical forces (M + m)a due to the elevator acceleration, and
also the additional force mx sin IX due to the additional vertical acceleration
x sin IX of the mass m.
53
3.4 Lagrange's Equations for Impulsive Motion
J::
F dt. In many cases the force

We define the impulse of a force as the integral
variation with time is not known and the integration cannot be performed, but
sometimes the total impulse may still be determined-this is the case in some
problems of impact between rigid bodies.
Experiments show that the time of duration of an impact is extremely short
with a value e of approximately 1.5 x 10- 4 s. The maximum value of the
impact force is found to be extremely large compared to other forces acting,
like gravity or friction forces. To deal with impact problems we make two
simplifying assumptions: because of the short duration, the configuration just
after the impact is considered to be the same as just before the impact; because
of the large impact forces, the action of the other forces during the impact is
ignored.
Lagrange's equation (3.8)
d
dt
aT oT
oiJ; - oq; = Q;
may be adapted to the case in which impulsive forces are acting. Taking the
impact time as e, we multiply the equation by dt and integrate from t to t + e,
with the result
oT = It+ Q-dt
aT- - It+ -dt
I t+ doiJ;
oq;
t
The first term is
The second term is
aT
I t+ -dt
oq;
the generalised coordinates q; do not change abruptly during impact, and we

may take oTjoq; as finite during the impact; we have then
lim
It+
oT
~dt
q,
= 0 fore~ 0
The right-hand side is
this term does not vanish since the impulsive forces become very large during
54
the infinitesimal time of the impact. The integral is the impulse of the
generalised impact force Qi; denoting this by Q/, the equation takes the form
L\(:~) = Q/
(3.11)
oT/oiJ.; represents the generalised components ofthe momenta corresponding to
the generalised coordinate q;, and equation 3.11 states that the increment of the
generalised components of momenta during impact is equal to the corresponding generalised components of the impulses.
Example 3.5
Figure 3.6 shows a right circular cylinder of mass M and radius r in impact with
a step of height h. Just before impact the cylinder rolls without sliding and with
linear velocity v.
Figure 3.6
Assuming a rigid cylinder and no sliding or rebound, determine

(a) the motion of the cylinder just after impact
(b) the components of the impulse at 0
(c) the necessary coefficient of friction at 0 and the loss in kinetic energy.
Solution
(a) The moment of inertia of the cylinder about its central axis is I = Mr 2 /2.
During impact the cylinder is in plane motion with three degrees of freedom.
Introducing a coordinate system at 0 as shown, we take the coordinates x and
y of the centre of mass, and the angle of rotation (} as generalised coordinates.
55
The generalised components of momenta are
ar
ox
. ar
=Mx,
oy
=My
and
Neglecting forces other than impact forces, the generalised forces are Qx = X
and QY = Y. Keeping x andy constant and giving an increment o(} to(}, we find
o(W.D.) = -X r o(}, or Q6 = -X r. The generalised impulse components
are Qx' =X', QY' = Y' and Qe' = -X' r. Equations 3.11 now give the results
~(Mx)
= M(x-vcosa) =X'
~(My)
= M(y + v sin a)= Y'
-e
2
~ ( -Mr
2
e--;:v) =
2
=Mr
-2- ( .
-X'r
Since we assume no elasticity, sliding or rebound, the point 0 becomes the new
instantaneous centre of rotation, and the equations of constraints are x = rO
and y = 0, which on substitution gives
M(x- vcos a)=
Mvsina
= Y'
~r (~-~)=-X'
The first and second equations give
x = ~(1 + 2 cos a)
from which
(} = 3r (1 +2cose<)
These expressions define the motion just after impact.
If a = 90, the cylinder impacts with a vertical wall, and x = v/3 vertically,
with 0 = vj3r. If a = 0, there is no step and x = v horizontally, with(}= vjr;
since there is no impact these are unchanged.
(b) The above equations give the result for the impulses
X'= M
~(1-cosa)
Y' = Mvsina
For a = 90, X' = M v/3 and Y' = Mv.

X' changes the vertical linear momentum from zero toM v/3 andY' changes
56
the horizontal linear momentum from Mv to zero. The angular momentum

change is
Mr-- Mr- = Mr2

6
3
this is changed by the angular impulse

X ' r = Mv-r
3
(c) For no slipping at 0, the coefficient of friction Jl. is related to the friction
force F and the normal force N by F < Jl.N. The impulses are in the same ratio
as the forces, so that
F X
X' 1-cosiX
Jl.>N=-y=y;-= 3siniX
For
IX
= 90, or a vertical wall, we find
1
Jl.>3
Just before impact we have
Just after impact
The loss of kinetic energy is
For IX = 0, !l.T = 0; for IX= 90, !l.T = 2Mv 2 /3 or 88.9 per cent of the original
kinetic energy.
Example 3.6
Figure 3. 7 shows a slender, uniform, rigid bar oflength I and mass Min impact
with a smooth vertical wall. The motion of the bar before impact is a
translation in the vertical plane with a velocity v directed along the bar.
57
Y'
Figure 3.7
Assuming no penetration or rebound, determine

(a) the motion of the bar just after impact
(b) the impulse during impact
(c) the loss of kinetic energy.
Solution
(a) During impact there is plane motion with three degrees of freedom. Fixing
an xy coordinate system as shown, we take the coordinates (x, y) of the centre
of mass of the bar and the angle of rotation () as generalised coordinates.
T
= 2Mvc2 + 2Jw2 = 2M(x2 + y2) + 24 MtlfP
The generalised components of momenta are

oT
ox
. oT
=Mx, oy
M.
an
The generalised forces during impact are Qx = 0 and Qy = Y; giving a small

increment {,() to e, we find
or
The generalised impulse components are
Qx' = 0, Q/ = Y' and Qo' = Y' ~cos a
58
Equation 3.11 gives the results

L\(Mx)
= M(x+vcosiX) = 0
L\(My)
= M(y+vsiniX) = Y'
2
MI0
)
Ml 2
I
L\ ( = -(0-0) = Y'-cosiX
12
12
The first equation gives directly x = - v cos IX l; this result is in agreement with
the fact that, for no vertical forces during impact, the vertical component of the
velocity of the centre of mass must stay constant.
As an equation of constraint, we have the vector equation for the velocity
v' of the centre of mass just after impact
taking horizontal components this gives
.
y=
I ~~
2
--UCOSIX
substituting this in the equations above gives

M (-
~ ecos
IX
+ v sin IX) = Y'
I .
M 6() = Y' cos IX
The solution is
from which
The expressions for x, y and 0 determine the motion of the bar just after
impact.
If IX = 90 we have linear horizontal impact with a vertical wall and the result
is x = y = 0 = 0-the bar stops dead in accordance with our assumptions. The
solution is not valid for IX = 00, but for IX -+ 0, we find x -+ - v l and y -+ 0, 0
-+ 0, which means no change in the motion.
59
(b) The previous equations also give the solution for the impulse, which is
,
Y=
Mvsinoc
+1 +3cos 2 oc
For a= 0, Y' = Mv, which is equal to the linear momentum just before
impact, as it should be according to the impulse-momentum equation. If
a-+ 0, Y'-+ 0 and there is no change in the momentum.
(c) The kinetic energy before impact is T 1 = t Mv 2 After impact, we have
The loss in kinetic energy is

Mv 2 sin 2 oc
!lT = T 1 - T2 = 2(1 + 3cos 2 oc)
If a = 90, !lT = Mv 2 /2, so that all the kinetic energy is lost. If a-+ 0, !lT-+ 0,
so there is no loss.
Problems
3.1 Figure 3.8 shows a smooth rigid bar which is rotating in the horizontal
xy-plane about the point 0 with a constant angular velocity w. A small body of
mass m slides along the bar under the action of a force F with components F x
and FY (this force includes the force of constraint between the body and the
bar). The bar is in the direction of the x-axis when t = 0. Determine the
equation of motion of the body.
0
Figure 3.8
60
3.2 Figure 3.9 shows a horizontal turntable which is rotating at a constant

angular velocity Q as shown. A smooth rod is forced by a driving mechanism to
oscillate in the vertical plane about 0 according to the equation (} = 80 sin wt.
A body A of mass m slides along the rod as shown. Determine the equation of
relative motion of the body A along the rod.
Figure 3.9
3.3 Figure 3.10 shows a uniform bar of length I and mass m1 which rotates
about 0 in the vertical plane, due to gravity. A body of mass m 2 slides along the
bar without friction and this body is connected to a dashpot of damping
coefficient c as shown. A light spring of constant k connects the body to 0, the
unstressed length of the spring is /0 . The point 0 is given a linear motion
x = f(t), wheref(t) is a function of time. Determine the equations of motion of
the system.
Figure 3.10
61
3.4 Figure 3.11 shows a uniform rigid bar AB of length I and mass m which is
falling in the vertical xy-plane and striking a smooth horizontal floor at A. At
impact the angular velocity of the bar is wand the vertical velocity of the centre
of mass C is - V as shown. Determine the impulse Y' at A.
Figure 3.11
3.5 Figure 3.12 shows a homogeneous sphere of radius a and mass M in

impact with a horizontal rough plane. The motion of the sphere just before
impact is as shown. Assuming an inelastic impact and no slipping or rebound,
determine the impulse components at 0 and the motion of the sphere just after
impact.
Figure 3.12
4 Vibrations with Two

Degrees of Freedom
Figure 4.1 shows a mathematical model of a two-degree-of-freedom vibratory

system. The springs and dash pots are assumed light, and all the mass of the
system is assumed concentrated in the two bodies each of mass m. All damping
in the system is assumed to be of the viscous friction type and concentrated in
the dashpots with damping coefficients c.
----F =J;s i n.t

Figure 4.1
An external exciting force F = F 0 sin wt of force amplitude F 0 and

frequency w, is acting on one of the bodies as shown. The displacements x 1 and
x 2 of the bodies are measured from the static equilibrium positions. The
generalised coordinates of the system are taken as x 1 and x 2
Lagrange's equations of motion of the system are
~ oL
dt OX1
_ oL + oD
=Q
~ oL
dt OX 2
_ oL + oD
= Q
OX1
ox 1
x,N
and
ox 2 ox 2
x2N
where the Lagrangian function L = T- Vis the difference between the kinetic
energy T and the potential energy V. D is the dissipation function, and the
generalised forces for non-conservative forces other than damping forces are
Qx, Nand Qx.N corresponding to the coordinates x 1 and x 2
For the system in figure 4.1 we find
VIBRATIONS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM
1.2
= ~x 1
63
1.2
+2cx 2
Qx,N = F 0 sin rot

Qx 2 N = 0
Substituting in Lagrange's equations gives the equations of motion
mx 1 +c.X 1 +2Kx 1 -Kx 2 =
mx 2 +c.X 2 +2Kx 2 -Kx 1 =
F 0 sin rot
(4.1)
The investigation of the motion is divided into four cases for convenience.
4.1 Free Vibrations without Damping

If F 0 = 0 and c = 0, we have free vibrations without damping and the
equations of motion 4.1 take the form
mx 1 +2Kx 1 -Kx 2
= 0
(4.2)
Equations 4.2 are a set of simultaneous second-order, ordinary, homogeneous differential equations with constant coefficients. The first-order derivatives x1 and x2 do not appear. A set of simple sine functions will form
a solution. Taking.
x 1 = A sin ( pt + cP)
x2
= B sin (pt + ),
where pis the frequency, and A, Band

find on substitution in equations 4.2
cJ>
are constants to be determined. We
(2K -mp 2 )A -KB = 0

-KA + (2K -mp 2 )B = 0
(4.3)
These equations are a set of first-order homogeneous algebraic equations in A

and B, with constant coefficients. The condifion for solutions (A, B) -::1- (0, 0) is
that the determinant of the coefficients vanishes, that is
-K
(2K -mp 2 )
I -0
-
this determinant is called the frequency determinant. Expanding the determinant gives the frequency equation
64
(K)
K 2 +3 m
p4 -4mp
=0
The roots of this equation are p 1 2 = Kjm and p/ = 3Kjm so that

P1
= J(~)andpz =
JC:)
The roots p 1 and p 2 are called the natural circular frequencies of the system, and
the natural frequencies are f 1 = ptf2rr,f2 = p 2 /2rr.
From equations 4.3 we find that the values of A and B cannot be determined,
but their ratio may be found from either of the equations 4.3. The result is
x1
x2
A
B
K
2K -mp 2
Substituting the values of p 1 and p2 in this expression in turn gives A/ B = + 1

for p 1 and A/ B = - 1 for p 2 . We now have the solution to the equations of
motion
::} = A 1 sin(p 1 t+ 1 ), with p 1 =
J(~)
No limitation is found on the phase angle 1 , so that A 1 and 1 are arbitrary.

This solution is simple harmonic motion with circular frequency p 1 and
amplitude A 1 for both masses moving in phase. The motion is called motion in
the fundamental mode of vibration. Because both masses vibrate with the same
amplitude and frequency, there is no extension of the middle spring, which
may therefore be removed and the system reduced to two independent onedegree-of-freedom systems with frequency
(Kjm), as found for the total
system.
The solution to equations 4.2 for p 2 = (3Kjm) and A/ B = -1 is
J
J
where the minus sign is for x 2

This solution is simple harmonic motion with frequency p 2 and amplitude
of magnitude A 2 for both masses. This motion is called the second mode of
vibration of the system.
Both masses vibrate with the same frequency but out of phase with equal
and opposite displacements. There is therefore no motion of the middle point
of the coupling spring, and this point may be fixed without disturbing the
system. The system then reduces to two one-degree-of-freedom systems, each
corresponding to a mass on a spring of spring constant 3K, and with frequency
(3Kjm). Again A 2 and 2 are arbitrary constants.
Since equations 4.2 are linear, the principle of superposition holds, and the
general solution may be found by adding the two solutions for the
65
fundamental and second mode; the result is

x1 = A1 sin (PIt+ </>1) + A2 sin (p 2t + </>2)
x 2 = A 1 sin (p 1t + </>tl- A 2 sin (p 2 t + </>2)
This is not simple harmonic motion, but a complicated motion involving

both natural frequencies p 1 and p2
The four constants A 1, A 2 , </> 1 and 2 must be determined by the starting
conditions at t = O:x 1 = x 10 , x1 = x 10 , x 2 = x 20 , x 2 = x 20 . With a set of
given starting conditions, the motion is completely determined thereafter.
The system may be started, in the simplest manner, in such a way as to
vibrate in the fundamental mode only, by using the starting conditions at
t = 0, XI = x2 = Xo, and .XI = x2 = 0.
For vibration in the second mode only, the simplest starting conditions may
be taken as X1 = -X2 = Xo, and X1 = X2 = 0 at t = 0.
In any actual system some damping will always be present, but in many cases
the damping is small, and a good approximation to the behaviour of the system
may be found by applying the theory as described.
Many different types of system exist which exhibit this type of motion. Two
types are discussed in the following two examples.
Example 4.1
Figure 4.2a shows a rigid body of mass M and moment of inertia 1c = M 12

about an axis through the centre of mass C and perpendicular to the vertical
plane in which the body is vibrating. The body is supported on springs of
!e
(a)
(b)
~Mg
Figure 4.2
-1
F=o
66
constant K and the ends of the body are constrained to move in the vertical
direction only. The base line of the body is horizontal in the static equilibrium
position.
Determine the equations of motion for small motions, the natural
frequencies, the modeforms and the general solution to the equations of
motion.
Solution
The system has two degrees offreedom. Taking generalised coordinates x and
0 as shown, the equations of motion are
doL oL
-----0
dt ae ao For small motions the deflection of the left-hand end is (x- [(})and for the
right-hand end (x + 2W).
For the compressive force F 1 in the left support spring the potential energy
is the value of the cross-hatched area on the spring force diagram figure 4.2b.
The total potential energy is
V
=-
[~Mg(x- [(}) -~K(x- l0)
+ Mgx
J- [~Mg(x +
210)
-~K(x + 210)
2K(x- [(}) 2 +2.K(x + 2[(}) 2
The kinetic energy is
and L = T- V. Substituting in the equations of motion, the result is

Mx+2Kx+KW = 0
MlO + Kx + 5K[(} = 0
Taking x =A sin(pt + t/>) and 0 = B sin(pt + t/>) we find

(2K- Mp 2 )A + KIB = 0
KA + (5Kl- Mlp 2 )B
=0
Equating the determinant of the coefficients to zero leads to the frequency

equation
(K)
K 2 +9 M
p4 -1 Mp
67
= 0
The roots are
These are the two natural circular frequencies of the system. Taking the
dimensionless ratio A/(BI) from the above equations, we find
x
01
= Bl = Mp 2 -2K =
{ -3.300 for p 1 2
+0.3003 for p2 2
The fundamental mode is a vibratory pure rotation about a point on the

horizontal line through the centre of mass a distance 3.3001 to the right of the
centre of mass. The second mode is a vibratory pure rotation about a point
distance 0.3003/ to the left of the centre of mass.
The general solution is
x
= A 1 sin (p 1 t + </>d + A 2 sin (p 2 t + </> 2 )
A1 .
()
A2
.
.-~.
0= -3.3001
sm (p1 t + 1) + 0.30031 sm (p2t + 'f'2)
The four constants A 1 , A 2 , </> 1 and 2 are determined from the starting
conditions.
Example 4.2
Figure 4.3a shows a torsional system consisting of two discs of inertia I 1 and I 2
with respect to the centreline of the connecting shaft. The shaft has a torsional
spring constant K.
(a)
92
~t
~--Y*'-----------~
a
Figure 4.3
(b)
68
Determine the equations of motion of the system, the natural frequencies

and the modeforms of torsional vibrations. The mass of the shaft may be
neglected.
Solution
Taking the angles of rotation 0 1 and 0 2 of each disc about the centreline as
generalised coordinates, we find
from which the equations of motion are
I 1li 1+K(0 1 -0 2 ) = 0
I2li2 +K(02 -Od = 0
Substituting 0 1
raic equations
=P 1 sin(pt+) and 02 = P2 sin(pt+), leads to the algeb(K-I1p 2)P1 -KP2
=0
-Kp1 +(K -I2P 2)P2
=0
from which the frequency equation is

p2 [I 1I 2 p2 - (11
+ I 2)K]
= 0
The fundamental root is p = 0, which may be interpreted as the frequency

for the system rotating as a rigid body with constant angular velocity, since no
external torque is acting. The second root is
The ratio Ot/0 2 is
01
02
P1
P2
K
K -I1P 2
and substituting the value of p determined, gives the result
p1
p2 =
I2
-~;
This means that the amplitudes of the discs are in a fixed ratio and always in the
opposite direction. The modeform is shown in figure 4.3b; this is the so-called
normal elastic line of the shaft. The cross-section at N is stationary and is called
the nodal cross-section. The system behaves as two simple torsional
pendulums.
69
From the modeform we find
I~: I=~:=~
and since a + b = I this leads to
II 2
I
a=---=---I 1 + I 2 (I d I 2) + 1
which determines the position of the nodal section. If I 2 =I 1 , a= 1/2. For

I 2 > I 1 , the node will be closer to the right-hand inertia, and for I 2 ~ I 1 , a ~ I.
The general solution is
=
lJ1
lJ2 = -
sin (pt + cf>d + (wt + c/> 2 )
GJP
P1
sin (pt + cf>d + (wt + c/> 2 )
w is the constant angular velocity of the system rotating as a rigid body; the
torsional vibrations are superimposed on this steady rotation. The constants
and c/> 1 must be determined by the starting conditions 01 = 010 ,0 1 = 010 at
t = 0, while wand c/> 2 are a set of given values.
P1
4.2 Free Vibrations with Viscous Damping

Taking F 0 = 0 in the system in figure 4.1, we have free vibrations with viscous
damping and the equations of motion (4.1) take the form
mx 1 +ci 1 +2Kx 1 -Kx 2 = 0
(4.4)
mx 2 +ci 2 +2Kx 2 -Kx 1 = 0
Since the equations contain x1 and x2 , the simple sine functions are no longer
useful and we take instead x1 ce', x2 De51, with x1 Csest and x2
= Dse 51
Substituting in the equations of motion leads to the algebraic equations
C(ms 2 +c.s+2K)-KD = 0
-KC+(ms 2 +cs+2K)D = 0
(4.5)
The condition for solutions (C, D) - (0, 0) is that the determinant of the
coefficients must vanish, which gives
(ms 2 +cs+2K) 2 -K 2 = 0
70
or
c
K
K
2
s +-s+2- = +m
m
-m
The roots are
and
s3 4= -~
J[(~)23K]
2m
2m
m
The further investigation divides conveniently into three cases dependent on

the amount of damping present in the system.
(a) Small damping
c )
(-
2m
< K,
m
c < 2j(Km)
or
This limit on c applies only to the present system, for other systems other limits
will be found. The roots s~> ... , s4 in this case are
S1.2= - 2:ipl,withpl =
and
s3
= - _!.___ ip 2 , with
2m
p2
J[~-(2:rJ
J[ (5_) J
3Km
2m
and p 1 and p2 are positive real constants.

The ratio C/D may be determined from the first of the equations 4.5
C
D= ms 2 + cs + 2K
+ 1 for s1 2
- 1 for s 3 : 4
This gives the four sets of solutions

Xl} = cl es,t, Xl} = c2 eSzl
x2
x2
The general solution is found by superposition

(4.6)
where the minus sign refers to x 2
71
Since s 1 , . , s4 are complex, it is easier to visualise the motion by

transforming to geometric functions, by using Euler's formula
ea ; P = ea e ; P = ea (cos p i sin p)
Introducing ex= -(cj2m)t, P 1 = p1 t and P2 = p2t so that (s 1 , 2 )t = exiP 1 ,
and (s 3 4 )t =ex iP 2 , we find
= C 1 ea (cos P1 + i sin Pd + C 2 ea (cos P1 - i sin Pd

= A 1 ea cos P 1 +iA 2 ea sinP 1
where the new arbitrary constants are A 1 = C 1 + C 2 and A 2 = C 1 - C 2
In the same manner the second bracket in equation 4.6 may be transformed
to give the general solution
::} = ea [ (A 1 cosP 1 + iA 2 sin Pd (A 3 cos P2 + iA 4 sin P2)
This solution is now in the form
= udt) + iv 1 (t)
x 2 = u2(t)+iv 2(t)
x1
Substituting in the equations of motion gives the result
(mul +CUt + 2Kul - Ku2) + i(miil + cvl + 2Kvl - Kv2)
=0
(mii 2 + cu 2 + 2Ku 2 - Kud + i(mii2 + cv 2 + 2Kv 2 - Kvd = 0

These equations can only be satisfied if all the four brackets vanish, and this
means that u 1 , u2 , v1 and v2 satisfy the equations of motion; then (u 1 + v 1 ) and
(u 2 + v 2 ) are also solutions. The complex unit i in the above general solution
may now be dropped, and the general solution takes the form
::} = exp
(~:t) [(A
cosp 1 t+A 2 sinp 1 t) (A 3 cosp 2t+A 4 sinp 2t)
(4.7)
where the minus sign is for x 2 .
Because of the decreasing exponential function exp [(- cj2m)t], the free
damped vibrations will soon die out. p 1 and p 2 are the damped natural circular
frequencies. If c = 0 we get p 1 = j(K/m) and p2 = j(3Kjm), as determined
before for the undamped case. As usual the damping lowers the frequencies.
The arbitrary constants A 1 , A 2 , A 3 and A 4 in the general solution 4.7 must be
determined from the starting conditions when t = 0: x 1 = x 10 , x 1 = x 10 ,
x2
x20
x2 = x20
72
:J (;;t )[
The general solution 4. 7 may finally be contracted to the simpler form

C sin(p 1 t+ 1)D sin(p 2 t+ 2 )
= exp
where the constants C, D, 1 and 2 must be determined from the starting

conditions. However, it is easier to use the solution 4. 7 and determine
A1, ... ' A4.
(b) Medium damping
;::::
K
m""'
(-c2m) <
2
3K'
m
or
2j(Km) ::s;; c < 2J[3Km]
It will be seen that s 1 and s2 are real and negative, while s 3 and s4 are complex
conjugate roots. The general solution 4.6 may now be transformed, as before,
to the form
with oc = - (c/2m)t and fJ = p 2 t. This is damped vibrations superimposed on

aperiodic motion. Again the motion will soon die out.
(c) Large damping
:Y ~
(2
3:. or c
~ 2j(3Km)
All the four roots s 1 , , s4 are real and negative, and the general solution 4.6
is a sum of four vanishing, real exponential functions, so that the motion is
aperiodic with x 1 -+ 0 and x 2 -+ 0 for t-+ oo.
Example 4.3
The vibratory system in figure 4.1 has the following system constants:
m = 5 kg, K = 104 N/m, c = 20 N s/m and F0 = 0. The starting conditions at
t = 0 are: x 1 = 0.10 m, x1 = 0, x 2 = 0.04 m and 2 = 0.
Determine the solution for the free damped vibrations of the system, and the
approximate displacement of each mass when t = 5 s.
Solution
c = 20 N s/m, while 2 (Km) = 2j(104 x 5) = 200j5, so this is a case of

small damping, and the general solution of the motion is given by equation 4.7.
Using the given starting conditions at t = 0, we find

X1
= A1 +A 3 = 0.10
x2
= A 1 -A 3 = 0.04
73
from which A 1 = 0.07 m and A 3 = 0.03 m. Differentiating the expressions 4.7

with respect to time gives expressions for 1 and 2 , from which, at t = 0
+A3) 0
X2 = ( A2P1 -A4P2 )- 2: (A1 -A3) = 0
X1 = ( A2P1 +A4p2 )- 2: ( A1
the sum and difference of these expressions give the results
A2
c A1
___
2m P1
and
c A3
A4 = - 2m P2
Using the given values we find
20
2x5
-=-=2
2m
p 1 = 44.6 rad/s, p2 = 77.4 rad/s

A2
= 0.00314 m, A 4 = 0.000776 m
Taking displacements in em, the solution is

::} =
e- 21 [ (7 cos 44.6t + 0.314 sin44.6t) (3 cos 77.4t

+0.0776 sin 77.4t) }m
This solution may be simplified to

::} = e- 21 [ 7.007 sin(44.6t + 1.526) 3.001 sin(77.4t + 1.545) }m
When
t =
5 s, we find the approximate displacements from this equation

1
2314
x1
~---em
x2
~- 4973
em
The damped vibrations have died out, for all practical purposes, after 5 s.
74
4.3 Forced Vibrations without Damping

Taking c = 0 in the system in figure 4.1, we have forced vibrations without
damping. The equations of motion are (4.1)
mx 1 +2Kx 1 -Kx 2 = F 0 sinwt

mx2 +2Kx 2 -Kx 1 = 0
(4.8)
The general solution is the sum of the solution for F 0 = 0, that is, the free
vibrations, and a particular solution to the equations. In any practical case the
free vibrations soon vanish due to unavoidable damping in the system like
friction, air resistance and material damping, even though the viscous dampers
are absent. The solution is then essentially the steady state solution, that is, a
particular solution to the equations of motion.
To determine a particular solution, we substitute functions of the same type
as F 0 sin wt in the equations, that is, we take the solution in the form
x 1 =A sinwt and x 2 = B sinwt, where w is the forcing frequency, and A and
B are constants to be determined. The result is
A(2K -mw 2 )-KB = F 0

-KA +(2K -mw 2 )B = 0
The solution is
1
A= -F 0 (2K -mw )
N
with
N = (2K -mw 2 ) 2 -K 2
This determines the steady state solution, which is simple harmonic motion for
both masses vibrating with the forcing frequency wand maximum amplitudes
A and B. If we set N = 0, the result is 2K- mw 2 = K, or
~ ~~:::,
ro' (
When the forcing frequency w approaches either one of the natural frequencies
of the system, we get large amplitudes of the forced vibrations. For twodegree-of-freedom systems we have then two conditions of resonance, one
corresponding to each of the two natural frequencies of free vibrations.
The ratio of the forced vibrations amplitudes is
x1
x2
2K -mw 2
75
For w = p 1 , this ratio is + 1, and for w = p2 the ratio is - 1; this means that for
the resonance condition the forced vibrations are in the corresponding
principal modes of free vibrations.
Example 4.4
Figure 4.4 shows a torsional two-mass system in forced vibrations. Determine
the steady state forced vibrations, the condition for resonance and the mode of
vibration in resonance.
Figure 4.4
Solution
The Lagrangian function of the system is

L =T-v=
[~/10/ +~120/ ] - GK(01 -02)

I1/J1 +K(01 -0 2) = 0
I 2112 +K(02 -0d= T 0 sinwt
Taking 0 1 = A sin wt, 0 2

motion leads to
= B sin wt
and substituting in the equations of
A(K -I 1 w 2)-KB = 0
-KA +B(K -I 2w 2 ) = T 0
the solution is
with
(4.9)
76
The steady state is rotational simple harmonic motion of both inertias with
frequency w equal to the forcing frequency, and amplitudes A and B.
If w ~ 0, both A and B become large, the torque grows very slowly and is in
the same direction for a long time, and the system rotates essentially as a rigid
body with the same displacement for both inertias. Large amplitudes are also
found for
or
w2 = I1 +I2 K
I 1I 2
This is the resonance case with w equal to the natural frequency .of free
vibrations, as determined in example 4.2. In resonance, the ratio of the
displacements is
(} 1
(}2
A
B
I2
I1
K -I1w2
which is the same as the ratio in the natural mode for free vibrations as
determined in example 4.2.
4.4 Forced Vibrations with Viscous Damping

The system is shown in figure 4.1 and the equations of motion are equations
4.1.
mx 1 +cx 1 +2Kx 1 -Kx 2
= F 0 sinwt
mx 2 +cx 2 +2Kx 2 -Kx 1 =0

The general solution to these equations may be taken as the sum of the
solution for the case when F 0 = 0, and a particular solution.
For F 0 = 0, the solution is for free vibrations with viscous damping; as
shown in section 4.2, this contribution to the total solution is soon damped
out, and we are therefore mainly interested in the particular solution which is
the steady state solution.
Since there is damping, a phase difference is to be expected between the two
masses; to determine a particular solution the functions
x 1 = A sin (wt + d
x 2 = B sin (wt + 2 )
may be used. However, these expressions are difficult to work with since 1
77
and t/1 2 are parts of the argument of the functions; it is simpler to use the
expressions
x 1 = A sin wt + B cos wt
x 2 = C sinwt+D coswt
where A, B, C and Dare constants to be determined so that the expressions
satisfy the equations of motion. Substituting in the equations of motion gives
the results
[ A(2K-mw2 )-cwB-KC-F0 ]sinwt
+ [ cwA + (2K- mw 2 )B- KD cos wt = 0

(4.10)
J
J
[ -KA + (2K -mw 2 )C -cwD sinwt

+ [ - KB + cwC + (2K- mw 2 )D cos wt = 0
Equations 4.10 must be satisfied for all values of time; this is only possible if the
coefficients of sin wt and cos wt are zero, which means that the four square
brackets must vanish-this gives four equations for the determination of the
four constants A, B, C and D.
The steady state forced vibrations are then given by
x 1 = J[A 2 +B 2 ]sin(wt+t/J),
x2 =
J[
C2 + D 2
sin (wt + 0),
tant/J=~
tan 0 =
This is simple harmonic motion of each mass with frequency equal to the
forcing frequency w and maximum amplitudes as shown.
The expressions are not accurate for small values of time; for these values of
time the damped vibration solution from section 4.2 must be added to the
above solution, and the starting constants C 1 , . . , C 4 must be determined
from the total solution, by using the actual starting conditions at t = 0.
Example 4.5
The system in figure 4.1 is in forced damped vibrations with F 0 = 500 N and
w = 50 rad/s. The other system constants are the same as in example 4.3.
Determine
78
(a) the steady state solution and the maximum amplitudes of the masses
(b) the total solution for starting conditions as in example 4.3
(c) the contribution to the total displacements from the damped vibrations, at
t=Oandt=5s.
Solution
(a) Substituting the numerical values of the system constants K, m, w, c and F 0

in the four equations for A, B, C and D from equations 4.10, the result is (after
some simplification)
?.SA- B -10C = 0.50
A+7.5B-10D = 0
10A-7.5C+D = 0
10B-C-7.5D = 0
The solution is A= -0.072, B = -0.0356, C = -0.102 and D = -0.0339
(all in metres). Using centimetres for the solutions, the steady state is
x 1 = -7.20sin50t-3.56cos50t = -8.05 sin(50t+0.46)cm
x2 = - 10.2 sin SOt- 3.39 cos SOt = -10.73 sin (SOt+ 0.32) em
This is simple harmonic motion of each mass with frequency 50 rad/s equal to
the forcing frequency, and amplitudes 8.05 em and 10.73 em respectively.
(b) Since we have 'small damping', the general solution is
::} = e- 21 [ (A 1 cos44.6t + A 2 sin44.6t) (A 3 cos 77.4t + A4 sin 77.4t)
_ [7.20 sin SOt+ 3.56 cos SOt]

10.2 sin SOt+ 3.39 cos SOt
where the second line is for x 2 Substituting x 1 = 10 em and x 2 = 4 em at
t = 0, leads to
A 1 +A 3 -3.56 = 10
A 1 -A 3 -3.39 = 4
Hence A1 = 10.475 em and A 3 = 3.085 em.

Differentiating to determine x1 and x2 , and substituting
t= 0, we find
x1 = x2 = 0, at
A2
44.6+A4
77.4-2(Al +A3)-7.20 X 50= 0
A4
44.6 -A4
77.4-2(Al -A3)-10.2
50= 0
79
Hence
A2 =
2A 1 + 17.4
44.6
25
and
A - 2A3 -3 X 25
477.4
so that A 2 = 10.223 em and A4 = -0.8893 em. The total solution may now be
given the form
:: } = e- 21
[
14.64 sin (44.6t + 0. 7976) +3.211 sin (77.4t - 1.290)
8.05 sin (50t + 0.46)]

10.73 sin (50t + 0.32)
where the second line is for x 2

The first part is the damped free vibrations, which soon gives a negligible
contribution to the displacements. The second part is the steady state as
determined under (a). This total solution is valid also for small values of timet,
and gives the proper values xl = 10, x4 = 4 and xl = x2 = 0 when t = 0.
(c) Substituting t = 0 in the damped vibrations part of the total solution, we
find the contributions x 1 = 13.56 em and x 2 = 7.26 em. At t = 5 s the
contributions are
1
x 1 >::::---em
1835
these compare to the steady state of 8.05 em and 10.73 em. Clearly the
contributions from the damped free vibrations are negligible for t > 5 s.
4.5 The Undamped Dynamic Vibration Absorber

The undamped dynamic vibration absorber consists essentially of a small mass
which is connected through a spring to the main system mass. As the name
implies the absorber works by absorbing the vibrations from the main mass;
the absorber mass will therefore be in a vibratory motion, while the main mass
will essentially be stationary.
The absorber was invented in 1909 by Frahm in Germany. The principle of
operation of the absorber is different from that of vibration dampers which
work by taking energy out of the vibrations, usually by dry or fluid friction,
and transforming this to heat which is dissipated.
80
J;sinc.."Jt
m
Figure 4.5
To discuss the theory of the absorber, consider the two-degree-of-freedom

vibratory system in figure 4.5. The Lagrangian function of this system is

Mx 1 + (K + k)x 1 - kx 2 = F 0 sinwt
mx2 +kx2 -kxl = 0
To determine the two natural frequencies of the system, we set F 0 = 0 and
substitute x 1 =A sin (pt + tj>) and x 2 = B sin (pt + tj>) in the equations of
motion, giving
A(K +k-Mp 2)-kB = 0
-kA + (k -mp 2)B
=0
Setting the coefficient determinant equal to zero gives the frequency equation
4
(K k k)
Kk
p- M+;+Mp+M;=O
This equation determines the two natural frequencies p 1 and p 2 of the system.
The steady state forced vibrations are determined as a particular solution
x 1 = C sin wt and x 2 = D sin wt to the equations of motion; substituting these
expressions gives the results
C(K+k-Mw 2)-kD =F 0
-kC+(k-mw 2)D = 0
The solution is
81
with
= Mmw 4 -(Km+kM +km)w 2 +Kk
Setting N = 0 gives the values of w for resonance, and comparing to the

frequency equation, we find as usual that
w
{pP2 for resonance

1
The motion of the main mass is now x 1 = C sin wt; there will be no motion
of this mass if C = 0, or k- mw 2 = 0, so that w 2 = kjm; this means that the
small mass acts as an absorber if it is designed so that kjm = w 2
The motion of the absorber mass is x 2 = D sin wt; substituting w 2 = kjm in
the expression for D gives
Fo
D=-k
with
Fo .
x 2 = --smwt
k
The force in the absorber spring (apart from the constant gravity force mg) is
now k(x 2 - x 1 ) = kx 2 = - F 0 sin wt. The absorber then introduces a vibrating
force on the main mass equal and opposite to the external exciting force, and
the main mass therefore remains stationary.
Introducing the absorber changes the system to one of two degrees of
freedom with two possible cases of resonance; an absorber is therefore only
introduced if the basic system of the main mass M on its spring support K is in,
or close to, resonance with the external exciting force, or when
Since the absorber has to be designed so that kjm

with absorber w 2 = kjm = KIM, or
= w 2 , we have for a system
k m
K = M = Jl,
where J1 is the ratio of the absorber mass and the main mass M.
The frequency equation for free vibrations of the system was
4
k + k- ) p2 +--=0
K k
p
- (K
-+-
Mm
Introducing K/ M = kjm and k/ M = 11K/ M = J1k/m = J1W 2 , the result is

p4- (2 + Jl)w2p2
+ w4
= 0
82
or
(~r -(2+J1)(~Y +1 =0
as frequency equation for the system with absorber. The roots are
from which
(4.11)
where pis the natural frequency, w the forcing frequency and J1 = mj M is the
mass ratio.
For the fundamental frequency p 1 of the system we find from equation 4.11
that
It may be shown that 0 < ptfw < 1 for all values of Jl, so that p 1 < w.
The second frequency p2 is determined by
Again it may be shown quite easily that P 2 /w > 1 for all values of Jl, or p 2 > w.
Thus we always have p 1 < w < p 2 When the absorber has been designed,
the forcing frequency w will lie between the two natural frequencies of the
system.
The absorber can be used to advantage only if w is constant or varies within
a very small range. For engines running at variable speed it is useless, since it
only introduces the possibility of resonance at two speeds instead of one for
the main system.
The range of the absorber may be extended by introducing suitable
damping, but this subject belongs in specialist books on vibrations.
Generally the absorber is designed on the basis of equation 4.11, by stipulating that the two natural frequencies must be removed a certain percentage
from w to avoid resonance. Such calculations are best shown by an example.
Example 4.6
A small I. C. engine of mass M = 50 kg has a rotating unbalance. The engine

rotates at a constant speed N = 600 r.p.m, and is supported on springs of total
83
spring constant K. It is found that the engine vibrates on its support with
unacceptable amplitude, due to near resonance between the exciting rotating
force and the engine mass on its support springs.
Determine the mass m and spring constant k of a suitable undamped
dynamic vibration absorber, so that the nearest natural frequency of the
system is at least 20 per cent removed from the forcing frequency w.
Solution
From equation 4.11 the smaller natural frequency p 1 is determined by
Squaring this leads to
or
Squaring again gives
or
0.64Jl = 0.13
so that
m
Jl = 0.203 = M
The mass of the absorber is now

m =JIM= 0.203
50= 10.15 kg
The forcing frequency is w = 21t x 600/60 = 62.9 radjs, and w 2 = kjm

= 62.9 2 The absorber spring constant k is then
k = 62.9 2 x 10.15 = 40 x 103 N/m = 400 Njcm

We now have
p =
~
J[ 2 J(
1 + Jl -+
Jl
Jl
+4
J= {0.80
1.25
84
so that the natural frequencies are 20 per cent below and 25 per cent above the
forcing frequency.
The absorber may also be used for torsional systems. The design is shown in
figure 4.6. The plate is fixed to the shaft and rotates and vibrates with it. A
heavy flywheel runs in bearings on the shaft and is spring connected to the
plate as shown. At a constant angular velocity the whole assembly rotates at
that velocity. If the shaft and plate come into torsional vibrations, superimposed on the constant angular velocity, the flywheel will essentially maintain
its steady rotation and exert a resisting torque on the torsional vibrations of
the plate and shaft.
Figure 4.6
It is clear from the previous treatment of vibrations of two-degree-offreedom systems, that the theory may be extended directly to a system with
more than two degrees of freedom.
For an undamped system of n degrees of freedom, we shall find n natural
frequencies and n natural modes of vibrations; these will be simple harmonic
motion of each mass with frequency equal to one of the natural frequencies.
The ratios of the displacements, or mode forms may be determined as before,
and also the general solution.
Since the frequency equation becomes an n-degree algebraic equation in p 2 ,
it is customary to deal with the solution by matrix calculations. It is, of course,
also possible to leave the frequency equation in the form of an nth-order
determinant equation, and determine the roots by using a computer for the
calculations.
Problems
4.1 Forthesysteminfigure4.7,M/m = K/k = 5.Determinethetwonatural
circular frequencies, the ratios xtfx 2 for the two natural modes, and the
general solution of the equations of motion.
85
Figure 4.7
4.2 For the system in figure 4.8 it may be assumed that the spring is without
tension when the pendulums are vertical and that it stays horizontal during
small motions for which cos(} ~ 1 - 02 j2. Determine the natural circular
frequencies and the general solution. Sketch the modeforms of vibration.
Figure 4.8
4.3 For the system in figure 4.9 determine the equations of motion, the
frequency equation and the natural frequencies, the modeforms of free
vibrations, the steady state of fixed vibrations, the values of w for resonance
and the modeforms at resonance.
Figure 4.9
86
4.4 For the cantilever in figure 4.10 the deflections due to forces P 1 and P 2
are x 1 = a(16P 1 +5P 2 ) and x 2 = a(5P 1 +2P 2 ), where a= Pj6EI. For the
cantilever with the concentrated masses it may be assumed that the motions
are small linear vertical motions. Determine the frequency equation, the
natural frequencies and the amplitude ratios for the natural modes.
Figure 4.10
4.5 For the system in figure 4.11 determine the equations of motion.
Assuming that the forced vibrations give small motions, simplify the equations
of motion. Determine the frequency equation and the natural frequencies for
small free vibrations if g/1 = K/m. Determine the steady state for small forced
vibrations without assuming that g/l = K/m.
Figure 4.11
4.6 Determine the two natural frequencies of the system in figure 4.12 which
consists of a light rigid bar and two masses. Find the location of the node or
centre of rotation in the two natural modes. The ends of the bar move in the
vertical direction only. Determine the general solution to the equations of
motion.
Figure 4.12
87
4.7 The natural frequency of vertical vibrations of the fan and supports
shown in figure 4.13 coincides with the constant speed of rotation of the fan,
which is 1200 r.p.m. The fan has an unbalance of 1.153 kg em. A dynamic
vibration absorber is attached as shown. It is specified that the fundamental
frequency of the system shall be 90 per cent of the forcing frequency. The
weight of the fan, motor and part of the support involved in the vibrations is
2225 N. Determine the ratio m/M, k and the amplitude of vibration of the
absorber.
Figure 4.13
4.8 For the system in figure 4.14 the shaft inertia is I . Rayleigh's method
shows that one-third of the shaft inertia between the node and a disc should be
added to the disc inertia. Determine the nodal position distance a and the
circular frequency.
GI,I._.
a
Figure 4.14
4.9 A marine engine has a moment of inertia of 3770 kg m 2 and the propeller
moment of inertia is 944 kg m 2 The shaft is made of steel with G = 8.13
x 107 kN/m 2. The length of the shaft is 15.2 m, its diameter is 50.8 em, the
density is 0.776 x 104 kg/m 3 . Determine the torsional frequency and the
distance between the propeller and the node if (a) the shaft inertia is neglected,
(b) the shaft inertia is included.
4.10 The propeller shaft of a ship has a length of 3.66 m and a diameter of
10.17 em. The shaft is of steel with G = 7.93 x 10 7 KNjm 2 The turbine rotor
is of weight 8.90 kN with radius of gyration 76.2 em. The propeller weight is
4.45 kN and its radius of gyration is 50.8 em. Determine the frequency of
torsional vibrations. Determine the percentage increase in the frequency if the
88
diameter of the shaft is increased by 10 per cent along half its length. The shaft
inertia may be neglected.
4.11 For the geared torsional system in figure 4.15 determine the equivalent
torsional spring constant and the natural circular frequency. Show that this
result may be obtained from a frequency equation, where the three equations
of motion include an equation for balanced torques on the light gears.
Figure 4.15
4.12
Determine the equations of motion of the system in figure 4.16. If
It= 12 = l, Kt = K 2 = K and It= I 2 =I, determine the natural frequencies
of free vibrations and the amplitude ratios and sketch the modeforms.
Determine the steady state solution of the forced vibrations and the values of w
for resonance.
Figure 4.16
5 Rotation About a Fixed

Point-Gyroscopic Motion
5.1 Kinematics of Rotation About a Fixed Point
5.1.1 Space and Body Cone
A rigid body may be supported in such a way that one point in the body is
always stationary-the motion of the body is then a rotation about this fixed
point. Figures 5.la and b show two possible arrangements which enable a body
to rotate about a fixed point. A body supported as shown in figure 5.1 is
generally called a gyroscope and the support shown in figure 5.lb is the most
widely used in the application of gyroscopes.
(0)
Figure 5.1
The continuous motion of a body about a fixed point may be considered as a

rotation about the instantaneous axis through the point at any instant. The
position of the instantaneous axis both in the body and in space is
continuously changing. Consider the case of a circular cone, shown in figure
5.2, which is rolling on a plane without slipping and rotating about its vertex 0
which is fixed in the plane. At any instant the motion is a rotation about the
generator OA which is the line of tangency between the cone and the plane and
which is the instantaneous axis of rotation. During the motion the various
generators of the cone become the instantaneous axis and this axis forms the
curved surface of the cone. Considering the instantaneous axis in space, it
forms the plane in which the cone is rolling. This situation may be generalised
90
Figure 5.2
to the case of a cone of arbitrary shape rolling on the surface of another cone,
as shown in figure 5.3, where the rolling cone OAB may be assumed to be a
geometrical surface generated by the instantaneous axis of rotation of a body
of any shape as indicated; the stationary cone is formed by the position of the
instantaneous axis in space. The motion of the body may be visualised by
rolling the cone connected with the body on the cone fixed in space. The cones
are called the body cone and the space cone respectively. Various shapes of cone
will give all possible motions of a rigid body about a fixed point. This way of
visualising the motion was proposed by L. Poinsot in 1851.
Figure 5.3
5.1.2 Euler's Angles

A rigid body with one point fixed in space has three degrees of freedom. The
three coordinates of a point A in the body specify the position of a line in the
body connecting point A with the fixed point, but a fourth coordinate is
necessary to specify the rotation of the body about the line. However, the three
coordinates of point A are not independent since the distance from the fixed
point to point A is constant, so this equation of constraint lowers the degrees of
freedom to three. An independent set of three angles to specify the position of
the body was first defined by Euler.
ROT A TION ABOUT A FIXED POINT
91
These angles are defined as shown in figure 5.4. The figure shows a fixed
inertial coordinate system XYZ with origin at a point 0, the fixed point about
which the body is rotating.
Figure 5.4
A rotating coordinate system xyz is also shown, which is arranged in the

indicated position by first rotating the x-axis in the horizontal XY-plane, an
angle 1/1 from the X -axis; thus the x-axis is always horizontal. The system is
given its final position by a rotation () about the x-axis.
A third coordinate system x'y'z' is also shown; the position of this system is
determined from the position of the xyz system, the z and z' -axes are collinear
and the final position of the x'y'z' system is determined by a rotation 4> about
the z-axis. If we now take the x'y'z' system as fixed in the body shown in figure
5.4, this body may be put in the position indicated by starting with the body in
the vertical position with the axis of the body along the Z-axis. The body is first
rotated through an angle 1/1 about the Z-axis, it is then rotated through an angle
() about the x-axis, and finally rotated through an angle 4> about the z-axis.
The angle 1/1 is called the angle of precession, ()is called the angle of nutation
and 4> is the angle of spin. The Z -axis is called the axis of precession and the
z-axis is the axis of spin. It will be seen that the xyz reference moves with the
body in its precession and nutation but does not partake in its spinning
motion. The reference x'y'z', being fixed in the body, follows the body in all its
motions. The Euler angles are taken positive as shown in figure 5.4 to follow
the usual right-hand screw rule.
92
Figure 5.5
5.1.3 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration
Figure 5.5 shows the angular velocities tf,, 6and ~as vectors on their respective
axes of rotation. The total angular velocity of the xyz reference is w = tf, + 6,
while the total angular velocity of the x' y' z' reference and the body is U = tf,
+ 6 + ~. Introducing unit vectors i, j and k on the xyz-axes, the angular
velocity w = w) + wyj + wzk. From figure 5.5 these components are seen
to be
wx =
wy =~sine
(5.1)
wz = ~cose
The angular velocity of the body U =

Qx
Q)
+ QYj + Qzk, with components
=8
Q). =~sine
Qz
(5.2)
= +~cose
The U vector may also be resolved into components along the x'y'z' axes
Qx,
= 8cosc/>+~sinesin
Qy,
= - 8sin c/> + ~sine cos c/>
Qz'
= +~cos e
(5.3)
The expressions for angular velocities are valid at all times, so the following
quantities may be determined by differentiation
ROTATION ABOUT A FIXED POINT
93
w = (j
w: ~ sin (} + t{i. 0cos (}
(5.4)
Wz = rjJcosO-rjJOsinO
Qx = (j
Q} = 1/i sin (} + t{i 0cos (}
Qz
~x
(5.5)
= +1/icosO-t{iOsinO
= ( 0 ~.t{i cf}.si~ O)cos 4>
+ [ 1/i ~~n (} + 0( ~ c~s (}- cf)) ~sin 4>
Q y' = - ( (} + r/1 4> sin 0) sin 4> + [ r/1 sin (} + (} ( r/1 cos (} -
Qz
4>)] cos 4>
}
(5.6)
= +1/icosO-t/iOsinO
The angular acceleration of the body is

d
a= dt
(Qxi + Qyj + Qzk)
= (Q,i + Qyj + Qzk) + (Q) + QyJ + Qzk)
We have i, = w x i, j = w x j and k = w x k, with w = Oi + t{i sin Oj + t{i cos Ok,

hence i = t{i cos Oj - tfr sin Ok, j = - t{i cos Oi + Ok and k = tfr sin Oi - Oj.
Substituting the various expressions in the expression for a gives
a= (e+ cf)t{i sin O)i + ( 1/i sin 0 + Ot{i cos 0- cf}O)j + ((f)+ 1/i cos 0- Ot{i sin O)k
(5.7)
In the same way the angular acceleration of the xyz reference may be found to
be
tiJ = Oi + ( 1/i sin 0 +
0t{i cos O)j + ( 1/i cos 0- Ot{i sin O)k
(5.8)
This last result may also be made simpler by taking
W = w, +(I)
(I)
= W, = (~)
dt
(w) + Wyj + Wzk)
= Wx i + Wyj + Wzk
which is the same as equation 5.8.

The angular acceleration of the body and the x' y' z' reference may also be
expressed in the x'y'z' reference by unit vectors i',j', k' along these axes, with the
result
a= Qx,j' + Qy'j' + Qzrk'
Qx', Qy' and Qz' are given in equations 5.6.
(5.9)
94
Example 5.1
Figure 5.6 shows an electric motor with a disc which is rotating at a constant
speed N 1 = 300 r.p.m., the assembly is rotating about the vertical Z-axis at a
constant speed N 2 = 120 r.p.m., the geometrical axis of the disc is inclined at a
constant 60 to the vertical.
Figure 5.6
Determine the angular velocity and the angular acceleration of the disc.
Construct the body and space cones.
Solution
The fixed coordinate system X YZ and the rotating system xyz are shown in the
figure. The angular velocities are cf) = 2nN 1 /60 = 31.42 rad/s, 1/i = 12.57 rad/s
and e= 0, with (f) = 0, Iii = 0 and {J = 0.
The angular velocity of the disc is
U
= Oi+l/isinOj+(cf}+l/icosO)k
= 12.57 sin 60j + (31.42 + 12.57 cos 60)k
= 10.89j + 37.71k rad/s of constant magnitude.
The angular acceleration of the disc is, from equation 5. 7
a= cf}l/isinOi = 31.42
12.57sin60i
= 342.04i rad/s 2
The body cone and the space cone are determined by the vector U as shown
in the figure. The a vector is in the positive x-direction and tangent to the two
95
cones; it is of constant magnitude and gives the change of direction of the

angular velocity vector.
For a body in general three-dimensional motion, we introduce a reference
XYZ with origin at the centre of mass and with axes always parallel to a fixed
inertial reference. Euler's angles may now be used as before to indicate the
position of the body relative to the XYZ reference just as in the previous case of
rotation about a fixed point; the kinematics formulae derived for this case may
be applied directly to the case of a body with a moving centre of mass.
5.2 Dynamics of a Rigid Body Rotating About a Fixed Point

5.2.1 Moment of Momentum of a Rigid Body
The moment of momentum of a rigid body in a fixed point is by definition
H 0 = Jr0 xJ!mdm, where r 0 is the position vector from 0 to the particle of
mass dm, and Jim is the velocity of the particle. We have Jim= r 0 = U x r0 ,
where U is the angular velocity of the body, so H 0 = J r0 x (U x r 0 )dm. For
the moment of momentum in the centre of mass C of the body we have He
= Jre xJ!mdm; with Jim =Jie+Vme =Jie+re =Jie+U x re we obtain
He= frexVedm+ frex(Uxrc)dm

The first term is
(J redm) xJie = 0, so that
In general, for a rigid body with respect to a fixed point or the moving centre of
mass, we have
H = fr x (U x r)dm
(5.10)
Introducing a reference xyz with origin at 0 or C which may be fixed in the

body or rotating relative to the body, we have r = xi+ yj + zk and U = Qxi
+ QYj + Qzk, hence
r x (U x r) = (rr)U- (rU)r
= (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )(Q) + Qyj + Qzk)- (xQx + yQY + zQz)(xi + yj + zk)
= [(y 2 +z 2 )Qx -xyQY-xzQz]i + [ -xyQx + (x 2 +z 2 )Qy- yzQz]j
+ [- xzQx- yzQY + (x 2 + y 2 )Qz]k
96
Multiplying by dm and using the notations for the moments and products of
inertia lx = (y 2 + z 2)dm, I, = (x 2 + z2)dm, Jz = (x 2 + y 2)dm, Ix, = xy dm,
lxz = Jxz dm and J,z = Jyz dm, the components of H are
Hx = lxDx -lxyDy -JxzDz

H 1 = -fxyDx + J1 D1 -J,z(Jz
(5.11)
Hz = -JxzDx -J,zDy + Jz(Jz
If the xyz system rotates relative to the body, the inertia factors are generally
functions of time; if the xyz reference is fixed in the body they are constants.
5.2.2 Kinetic Energy of a Rigid Body
Figure 5.7 shows a rigid body in general motion; a reference xyz which rotates
at an angular velocity m has been introduced with origin at the centre of mass C
of the body. The instantaneous angular velocity of the body is U and the
instantaneous velocity of the centre of mass is J'c.
Figure 5.7
The kinetic energy of the body is
T=!2 ]vol
( V 2 dm
For the particle of mass dm, the velocity is J' = Vc + U x r, therefore
substituting this in the expression for T, the first term is
1 2Jdm=-MVc
1
2
-1 Vc 2dm=-Vc
2
97
where M is the total mass of the body. The second term is
Using the formula (ax b)c = a(b x c), the third term is
In .[
r X ( n X r) dm
I n
= ~ n. r X
r )dm
= ~n Hc
The result is then

(5.12)
The first term represents the kinetic energy of translation and the second term
is the kinetic energy of rotation about the centre of mass. Equation 5.12
corresponds to the general formula 1.11 for the kinetic energy of a system of
particles.
Taking n = Q) + QYj + Qzk and components of He from equation 5.11,
the dot product may be expanded and equation 5.12 takes the form
T=lMVc
2+21( fxQx 2+fyQy2+lzQz 2)
(5.13)
-(JxyQxQy+fxzQxQz+fyzQyQz)
If wand n are different, the inertia factors are, in general, variable; if w = n the
xyz reference is fixed in the body and the inertia factors are constants.
If the xyz reference is fixed in the body at the centre of mass and along
principal axes, equation 5.13 simplifies to
(5.14)
where the moments of inertia are constants and principal moments.

For a rigid body rotating about a fixed point 0 as shown in figure 5.8, we
have
Now
rr = (fl x r)(fl X r) = fl [r x (fl x r)
98
so that
T
= ~ U [r x (U x r) ]dm = ~U
[f
r x (U x r) dm
or
1
T=-UH0
2
(5.15)
Figure 5.8
Expanding the dot product gives the result

T=
~ (IxUx
+ IyUy 2 + IzUz 2 ) - (IxyUxUy + IxzUxUz + IyzUyUz)
(5.16)
If the reference xyz is fixed in the body at 0 along principal axes, we find
1 [ IxQx
T= 2
2+ IyQy 2+ IzQz 2]
(5.17)
where Ix, Iy and Iz are the constant principal moments of inertia.
5.2.3 Equations of Motion by Lagrange's Equations

For a homogeneous body of revolution about the z-axis, which is rotating
about a fixed point 0 with angular velocity a as shown in figure 5.4, the
reference xyz is principal and equation 5.16 gives the kinetic energy as
1 [ IxQx
T= 2
2+ IyQy 2+ IzQz 2]
Although the xyz reference is rotating relative to the body, the moments of
inertia about the xyz-axes are constants, and we take Ix = Iy =I and Iz =I.,
where I. is the moment of inertia of the body about its spin axis. Substituting
99
these and the angular velocities from equation 5.2 leads to
= ~I ((}2 + .jJ 2 sin 2 8) +~I. ( + .jJ cos 8f
(5.18)
This expression gives the kinetic energy as a function of the generalised

coordinates 1/1, 8 and .
Lagrange's equations are, from equation 3.8
d
dt
ar ar
----=Q
= 1, 2,
(i
'
oqj
oiJ.j
We find in this case, for the coordinate 8, that
ar
3)
..
ar
ae = I 8, dr ae = I 8
d
ar = 11/1.2 sin 8 cos 8 08
I. ( + 1/1 cos 8) 1/1 sin 8
and
Qo
= Mx
substituting in Lagrange's equation leads to
Mx
= I( iJ- .jJ 2 sin 8cos 8) +Is ( + .jJ cos 8)tjJ sin 8
For the coordinate 1/J, the result is
aT
o.jJ = 11/1 sin 8 +I. ( + 1/1 cos 8)cos 8
ar
dt
oi/J
..
. .
..
..
- -. = IljJ sin 2 8 + 2I 1/18 sin 8 cos 8- I. ( + 1/1 cos 8)8 sm 8

+ I. ( + 1/i cos 8 - () .jJ sin 8) cos 8
ar = 0
ol/f
and
Substituting in Lagrange's equation, the result is
MY sin 8 + M z cos 8 = I sin 8( 1/i sin 8 + 2.jJ 0cos 8)
+ Is [ ((fi + lfi cos 0 -
2~ () sin 0) cos 0 -
0 sin 8
100
For the coordinate c/>, the result is
oT
ol/J
. .
= Is ( c/> +
t/1 cos 0)
d oT
.. ..
..
dt ol/J = ls(c/>+t/JcoslJ-t/IOsinlJ)
oT
0 4>
= 0
and
Q.p = M z
from which Lagrange's equation gives the result
Mz = l,(if)+ificos{}-.j,OsinlJ)
Eliminating M z from the above expression forM}' sin(}+ M z cos 0, the result is
Mr
I (.ji sin (} + 2if, 0cos 0) - Is 0( l/J + if, cos 0)
The three Lagrange equations of motion may now be stated in the form
M, =
I (iJ- if, 2 sin(} cos 0) +I. (l/J +if, cos O)if, sin(}
M}' = I( .ji sin lJ + 2if,O cos 0)- 1,0( l/J +if, cos 0)
(5.19)
Mz = I,(if)+l)icoslJ-if,OsinlJ)
If a rigid body is in general motion, it has six degrees of freedom; the Euler
angles for rotation about the centre of mass may be used for three of the
generalised coordinates, the other three generalised coordinates may then be
taken as the coordinates XYZ of the centre of mass in an inertial reference. The
kinetic energy in terms of the generalised coordinates is the previous
expression (5.18) with the additional term tMVc 2 added, according to
equation 5.13. The additional terms are tM(X 2 + Y2 +Z 2 ). The three
Lagrange equations (5.19) are unchanged by this, but we obtain three
additional equations of motion of the form
d
dt
oT oT
oX- oX= Qx
These three equations becomes F x = M X, F y = MY and F z = M Z, or the

three Newton equations for the motion of the centre of mass. General
solutions to the non-linear differential equations 5.19 are not availablenumerical solutions may, of course, be determined by computer calculations.
5.2.4 Equations of Motion by Moment of Momentum
Equation 1.8 for a rigid body isM il, where the moments are taken in a fixed
point or in the centre of mass. Consider the body in figure 5.4; taking
components of H along the xyz-axes, we have
101
d
.
.
.
.
.
M= dt (H"i +Hyj +Hzk) = (H"i +Hyj +Hzk)+ (Hxi +Hyj +Hzk)
The derivations of the unit vectors are i = w x i = wzj- royk, j = w x j =
- Wz i + wxk and li = w X k = w)- wxj. Substituting and collecting terms
gives the following three scalar equations
Mx = Hx-WzHy+wyHz
My= Hy-wxHz+WzHx
(5.20)
Mz =Hz -wyHx +wxHy

If the xyz-axes are principal axes, the moment of momentum components are,
from equations 5.11, Hx = IxDx, Hy = IYQY and Hz= IzQz. Substituting
these in equations 5.20 leads to the equations
Mx = IxQx- Iy W2 Dy + IzwyQz
My= IyQy-IzwxDz+IxwzQx
(5.21)
Mz = IzQz-IxwyDx+IywxDy
These equations are called Euler's equations of rotation.
For the homogeneous body of revolution in figure 5.4 we have Ix = Iy =I
and Iz =I,. Substituting this and the expressions 5.1, 5.2 and 5.5 (for the
angular velocities and angular accelerations) into equations 5.21, gives
Mx = I(li- t/1 2 sin Ocos 0) + I,(c{J + t/lcos.O)t/1 sin 0

My = I(.ji sin 0 + 2t/10cos 0)- I,O(c/J + t/1 cos 0)
Mz = I,(Cfi+tiicosO-t{!OsinO)
These equations are identical to the Lagrange equations 5.19. The equations
are also valid for axes at the moving centre of mass.
5.2.5 Euler's Equations for Axes Fixed in the Body

The equations of motion may also be derived in the x' y' z' coordinate system
(figure 5.4). This reference is fixed in the body with origin at the fixed point 0
or at the moving centre of mass, and axes ly~ng along principal axes of the
body. The x'y'z' reference then rotates with the body angular velocity and
angular acceleration U. With unit vectors i', j' and k' along the reference axes
x' y' z', we have a = Qx' i' + Qy' j' + Qz' k' and the expression 5.9 for U.
Equations 5.20 now take the form
Mx' = Hx' -Qz,Hy' +Dy'Hz'

My'= Hy'-Qx,Hz+Qz,Hx'
Mz' =Hz'- Qy,Hx' + Qx,Hy'
(5.22)
102
The moment of momentum components from equations 5.11 are Hx'

= fx,Qx' Hy' = fy,Qy, and H . = I . Q .. Substituting these in equations 5.22
gives
M XI = I X
I Q I - (I I - I I ) Q I Q I
X
y
zy;:
(5.23)
My' = fy,Qy'- (1 . - fx,)Q . Qx'
Mz' = Jz,Qz'- (Jx'- fy,)Qx,Qy'

These equations are the well-known Euler equations for rotations of a rigid
body, where the reference X Y Z is fixed in the body at the fixed point 0 about
which the body is rotating or at the moving centre of mass. The reference X Y Z
is fixed along principal axes of the body.
For a homogeneous body of revolution, we have fx, = JY, =I and 1. =I .
Substituting in equations 5.23 gives the following set of equations
1
Mx' = fQx' -(I -J.)Qy,Qz'
(5.24)
My'= IQy,-(1,-l)Q . Qx.
M . = I.Q .
The angular velocity and acceleration components in equation 5.24 may be
taken from equations 5.3 and 5.6. Substituting Q. in terms of the Euler angles
in the third Euler equation, gives the result
M z'
= I. ( (J) + t]i cos(} - .jJ() sin 0) = M z
Since the Z and z-axes coincide at all times, the moments about these axes are
identical. It may be seen that the first two Euler equations in 5.24 are much
more complicated than the corresponding equations 5.19; this is the reason for
the introduction of the reference xyz which does not partake in the revolution
of the body about the z-axis.
For further simplifications of the motion, Euler's equations are sometimes
very useful. At the instant when </> = 0, the x yz and X 1yl Z1-axes coincide and the
instantaneous values of the moment components will be found to be the same
from equations 5.19 and equations 5.24.
The Euler equations 5.24 may also be established by Lagrange's method.
The kinetic energy is as given in equation 5.18. The generalised forces in the
X Y Z reference are
1
Qo
= Mx = Mx.cos</>-My.sin<f>
Qt/t = Mz = Mx.cos(Zx )+My.cos(Zy )+M. cos(Zz

1
= Mx sin Osin </>+My' sin (}cos</>+ M . cos(}
Q.p = M .
Substituting in Lagrange's equations, the resulting three equations may be
worked down to the identical form of Euler's equations 5.24.
103
Example 5.2
Determine the equations of motion for the disc in example 5.1 both by
equations 5.19 and by Euler's equations 5.24.
Solution
For constant (J = 60 and t/> = 31.42 rad/s, t/1

we have 0 = iJ = 0, ifi = 0 and t)i = 0.
Equations 5.19 give the results
= 12.57 rads/s (both constant),
M x = -It/1 2 sin (J cos (J +I.( t/> + t/1 cos 8)t/l sin (J = -68.38/ + 410.271.
which is constant
My= 0 and
M. = 0
For Euler's equations 5.24 we have from equations 5.3 and 5.6, that
Mx' = l(Qx,- DyD,.) + I.Dy.Dz' = Mxcos cp

where M x is given by the above expression; similarly
My'= - Mxsincp and
M . = 0
M x' and My' are functions of cp only. For the instant when cp = 0 the x' y' z'-axes
coincide with the xyz-axes and we find Mx = Mx, My= My= 0 and M .
= M, = 0.
5.2.6 Motion with Constant Angle of Nutation 8 = 1t/2
Motion with () = 7t/2 constant is the most common situation in cases of
gyroscopic motion in machinery. The situation is shown in figure 5.9. With()
= 7t/2 and (} = iJ = 0, equations 5.19 take the simple form
Mx = I,t/>t/J, My= I(fi
and
M.I.ifi
It is customary to introduce the angular velocity of spin t/> = w. and the

angular velocity of precession ~ = wP, then the equations of rotation become
Mx = I.wpw., My= Iwp and
M. = I.w.
The expressions for My and M. are the usual simple equations of motion
similar to rotation about a fixed axis, where the torque about the axis is equal
to the angular acceleration about the axis times the moment of inertia about
the axis. The moment M x is a torque in the vertical plane if the body is
precessing in the horizontal plane; this surprising result is of great importance
in applications and the expression for M x may be stated in a vector form
(5.25)
104
Figure 5.9
TG is called the gyroscopic torque and is of magnitude equal to Mx; the

direction of TG as a vector is determined correctly from the vector crossproduct wP x w. as may be seen from figure 5.9.
For the axes x'y'z' fixed in the body, we find from equations 5.3 and 5.6 that
Qx' = WpWs COS cP + Wp Sin cP

QY, = -wpw.sincjJ+wPcoscjJ
Q,, =
Qx, =
QY, =
w.
wp sin cP
wP cos cjJ and
Q,, =
w.
Substituting in equations 5.24 gives
Mx' = Jc.iJP sin cP + I.wpws cos cP

My'= Jc.iJPcos-J.wPw.sincjJ
M,, =I.~.
For the instant when cjJ = 0 the two references coincide, and we find
Mx'
= Mx,
My'= My and
M,,
= M,
5.2. 7 Steady Precession

Steady precession is defined as a motion of a gyroscope in which the angle of
nutation (} is constant, and the spin velocity and the precessional velocity {I
are also constants. Substituting 0 = iJ = i{J = 1/i = 0 and (} = 80 , {I = {1 0 and
= 0 in the equations of motion 5.19 leads to
Mx=
105
[I.(~ 0 +~ 0 cos90 )-I~ 0 cos00 Jl/i0 sin00
(5.26)
MY = 0 and M z = 0
This shows that a constant torque M" about the x-axis is required for steady
precession; this torque is always perpendicular to the body axis z and the
precessional axis Z. Intuitively a change in 9 would be expected for such a
torque, but this is not the case-the torque causes a rotation l/i 0 of the body
axis about an axis normal to the torque axis. The starting conditions for steady
precession are difficult to arrange in a laboratory.
For the special case when 90 = n/2, we find
Mx = I.~oc/Jo = I,wpws
MY
=0
and
Mz
=0
This is the case discussed in section 5.2.6 for a case when ciJP = w, = 0. The
gyroscopic torque is, from equation 5.25 T0 = I,wP x w,; this formula is
widely used for this simple case of gyroscopic motion.
The equation of motion in M" leads to the equation
l/i 0 2 (1, -I)sin00 cos90 +1/i 0 (I.c/J 0 sin 90 ) - Mx =
the precessional angular velocity 1/io must satisfy this second-order equation
with constant coefficients.
For most spinning bodies we have I > I. and, assuming this to be the case,
the roots of the equation are
l/i 0
= 2(I-I:)cosOo {I.c/J 0
[I/c/J 0 2 -4M;x(I-I,)cot00
J}
The roots are real and different if

.i. 2
4M"
'l'o > J2(1-I,)cotu 0

s
or
lebo
I>:. J[
M;x(I-I.)cot90
This expression gives the minimum value of spin speed c/J 0 for which
precession can occur at the angle 90 .
Expanding the square root in the solution for l/i 0 by the binomial theorem
we find
[I.tP 0 2 -4M"(I-I,)cot90
]=
I.c/J 0
:.~: (I-I.)cot90
2Mx2
-"3"TJ(I-I.) cot 90
I. 'YO
...
106
In most cases the spin speed l/1 0 is large, and assuming this to be the case we
may take two terms of the series as a close approximation, with the result that
The smaller root is approximately
Mx
t/lo1 ~ I. l/1 sm0

. 0
0
this value is the slow precessional speed usually observed in steady precession.
The larger root is approximately
I.cbo
t/1 02 ~ (I- I.) cos 00
I.cbo__
~-____;:__;___:::
(I- I.) cos 00
Assuming a large 0 , this fast precessional motion is more difficult to obtain

experimentally because of the large energy requirements.
Example 5.3
Figure 5.10 shows a homogeneous right circular cone of height h = 2R, where
R is the radius of the base circle of the cone. The cone is performing steady
precession at the angle 00 and with constant t/t 0 = wP and 0 = w .
Figure 5.10
107
Determine the approximate slow and fast precessional angular velocities.

The mass of the cone is M.
Solution
The moment components are Mx = (3/2)RMgsin00 , My= Mz = 0. The

moments of inertia are I= Ix = Iy = (51/20)MR 2 and I.= (3/10)MR 2 The
slow precessional speed is
5g
Mx
Rw.
=
0
sin
wP ~ I .w.
0
The fast precessional speed is
1
2w.
15cos00
5.2.8 Nutation of the Spinning Top

The steady precession of the top in Figure 5.10 assumes that the angle of
nutation 00 , the angular precession rfio and the spin velocity <Po are all
constant. Presumably in any physical situation an absolutely constant angular
velocity is impossible to obtain, so some additional motion will be given at the
start of the precession of the top, due to which the gravity torque will no longer
be constant and the motion becomes much more complicated than that
indicated by steady precession of the top. Further analysis of this motion,
which is beyond the scope of this book, indicates that there will be a secondary
precession of the axis of the top around the momentum vector H. This
complicated motion may be visualised by imagining a spherical surface about
the fixed point 0. The end point 0 1 of the spin axis will then describe a
complicated curve on this sphere as shown in figure 5.11; this curve takes
Figure 5.11
108
various forms depending on the starting conditions, one possible curve being
shown in the figure. The motion is called a pseudo-regular precession and the
change in the angle of nutation 00 is called a nutation of the spin axis.
5.2.9 Torque-free Motion

Torque-free motion is possible in the cases shown in figures 5.la and b if the
point 0 is the centre of mass of the body; other examples are an orbiting
satellite and a spaceship with the motor shut off. Since M = ii = 0, we have
H = H0 constant in magnitude and direction, where H0 is the original
moment of momentum. With M = 0 there is no change in the rotational
kinetic energy and U H 0 =constant vector; this means that the projection of
U on H 0 remains constant so that the tip of U must lie in a fixed plane
perpendicular to H 0 . Taking the Z-axis along the fixed direction of H 0 , the
situation is as shown in figure 5.12. The components of H0 in the xyz reference
are H x = 0, HY = H 0 sin(} and Hz = H 0 cos 0; these components are also
given by Hx = IQx =H), Hy = IQY = Itfrsin(} and Hz= I.Dz = I.(rb
+ tfr cos 0), since reference xyz is assumed principal. We now have I 0 = 0, or (}
= 00 = constant angle of nutation. Since Qx = 0, the U vector is in the xyplane which also contains the Z-axis. The angle between the U vector and the
Z-axis is denoted by IX and may be determined by
tan0 0 =
_Y
Hz
IQ
I.Dz
I.
= __
Y =-tan IX
or
I
tan IX= jtan00
so that U makes a constant angle IX with the spin axis.
Figure 5.12
With Mx = MY = M z = 0,
5.19 take the form
109
e = e0
and
0 = 0 = 0, the equations of motion
I(- tfrcos e 0 ) +I,(+ tfo cos e 0 )
=0
tii sine0 = 0
(j) + tii cos eo= 0
It may be seen from this second equation that the angular precessional velocity
.jJ is constant, and from the third equation that the angular spin velocity is
constant, since e = e0 is a constant. Torque-free motion is evidently a case of
steady precession about the Z-axis. Solving the first equation of motion for
leads to
.
I -1 .
= --'t{!cose 0
I,
From the components H x = 0, H Y

find
= I .jJ sin e0
and Hz
= I, ( + tfo cos e 0 ), we
Substituting
.
I -I .
= --'t{!cose0
I,
in this equation gives an equation in .jJ and H 0 , which results in

.
t{!
H0
=-
and
I -I H 0
--'-cose 0
I,
For the case when I> I,, we find from tan IX= (J,/I)tane 0 that IX< e0 ; as
indicated in figure 5.10, this is direct precession with the body cone rolling on
the outside of the space cone, with and .jJ having the same sign.
If I < I,, the result is IX > e0 and the precession is retrograde with the space
cone rolling inside the body cone and .jJ and of opposite sign.
For a homogeneous sphere or a cylinder with height equal to the radius
times 3, we have I = I,, and IX = e0 ; in this case the U vector coincides with
the H 0 vector, and we find the spin velocity = 0
Problems
5.1 Figure 5.13 shows a disc of radius r which rolls without slipping on a
horizontal plane so that its geometrical axis rotates at an angular velocity w 1
about the Z-axis. Determine the angular spin, precession and nutation velocity
of the disc.
110
R
Figure 5.13
5.2 Figure 5.14 shows a circular disc of weight Wwhich spins freely on a
horizontal light shaft with angular velocity w . The moment of inertia of the
disc about its geometrical axis is I . The other end of the shaft contains a
counterweight of weight w as shown. The shaft rotates about the vertical
centreline with angular velocity wr Determine the magnitude of wr
wp
Figure 5.14
5.3 Figure 5.15 shows a disc of mass M which is spinning about its
geometrical axis with angular velocity w. while this axis is precessing at a
constant angular velocity wP and at a constant inclination to the vertical as
shown. Determine the limit for Wz = w. + wP cos(} for this motion to be
possible. Determine the two possible precessional speeds if w. is large.
Figure 5.15
Ill
5.4 The spinning top shown in figure 5.16 consists of two right circular cones
each of height h. The total weight of the top is W. The top spins with a constant
large angular velocity w . The spin axis is inclined to the vertical at a constant
angle (} and rotates about the vertical axis at a constant precessional angular
velocity wP. Determine an equation for the precessional angular velocity wP in
terms of the system constants.
Figure 5.16
6 Gyroscopic Effects in
Machinery
Many elements of machinery consist of a body spinning about a certain axis,
and when this axis is forced to rotate about some other axis, gyroscopic effects
come into play. In some cases the gyroscopic effects are useful and designed
into the system; in other cases the effect is undesirable but unavoidable, and it
must therefore be taken into account in the design. In most cases the
gyroscopic effect gives rise to pulsating bearing pressures and bending
moments in rotors which involves fatigue considerations in the rotors and
special consideration in the design of the bearings.
6.1 Gyroscopic Effects in Rolling Mills

A type of grinding mill for crushing or grinding material like ore or seeds is
designed so that gyroscopic effects increase the pressure between the roller and
the pan. The mill consists of one or more heavy rollers shaped like the frustum
of a cone, as shown in figure 6.1. The rollers rotate freely on shafts hinged to a
central vertical shaft; when the vertical drive shaft is rotating, the rollers roll
Figure 6.1
GYROSCOPIC EFFECTS IN MACHINERY
I 13
around inside a pan and crush the material in the pan. The vertical crushing
load is due to the weight of the roller and the force due to gyroscopic action.
With e0 , ~and 4> constant, the motion of the roller is steady precession, so that
the moment about the x-axis in figure 6.1, from equations 5.26, is
Mx = [I, 0 +(I, -1)~ 0 cos e 0]~ 0 sin e0
Taking {3 = 180- e0 and 0 as negative, this leads to

Mx
[I, 0
= -
+ (/, -1)~ 0 cos {3]~ 0 sin {3
This is the moment as it acts on the roller. The reaction moment on the
machinery is - Mx- In the expression for Mx, i, is the moment of inertia of the
roller about its spin axis z and I = Ix is the moment of inertia of the roller
about the x-axis which is perpendicular to the plane of the figure through 0.
Taking ~ 0 = Q and 0 = w,, we have
Mx
= -[I,w,+(l,-I)Qcos{3]Qsinf3
With the arrangement shown, there will be some slipping of the roller on the
pan, but assuming no slipping at the point P taken as the contact point, and
disregarding any radial friction forces through P, the only forces on the roller
with a moment about the x-axis are the weight force Mg, where M is the total
mass of the roller, and the normal pressure N as shown. Thus
M,
= -NR + Mg(R + r cos{J)
Substituting in the expression for Mx above gives
NR = Mg(R + r cos {3) + [I,w, +(I, -l)Q cos {J]Q sin {3

The line OP is the instantaneous axis of rotation of the roller. The total
angular velocity w of the roller may now be determined from figure 6.2projecting on a line perpendicular to w we find
W, COS
(90- IX)
or
w =Q
s
= Q COS [90- ({3- IX)]
R
sin(P-IX)
=Qr
sin IX
Figure 6.2
114
Substituting this for w. in the expression for NR gives

NR
= Mg(R +r cosP)+
[I.~+ (I. -I) cosp JQ
sinp
which determines the crushing pressure N on the pan.

In most cases the angle pis kept close to 90; if pis too small the value of N
may become less than Mg-in fact for a large Q the roller may cease contact
with the pan. The formula for N enables the designer to choose the most
advantageous value for p for a given design. For p = 90, we have
N
= Mg+-"-Q 2
r
In this case the gyroscopic effect increases the pressure over that of the weight
force alone by the term (J.fr)Q 2 Taking the roller as a flat disc, we have
I. = M r 2 /2 so that the increase in pressure due to gyroscopic action is
(Mr/2)Q 2 and
N =
M( g+~Q2 )
As a numerical example, suppose that the rotational speed of the drive shaft
is 60 r.p.m., or Q = 21t radjs and that the rotor has a radius r = 0.50 m. We find
then that N = M(9.81 + 9.87); in this case the increase in pressure due to
gyroscopic action is about the same as the pressure due to gravity.
6.2 Gyroscopic Effects of Turbines and Dynamos in Ships

Figure 6.3 shows the turbine rotor in a ship, with the rotor axis along the
longitudinal axis of the ship. Pitching of the ship, that is, rotation about a
lateral axis, will cause a precession of the rotor as indicated in the figure, which
shows the precessional angular velocity wP for the bow of the ship moving up.
Equation 5.25 applies in this case, and the gyroscopic torque on the rotor isTG
= I.wp x w.; the torque is in the horizontal plane and introduces additional
i
Figure 6.3
115
horizontal bearing pressures. The torque on the ship is - T0 and this is a

pulsating torque which causes yawing, that is, a rotation of the ship about a
vertical axis. Generally this motion will have a very small amplitude because of
the large inertia and water resistance involved, and the effect on the ship is
insignificant.
The pulsating bearing pressures, however, are important in the design of the
bearings and bed plate of the turbine; they also create bending moments in the
rotor and the consequent alternating stresses may be important in fatigue
considerations.
The pitching motion of the ship may be approximated by simple harmonic
motion with t/1 = t/Jilsinpt, where pis the circular frequency of the motion and
t/1 0 the maximum angular amplitude. We have then roP =if,= t/J 0 pcospt and
T0 = I.w.t/J 0 pcospt with maximum value Tam= I.w.t/J 0 p when t = Oand the
longitudinal axis of the ship passes through the horizontal position.
As a numerical example, consider the case of a ship pitching with an
amplitude of 6 with a period of 10 s.
p=
21t
10 rad/s
and
t/lo =
61t
1t
180 = 30rad
giving
roP = pt/1 0 = 0.0658 rad/s
If the turbine rotor weighs 84.8 kN, has a radius of gyration of0.381 m and
rotates at 3300 r.p.m., we have
/ 5
=~~~X 103 X 0.381 2 =
1.255
103 kg m 2
and
w. = 345.58 rad/s
The gyroscopic torque is
TGm = 1.255
0.0658
345.58
= 28.53 kN m
For a turbine installed with its axis along the longitudinal axis of the ship,
the pitching motion introduces a gyroscopic torque as shown. The rolling
motion of the ship about its longitudinal axis does not have any gyroscopic
effect on the turbine, while a yawing of the ship will precess the turbine rotor in
the horizontal plane and introduce a gyroscopic torque in the vertical planethis torque is only of importance if the ship is making a sharp turn at high
speed.
116
For rotating machinery installed in a ship with the axis of spin of the
machinery horizontal and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the ship,
the gyroscopic effects may be determined as above. The pitching motion causes
no gyroscopic effects, while rolling and yawing cause a gyroscopic torque to
act.
Some rotating machinery may be installed with axis of spin parallel to the
vertical axis of the ship, in which case pitching and rolling causes gyroscopic
effects, while yawing causes no such effects.
Since rolling is the most common form of motion of a ship, it is important
that turbines and rotors should be installed with their spin axis parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the ship, since in that case the rolling does not cause any
gyroscopic effects.
6.3 Gyroscopic Effects in Locomotive Wheels Rounding a Curve

Figure 6.4a shows a pair of wheels rounding a horizontal curve in the track or
on the road; the mean radius of the curve is R, the radius of the wheels is r, the
constant forward speed of the whole is V and the moment of inertia of the
wheels and shaft about the geometrical axis of the wheels is I .
(b)
(a)
Figure 6.4
The constant precessional angular velocity is wP and the constant spin

velocity is w. as shown, and we find
(l)
and
=-
w, = --;:
117
from which the magnitude of the gyroscopic torque is
v2
T 0 = I,wpws
.
. = I.-R
. r
The magnitude is proportional to the square of the speed V. The direction of

the torque as it acts on the wheels is given by coP x co. and is shown in the figure;
this torque in the vertical plane is produced by the vertical pressures from the
rails on the wheels. If the total mass of the assembly isM, there must also be a
force from C towards 0 of magnitude MRwP 2 , since the centre of mass is
moving in circular motion with constant angular velocity wP; this force is the
side pressure from the rails on the assembly. The forces acting are as shown in
figure 6.4b.
For no vertical motion of the centre of mass we have P 0 + Pi= Mg. Taking
moments about the horizontal axis through C perpendicular to the wheel axis,
we find
I
I
V2
2 r = T0 = I P 0 --P--MRw
12
2
P
'Rr
The term M Rrwp 2 is the centrifugal torque acting to overturn the wheels.
Solving for P 0 and Pi gives the result that
Po} = 2
Pi
Mg
v2
Rrl (l.+Mr)
where the minus sign is for Pi.

If the wheels are stationary V = wP = 0, and the result is the usual static
pressure Mg/2 on each wheel. Because of the gyroscopic action and the
centrifugal forces, the pressure on the outer rail has increased by ( V 2 1Rrl)
(I.+ Mr 2 ) over the static pressure, and the pressure on the inner rail has
decreased by the same amount. The first term is due to the gyroscopic action
alone and is V 2 I./(Rrl); the second term is due to centrifugal forces and is
V 2 Mr 2 /(Rrl); the ratio of the gyroscopic pressure forces to centrifugal forces is
I.fMr 2-for two flat discs we have I.= Mr 2 in which case the ratio is unity.
In general, the wheel assembly carries a large non-rotating mass and the
centrifugal torque acting to overturn the assembly will be correspondingly
larger than the gyroscopic torque; in practical cases the gyroscopic effect is less
than 10 per cent of the centrifugal torque, and therefore is of no great
importance.
6.4 Gyroscopic Effects in Aircraft

Figure 6.5a shows the rotor of a jet engine in an aircraft. The aircraft is flying in
a curve of radius R in a horizontal plane, with constant velocity Vand constant
118
Figure 6.5
angular velocity w. of the rotor relative to the aircraft. The mass of the rotor is
M and the moment of inertia is I. about the axis of rotation. The spin axis is
forced to precess with angular velocity roP = V/R as shown. The gyroscopic
torque as it acts on the rotor is shown in the figure and is TG = I.(l)P x (1)
Figure 6.5b shows the forces acting on the rotor, assuming complete
symmetry. The equations of motion are
Fx = R1 +R2 = MRw/
Fy
= Mg-P 1 -P 2 = 0
I
I
Mx =PI 2-P22 = TG = I,ropros
The solution is
R 1 = R2 =
M Rwp 2
Mg I.
PI = 2+/ropros
The torque -TGacts on the airframe with bearing pressures opposite to those
shown on the rotor.
With the direction of (1) 5 as shown, the gyroscopic effects result in an
increased vertical bearing pressure on the rear bearing of the rotor, in which
case the nose of the aircraft would consequently tend to rise.
Il9
As a numerical example, consider a velocity V = 1200 km/h, engine

revolutions 15000 r.p.m., radius R = 2500 m and Is= 4 kg m 2 We find
wp
1200 X 103
= R = 3600 x 2500 = 0.133 rad/s
ws = 500n: = 1571 radjs
and
TG = 4 x 1571 x 0.133 = 836 N m

This torque is significant and must be taken into account in the design of the
bearings of the rotor.
Problems
6.1 An aircraft is flying at a constant speed of 707 km/h in a horizontal circle
of radius 3050 m and turning to the left. The rotating parts have a moment of
inertia of 26.2 kg m 2 and are rotating at a constant 3200 r.p.m. in a clockwise
direction viewed from the rear of the plane. Determine the magnitude of the
gyroscopic torque and the effect on the plane.
6.2 The armature of the motor of an electric car weighs 2670 Nand rotates in
a direction opposite to the rotation of the car wheels. The distance between its
bearings is 0.610 m and its radius of gyration is 15.24 em. The angular velocity
of the motor is four times that of the car wheels which have diameters of
0.84 m. The car is moving for\''ards around a curve of 30.5 m radius with a
velocity of6.10 m/s and is turning to the right. The centreline of the armature is
parallel to the wheel centreline. Determine the total pressure on the bearings of
the armature.
A
3.66m
Figure 6.6
120
6.3 An aircraft landing wheel is shown in figure 6.6. After take-off the landing
gear is retracted into the wing by rotation about A. The wheel continues to spin
as it is being retracted. The weight of the wheel is 667 N, the radius of gyration
about the centre axis is 0.549 m, the take-off speed of the aircraft is 290 kmjh
and the maximum speed of retraction is roP = 3 rad/s. Determine the
magnitude of the gyroscopic couple and indicate its action on the strut AC.
~~
w,,
,
8cm
,,,,y
8cm
A
8 ~
l1
Scm
G.>:s
-:::;.
Figure 6.7
6.4 A right circular disc of mass M = 7 kg and radius r = 8 em is attached to
a shaft AB as shown in figure 6.7. The constant spin velocity of the disc is
w, = 100 rad/s. The bearings at A and B are mounted on a horizontal turntable which rotates at a constant angular velocity roP = 20 radjs about the fixed
axis OZ. The mass of the shaft may be neglected and the bearing A alone
retains the system in the -direction. For the instant shown in the figure,
determine the components of the reactions on the shaft at A and B.
7 Some Applications of
Gyroscopes
Gyroscopes are now used in a great number of instruments for direction

indication, stabilisation and inertial guidance. Some of these applications will
be considered in this chapter.
7.1 Rate Gyroscope

Figure 7.1 shows a rate gyroscope. This is a single-degree-of-freedom gyro
mounted as shown in a gimbal. The gyro is free to spin about its geometrical
axis, while the gimbal is constrained to small angular rotations limited by the
spring shown in the figure. The spring exerts a moment about the axis AB,
which is the x-axis as shown, of magnitude Mx = Ka 2 (90- 0).
Figure 7.1
The gyro case is rigidly fastened to the vehicle for which the rate of turn is to
be measured. If the angular velocity of precession is ~ = wP and the spin
velocity is cfo = w., and if these are constant, we have steady precession and
from equations 5.26 we have
Mx
= [I.w. + (1.- I )wp cos O]wp sin 0 = Ka 2 (90- 0)
122
The constant angle (} may be determined from this expression for steady
precession.
If the angle (}is measured for a case of steady precession and w. is known, the
rate of rotation 1/J = wP of the vehicle about the vertical axis may be determined
from the above expression. If the rate of rotation does not vary very rapidly,
the expression may still be used for instantaneous values of l[J. The rate gyro
then gives a means of measuring the rate of rotation of a vehicle.
In practical applications the angle(} is usually kept close to 90, introducing
the small angle of tilt oc = 90- 0, we have approximately
or, with constant w.
2
(Ka )oc
I.w.l/1
This shows that the angle of tilt oc is proportional to dl/11dt which is the rate of
turn of the platform. If oc is displayed on a dial, the pilot can see the magnitude
and direction of the turn of the vehicle.
The rotation of the vehicle will usually be a variable, and we have from the
above expression
doc
dt ~
(I.w.)
Ka
d 2 l/J
dt 2
so that the rate of change of the tilt angle oc indicates the angular acceleration of
the gyro case and the vehicle. We may consider that the input received by the
rate gyro is a forced precession and the output delivered is a torque; conversely
if the input is a torque, the output is a precession.
Since (Ka 2 )oc ~ I.w.dl/1 jdt, the input of an angle oc results in an output of an
angular velocity proportional to the input angle or to the differentiation of an
angle, while the input of an angular velocity gives an output of an angle, which
corresponds to the integration of an angular velocity; it is thus possible to
arrange for the rate gyro to compute angular velocities from given angles and
to compute angles from given angular velocities-these properties are used
in automatic computing devices where angles and angular velocities are
involved.
The equation doc/dt ~ (l.w.f Ka 2 )( d 2 l/J jdt 2 ) shows similarly that the rate
gyro can be used in the computation of an angular acceleration from a given
angular velocity and vice versa.
Imperfections in the manufacture of the rate gyro may result in vibrations of
the instrument; to reduce this to a minimum, the rate gyro is usually equipped
with a damping mechanism or a dashpot.
The rate gyro has many applications in aeronautics and in military fields-it
is the controlling element in turn indicators for blind flying, gun sights and
control gyros for ship stabilisers and for inertial navigation for stabilising
platforms.
SOME APPLICATIONS OF GYROSCOPES
123
7.2 The Gyroscope as Direction Indicator

Figure 7.2 shows a gyroscope in a so-called Cardan suspension. The rotor, with
axis of rotation CC, is held in an inner gimbal with axis BB, so that the spin axis
CC and axis BB are always at right angles to each other. An outer gimbal can
rotate about axis AA, and axes AA and BB must always be at right angles to
each other.
Figure 7.2
The gyro in this suspension is called a two-degree-of-freedom gyro. If we

neglect bearing friction, no torque can be transmitted from the gyro case to the
rotor, except in the special case when the spin axis lies in the plane of the two
gimbal axes, where one degree of rotational freedom is lost-a situation
known as gimbal lock, which can be prevented by mechanical stops.
The motion of the gyro in Cardan suspension is a case of torque-free
motion. Since M = iJ = 0, we have H in a fixed direction, and if the rotor is
given a high spin velocity and pointed in a certain direction in space, the rotor
will retain this direction even if the gyro case is given a complicated motion,
since no torque can be transmitted to the rotor to alter the direction of its
moment of momentum. This suspension of the gyro then gives a fixed direction
in space and consequently the gyro can be used for guidance of vehicles. The
gyro case is fixed to the vehicle and the orientation of the vehicle is recorded by
pickups between the case and the outer gimbal and between the inner and
outer gimbals.
This type of gyroscope may be used for steering a torpedo-if it deviates
from its course, the spin-axis, which is originally pointing along the
longitudinal axis of the torpedo, retains its direction, but the rotation of the
torpedo about the vertical axis of the gyro actuates the control system which
changes the setting of the rudder. The 'artificial horizon' uses a gyroscope to
'create' a horizon for aircraft when the actual horizon cannot be seen-the
instrument relies on a gyro with vertical spin axis which remains vertical for
124
any tilting of the plane. The 'automatic pilot' is a combination of the

directional gyro and the artificial horizon-it uses two gyroscopes, one with
spin-axis horizontal, maintaining the direction in azimuth, and one with
vertical spin axis to keep the plane horizontal.
7.3 The Gyroscopic Compass

The gyroscopic compass consists of a gyroscope with two degrees of freedom
as shown in figure 7.2. If this gyroscope is mounted on the Earth's surface,
there is no torque applied and the spin axis will retain its direction in space.
This direction may be set to the horizontal direction with the spin-axis
pointing towards the geometrical north pole; as the Earth rotates the direction
of the spin axis will slowly change, and to keep the axis along the meridian the
axis must be made to participate in the rotation of the Earth and describe a
cone about the Earth's axis which means that the gyroscope must perform a
steady precession with angular velocity equal to that of the Earth. This is done
by introducing a constant torque about the inner gimbal axis-this is
introduced by fixing a semi-circular ring carrying a small mass to the inner
gimbal ring, so that the spin-axis will always stay in the meridional plane of the
Earth and can therefore be used as a compass.
The gyroscopic compass is of practical value only if the direction of the spinaxis represents a stable position; if there is an accidental impulse which
Figure 7.3
125
produces a small deviation from the original direction, there must be a

tendency for the axis to return to the original direction. To investigate this,
consider the position of a gyroscopic compass fixed to the Earth at a position
of ex degrees latitude as shown in figure 7.3. The spin-axis z is shown displaced
an angle {3 from the north direction, the y-axis is the radial direction of the
Earth and is normal to the horizontal plane xz at the position of the gyroscope.
It is most convenient here to use the angle {3 as a coordinate, instead of the
angle of nutation(} which was used previously. With coordinates t/1, {3 and
and the angular velocities .j,, pand if, as shown, we have the angular velocity of
the xyz system w = .j, + p; where .j, is the angular velocity of the earth.
Projecting on the xyz axis, we find
wx = - .jJ cos ex sin {3
wy
Wz
(J + .jJ sin ex
tfr COS
(X
COS {3
The angular velocity components of the gyro are

Qx
Qz
= - .jJ cos cxsin {3

QY = (J + .jJ sin ex
= tfr cos ex cos {3 + 4>
These expressions are valid at all times and we find

QY =
/i+l/i sinrx
Qz = 1/i cos ex cos {3- .jJ (J cos ex sin {3 +if>

The equations of motion are equations 5.21, with external moments Mx
= amg, where a is a constant and m is the mass of the hanging weight, MY = 0
and Mz = 0. The moments of inertia are Ix = Iy =I and Iz =Is.
Considering the rotational motion in the horizontal plane about the y-axis,
we have MY = 0 or
I(jj + 1/i sin ex)+ (I, -I)tfr 2 cos 2 rx sin{J cos{J +I,4>tfr cos ex sin{J
=0
Now .jJ = 7.29 x 10- 5 rad/s, which is very small so we may neglect the term in
tfr 2 .jJ is also constant with 1/i = 0. The equation now takes the form
I P+ I, 4>tfr cos ex sin {3 = 0
With Mz = 0, the third of equations 5.21 takes the form

I, ( 1/i cos ex cos {3 -
(J .jJ cos ex sin {3 + if> = 0
or
if>
= .jJ (J cos ex sin {3
126
From this it may be seen that ifi is of small magnitude so we may take
constant in the above equation which becomes
P+ (
<fo
as
4> cos rx ) sin p = 0
The coefficient of sin pmay now be considered a constant and, for small values
of p, we may take sinp ~ p, with the result
(I .. )
ii
p+
yf/Jt/lcosrx P=O
This is simple harmonic motion with frequency
1
= 21t
J(Ij' f/Jt/1.. )
cos (X
The result is that the spin-axis, after a small disturbance, will oscillate about the
meridian in simple harmonic motion with the above frequency. Since ~ is
small, it is arranged for the spin velocity <fo to be large so that the frequency is
high enough to make the reading of the north direction easier. In the actual
gyroscopic compass damping is introduced so that the oscillations soon
disappear with the spin axis lined up with the meridian.
For a moving gyroscopic compass on a ship or in an aircraft, further
refinements have been introduced to compensate for errors in the reading due
to the motion.
7.4 Monorail Stabilisation

Figure 7.4 shows a cross-section of a monorail car. The car is in unstable
equilibrium in the vertical position since the centre of gravity is above the top
y
-4----HEIH
+Mil~
--rh---1
Figure 7.4
127
of the rail. The car is stabilised by the introduction of a gyroscope as shown

with a vertical spin-axis which is mounted in a frame. The frame is free to rotate
about the axis 00 and has a heavy part on the top and the centre of gravity of
the combined frame and gyroscope is then above the axis 00, so that the
position of the frame shown in the figure is unstable if the gyroscope is not
rotating. The monorail stabiliser was introduced independently by the
German Scherl and the Russian Schilowsky around 1910.
To set up the equations of motion, we assume that friction may be neglected
and that the car can only perform small rolling motions 1/1 about the z-axis
which is along the top of the rail. We also assume that the frame performs small
rotations {3 about the axis 00 and that the gyroscope is rotating with a large
angular velocity w. so that the total angular momentum of the gyroscope may
be taken asH = I.w. and directed along the spin-axis. Any rolling of the car
about the z-axis precesses the gyroscope and results in rotation of the frame
about 00.
Taking the moment of inertia of the car and the total stabiliser about the
z-axis as I., the weight of the car and the stabiliser as Wand the distance from
the z-axis to the common centre of gravity of the car and the stabiliser as L, the
equation of motion for rolling of the car with the stabiliser locked would be
WLI/J = Izl/i.
With the gyroscope spinning at w. and precessing at wP = {3, the gyroscopic

torque is I.w.{J, which as a vector is directed along the positive z-axis. Taking
all angular displacements in the positive directions for each axis, this is in the
clockwise direction on the gyroscope and is anticlockwise on the car, acting
through vertical forces on bearir..gs of the axis 00. The equation of motion of
the car is then
Introducing I
.w.
= H, this equation takes the form
Taking the moment of inertia of the frame and gyroscope about the axis 00
as / 0 , the weight of the frame and gyroscope as w and the distance of the
combined centre of gravity of the frame and gyro above the axis 00 as I, the
equation of motion of the frame and gyro for a stationary car is wl{J = I0 P.
This equation also holds if the gyro is spinning about its axis as long as the axis
00 is stationary. When the axis 00 is rotating at t/1, the gyroscopic torque on
the gyro is J.wpws = I.t/lw. = Ht/1. As a vector this is directed along the x-axis
in the negative direction, the torque on the frame is in the opposite direction
and is in the same direction as wl{J, so the equation of motion of the frame is
Ht/1 + wl{J = I0 and we have the set of equations of motion
P,
Izl/i-WLI/J+H{J=O
I 0 P-wl{J -Ht/1= 0
(7.1)
128
To investigate the stability of the car, we eliminate

the first equation gives
p from these equations;
from which
WLJ: I....
--'1'--t/1
11 ._
Differentiating the second equation gives
IoP'-wifl-HI/i = 0
and substituting the expressions obtained for
pand p leads to
I,I0 iji"- (WL1 0 +wll. -H 2 )1/i +wlWLt/1 = 0
(7.2)
Using the notation C = - (WLI 0 + wll,- H 2 ), we obtain
l,I 0 f+CI/i+wlWL = 0
(7.3)
The characteristic equation is
I,I 0 R 4 +CR 2 +wlWL = 0
(7.4)
with the roots
R 2 = -C
j(C 2 -4I.I 0 wlWL)

21.]0
The motion of the car will be stable as long as t/1 is small and the motion is small
oscillations about the vertical axis.
Assume now that there is a real root R 1 =a of equation 7.4, so that
I,I0 a4 + Ca 2 + wlWL = 0
Evidently then R 2 = -a will also be a root of equation 7.4. The corresponding
solutions to equation 7.2 are
t/1 = C 1 eat and t/1 = C 2 e-at

Since a or -a is a positive number, one of the solutions represents an indefinite
increase in the value oft/1 with time and indicates that the car is unstable if there
is a real root of equation 7.4. If there is a complex root R 1 =a+ ib of equation
7.4, there will also be the root R 2 = -a- ib and the conjugate complex
numbers R 3 = a- ib and R 4 = -a+ ib will also be roots. The general
solution of equation 7.3 is then
t/1
= eat(C 1 cos bt + C 2 sin bt) +e-at(C 3 cos bt + C4 sin bt)
Since one of the factors eat or e-at increase indefinitely with time, complex
roots of equation 7.4 indicate that the car is unstable.
129
The only possibility for stability is that all the roots of equation 7.4 are pure
imaginary numbers. This means that R 2 must be a real negative number which
means that we must haveC > Oand C 2 -4Izl0 wlWL > 0. The expression for
R 2 contains the term J (C 2 - 4Izl 0 wlWL), which was set up for the combined
centre of mass of the frame and the gyro being above the axis 00. If the centre
of mass is below this line, we should have to change the sign of I and the term
-41 z I 0 wlWL would become positive, with the result that one of the values of
R2 would become positive, giving a solution of instability.
The necessary condition for stability is now
C > 2J(lzl0 wlWL)
or
from which
H 2 > [j(WLI0 )+J(wllz)] 2

Since H = I.w., we can always select a sufficiently high angular velocity w. of
the gyroscope to satisfy this condition, and thereby make the motion of the
monorail car stable.
Using the series development of J (C 2 -4Jzl0 wlWL), we find
2
(C 2 _ 41 IowlWL)t = C _ 2Izl0 wlWL _ 2(lzl0 wlWL)
z
c
C3
For a large w. the value of C = H 2 - WLI 0

terms only of the series we have
(C2 -4/zlowlWL)t
wllz is also large, and taking two
~ C- 2/zl~~IWL
since C ~ H 2 The roots of the characteristic equation are now

R 12 ~
wlWL
H2
and
H2
R22 ~ - - -
Izlo
Using the notations p 1 2 =

equation 7.3 is
R 1 2 and p2 2
= - R 2 2, the general solution of
1/1 = C 1 cos p 1 t + C 2 sinp 1 t + C 3 cos p2 t + C 4 sin p2 t
For the solution for
p, we find from
H/3
the first of equations 7.1 that
= WLI/J-Izl(,
130
from which
HP
WLtiJ-I.I/i'
The second of equations 7.1 gives the result
Hwlp
HI 0 P-H 2 tiJ
Substituting the expression for H Pin this gives the result that
Hwlp = -1 0 1.1/i'- (H 2 -10 WL)tiJ

Substituting the solution for
P=
t/J,
we obtain
D 1 cosp 1 t + D 2 sinp 1 t + D3 cosp 2 t +D 4 sinp 2 t
where the constants D 1 to D4 are determined by the constants C 1 to C4 and the

system constants H, w, I, W, L, 10 and /z. The constants C 1 , C 2 , C 3 and C4 are
determined by the conditions when t = 0, that is, by the initial values t/1 = t/1 0 ,
P =Po. tiJ = tiJo and P =Po
The solutions for t/1 and Pconstitute the complete solution of equations 7.1
with the approximations and conditions stated. The motions of the car and the
stabiliser are then a superposition of two small oscillations with circular
frequencies
1
p 1 ~ -j(wiWL) and p2 ~
H
H
J (1.1
0)
For the assumed large spin velocity w., H = I.w. is large and p 1 is small while
p2 is large--the car and stabiliser then oscillate with small amplitudes at a slow
frequency, with a high-frequency small-amplitude vibration superimposed.
In 1904 the German Schlick proposed the use of a gyroscope to stabilise the
rolling of ships. This stabiliser was the same as the monorail stabiliser in figure
7.4 except that the heavy part of the frame was below the axis 00, so that the
stabiliser was gravitationally stable. Schlick's stabiliser was of the passive type
where the precession was produced by the rolling of the ship; a flywheel on the
axis 00 was fitted with a brake so that the energy introduced to the ship by
wa.ve action was dissipated in the form of heat. Although the device worked
well enough, the heavy rotating masses created many problems; to reduce the
rolling of a large ship in heavy seas the weight of the gyroscope became
prohibitive and the stabiliser was never extensively used. In about 1910 the
Schlick stabiliser was superseded by the activated stabiliser invented by Sperry.
In this stabiliser, the rolling of the ship-was detected by a small pilot gyroscope
which activated servo motors to produce the necessary precession of the
stabiliser frame. This stabiliser had some success in smaller yachts but suffered
from the same disadvantage as the Schlick stabiliser for larger ships and it did
not gain widespread use. The Sperry stabiliser was finally superseded about
1945 by the Denny-Brown stabiliser which uses the hydrodynamic forces
acting on fins projecting from the sides of the ship.
131
Problems
7.1
For the rate gyroscope shown in figure 7.1, the following data are given:
I,= 4.08 x 10- 4 kg m 2 , Ix = 2.04 x 10- 4 kg m 2 , w, = 1.91 x 105 r.p.m., wP

= 9.55 r.p.m. and ka 2 = 6.73 N mjrad. The gyroscope is in steady precession.
Determine the angle 0 for this condition.
7.2 The direction indicator in figure 7.2 is in a state of steady precession with
the gyro case stationary. The precessional angular velocity of axis CC about
axis AA is wA = 6 r.p.m. The constant angle of nutation 0 between axis AA and
axis CC is 0 = 85. The spin velocity is w, = 10000 r.p.m. and I,= 11.72
x 10- 4 kg m 2 with I= 6.59 x 10- 4 kg m 2 Determine the torque on the rotor
and its cause.
7.3 The gyro case of the rate gyro in figure 7.1 is mounted on a vehicle which
runs on a horizontal circular track. The axis AB is in the direction of motion
and the gimbal maintains a rotated position of 15 with the horizontal. The
constant speed of the vehicle is 30.5 m/s and the radius of the track is 61 m. The
spin speed is 20000 r.p.m. and the circular disc of the gyro has I,= 5.86
x 10- 4 kg m 2 Determine the total torsional spring constant about axis AB.
7.4 Determine the angular rotated position of the gimbal in problem 7.3 if
the speed of the vehicle is changed to 15.25 mjs.
7.5 The disc of a gyrocompass has a radius of7.62 em, a thickness of2.54 em
and a weight of 22.25 N. The spin velocity is 15 000 r.p.m. Determine the
frequency of the gyro compass when it is located at the equator and also when
it is at 40 north latitude.
8 Dimensional Analysis and the

Theory of Models
8.1 Units and Dimensions
In the international system of units (the Systeme International d'Unites or SI
System) the basic units in mechanics are the units for length, mass and time:
these units are the metre (m), the kilogram (kg) and the second (s).
Other units are derived from the basic units, for instance the force unit the
newton (N) is the force which, applied to a mass of 1 kg, gives it an acceleration
of one metre per second per second; the units for force are then kg mjs 2 . The
unit for energy or work is the joule (J) or the newton metre (N m), with unit
symbols kg m 2/s 2.
Expressing the units for length, mass and time by the symbols or
fundamental dimensions, L, M and T, all other mechanical quantities may be
expressed in terms of these three dimensions. For instance acceleration is
expressed in dimensions of length and time as LT- 2; a force is expressed by
mass times acceleration or MLT- 2; and energy or work is expressed by the
product of force and length or M L 2 T- 2
Equations giving the derived units in terms of the three basic units are called
dimensional equations. The most common physical quantities in mechanics are
given in the following list of units and dimensions.
Physical Quantity
Dimensions
Units
Length
Mass
Time
Velocity
Acceleration
Force
Momentum; Impulse
Energy; Work; Heat
L
M
T
LT- 1
LT- 2
MLT- 2
MLT- 1
ML 2T- 2
m (metre)
kg (kilogram)
s (second)
Power
ML 2T- 3
Area
Volume
L2
L3
mjs
mjs 2
kg mjs 2 = N (newton)
kgm/s = N s
kgm 2 /s 2 =Nm=J
(joule)
kgm 2 /s 3 = J js = W
(watt)
m2
m3
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND THE THEORY OF MODELS
Physical Quantity
Dimensions
Units
Density
Plane angle
Solid angle
Angular velocity
Angular acceleration
Moment of force; Torque
Moment of momentum;
Angular momentum
Moment of inertia
Pressure; Stress
Frequency
Rotational frequency
Period
Dynamic viscosity
Surface tension
ML- 3
kg/m 3
rad (radian)
sr (steradian)
rad/s
rad/s 2
kg m 2 js 2 = N m = J
r-1
r-2
ML 2 T- 2
MLT- 1
ML 2
ML - 1 T- 2
r-1
r-1
T
ML- 1 T- 1
MT- 2
133
kg m 2 /s
kgm 2
kg/m s 2 = Njm 2
Hz (hertz), cyclejs
rad/s
s
kg/m s = N sjm 2
kg/s 2 = N/m
8.2 Dimensional Homogeneity

The argument x of functions like sin x, log x, eX, etc., must always be a
dimensionless quantity, otherwise these functions become meaningless; this
may also be seen, for instance, from the series development of sin x which is
.
x3
smx = x- 6
+ ...
The various powers of x cannot be added if x has any dimension. In any

physical equation all the terms must have the same dimensions, otherwise the
terms cannot be added and the equation is meaningless. For instance in a
certain dynamics problem the Lagrangian function has the form
L = T-V=
-
~m 1 1 2 0 2 +~m 2 (x 2 + x 2 02 ) - m 1 gl(l- cos 0)
~K (x -10 ) 2 + m2 g(x cos 0 -lo)

2
where the two generalised coordinates are the angle 0 and the length x; the
other quantities are the masses m1 and m2 , the lengths I and /0 , the spring
constant K and the acceleration of gravity g. The left-hand side of the equation
has the dimensions of energy or M L 2 r- 2 , so each term on the right-hand side
must have the same dimensions-that this is so may be shown by using the
dimensional equations on each term.
134
The requirement of identity of dimensions of all terms in an equation is

sometimes called the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. This principle is
very valuable in investigations of the correctness of a physical equation or the
result of an analysis of a problem which has been solved in terms of system
constants like masses, lengths, etc., and not in terms of numerical values of
these constants. If the result is not dimensionally correct, a mistake has been
made which may often be found by tracing the solution back to the source of
the mistake. The result of an analysis can only be correct if the answer is
dimensionally correct-this is then a necessary requirement for correctness; it
is not however, a sufficient requirement since the dimensional analysis does not
ensure correctness of dimensionless coefficients.
8.3 Dimensional Analysis

Investigation of the dimensions of the physical quantities involved in a
mechanics problem may often give important and useful information about
the form of the solution of the problem and the relationships between the
various quantities involved. Consider, for example, the motion of a single
pendulum consisting of a small body of mass m, suspended in the vertical plane
on a light, inextensible string. The pendulum is swinging with small
displacements in the vertical plane due to gravity and we need to determine the
relationship of the period r of the oscillations to the other system constants,
the length I and the mass m of the pendulum.
Assuming that the period depends on I, m and the gravitational constant g,
we haver= f(m, I, g), wherejis a function ofm, I and g to be determined. The.
three quantities involved have different dimensions and cannot be added or
subtracted, so we assume that the function f is in the form of products of
powers of the quantities, orr= Cmx/Ygz, where Cis a dimensionless constant
which must take account of the units used. Putting the equation in
dimensional form
T 1 = (M') (U) (L'T- 22 ) = M'LY+zr-zz
To have the same dimensions on both sides of the equation, we must have
x=O, y+z=O and 2z= -1, or x=O, y=! and z= -!,and so the
expression for r takes the form
r
= Cmop;zg-112 = C J~
The numerical value of C cannot be determined by dimensional analysis, but

must be established by experiments or by solution of the equation of motion of
the problem. (Experiments show that Cis about 6.3.) The equation of motion
135
for small oscillations is the well known simple harmonic motion equation
il+
(7)o o
=
where 0 is the small angular displacement; solution of the equation gives the
result that
so that C = 27t, and so the formula may be used for all simple pendulums for
small oscillations. The result shows that the mass of the pendulum is not
involved in the expression for the period and that the period is independent of
the angle of swing, assuming that this is small. If the mass cannot be considered
as a particle, the result will not be accurate. The solution also assumes that air
resistance is negligible.
If the angular displacements are not small, we may assume that the period
depends also on the arc of swing s. This may be taken into account by writing
r = cmxlygzs", or in dimensional form
Tl
= (Mx) (V) (LzT-2z)L" = Mxv+z+ur-2z
With x = 0, y + z + u = 0 and 2z
expression for r becomes
=-
1, or x
= 0, y = ! - u and z = - !. the
The expression for r gives the general form of the formula for the period, but
the number of dimensional equations is insufficient to determine all of the
exponents and u remains indeterminate. The ratio sjl is a pure number and
there is no restriction on the power u; we may therefore write the expression for
r in the more general form
where the function F cannot be determined by dimensional analysis. Since sjl

is a pure number, we may conclude that r is not dependent on the arcs but on
the angle of swing 0; the function F (0) must be determined by experiment or by
the solution of the equation of motion l1 + (gjl) sin 0 = 0. The period of the
motion from this equation is found to be
JG) 1j(l-~~
It
'= 4
sin 2 0)
where k = sin (0 0 /2) and 00 is the initial maximum displacement; this solution
136
contains an elliptical integral of the first kind, for which tables of numerical
values are available. Comparing to the dimensional solution shows that C = 4,
and F(lJ) is equal to the elliptical integral. If the initial displacement lJ 0 is small,
k2 ~ 1 and the integral becomes approximately equal to
~
12 d(J = ~
Jo
with
as determined before for small motions.

Example 8.1
Determine by dimensional analysis a general form for the period of flexural

vibrations of a uniform cantilever in a vertical plane of symmetry. Assume that
the period depends on the length I, the mass per unit length Jl., the modulus of
elasticity E and the cross-sectional second moment of area 1.
Solution
Cl"EYJJ.zl", where Cis a dimensionless constant. We have
from whichx- y-z+4u = O,y+z = Oand 2y = -l,so that y =

and x = - 4u. The form for t is then
-t,z = t
The exponent u remains indefinite, but I 114 is a pure number, so that there is no
restriction on u. Experiments show that tis proportional to F, so that 1- 4 u = F
or u = -t. The formula then takes the form
which is in agreement with the result from the mathematical solution of the
vibration problem. The constant C must be determined by experiments for
each mode of vibration or by analysis. For the fundamental mode of vibration
the analysis gives the result C = 1.7872.
137
Dimensional analysis is particularly useful in complicated problems which

cannot be solved analytically but, where we have to rely on empirical methods
and experiments, the general form of the solution may then be established by
dimensional analysis and numerical values determined by experiments. The
general form of the solution may be very helpful in indicating the effects of
various quantities and in the setting up of the various experiments.
As an example consider the problem of resistance to fluid motion in a pipe.
Experiments show that for steady flow of an incompressible fluid through a
straight, smooth pipe, the resistance r per unit surface area of the pipe depends
on the dynamic viscosity Jl, the density p of the fluid and the average velocity V
of the flow which is the volume of flow in unit time divided by the crosssectional area. r also depends on the diameter d of the pipe. Taking the
expression for r in the form
r =
cJlxpydz vu
we find by introducing the dimensions that

M L -1 T-2 = (ML -1 T-1t(ML -3)y Lz(LT-1)" =
M-~+y L
-x+3y+z+uT-x-u
from which x+y = 1, -x-3y+z+u = -1 and -x-u= -2, so that

x = 2 - u, y = u - 1 and z = u - 2, where u has been taken as the indefinite
unknown. The expression for r becomes
r
=cL(pVd)"
pd2
J1
As usual we find that the expression with the exponent u or p Vd/ J1 is

dimensionless. This pure number was first introduced by Osborne Reynolds in
1883; it is of great importance in fluid flow and is known as the Reynolds
number.
Dimensionally there is no restriction on u and taking u = 1 we find
J1V
r=Cd
which is Poiseuille's law for laminar flow in a straight pipe. The dimensionless
constant C must be determined by experiments.
In the more general case of turbulent flow the expression for r may be taken
in terms of a function f of p Vdj Jl, so that
r = C
J12 !(pVd)
pd2
J1
Multiplying the right-hand side by the pure number (p V d 2 I Jl) gives the result
138
or in dimensionless form
Using experiments on water flow in small pipes, the left-hand side may be
plotted against p Vd/ 11; the resistance of other fluids for different pipe
diameters may then be determined, for instance the resistance of oil flow in oil
pipelines.
8.4 Buckingham's Pi-theorem

In 1915 E. Buckingham proved that any correct solution F(Q 1 , , Qn) = 0
of a problem with n physical quantities which are all expressible in terms of k
fundamental units, may be reduced to the form
P(n1,
1t2, , 1tn-k)
where n 1 , , nn _k are all the independent dimensionless products that can

be formed by combining the n physical quantities. This expression is known
as Buckingham's pi-theorem (the name comes from the use of the letter
n to signify 'product'). The proof of this theorem is too lengthy to be included
here.
Problems that can be solved by this theorem may also be solved by the direct
methods used before, but the theorem has some advantages if the problem
involves a large number of quantities, since the number of variables are
reduced by k and the problem is solved by a systematic procedure with a
minimum of labour. In dynamics we generally have k = 3 and if time is not
involved k = 2.
As an application of the pi-theorem, consider the previous example in
section 8.3 on resistance to fluid flow in a smooth pipe. The solution involves
five quantities and may be stated as F(t, p, V, d, /1) = 0, with n = 5.
The dimensions of the physical quantities are t = M L- 1 r- 2 , p = M L- 3 ,
V = LT- 1 , d = Land J1 = M L- 1 r- 1 . The number of basic units is k = 3 so
that we have only two pi-factors n 1 and n 2 Any two independent products
may be used and generally these must be determined by trial and error. Taking
we must have x+y=O, -x-3y+z=0 and -2x-z=0, to make n 1
dimensionless. The result is x = - y and z = 2y and the exponent y is
indeterminate. We now have
with no restriction on y; taking y
=-
139
1, we obtain
as in section 8.3.
For n 2 we may proceed as for n 1 , but the dimensionless Reynolds number
may also be used for n 2 so that
n2
pVd
= -f.i
The pi-theorem now gives
or
_r
pV
-J1 (pVd)
2-
f.i
_ f(pVd)
C1
f.i
as obtained before.
Example 8.2
By using the pi-theorem, determine an expression for the resisting forceR on a
sphere of diameter d which is moving with constant velocity V through a fluid
of density p and dynamic viscosity f.i
Solution
The solution is of the form F(R, p, V, d, J.i) = 0 and involves five physical
quantities with three fundamental units, so that n = 5 and k = 3, so we have
two pi-factors n 1 and n 2 The dimensions of the quantities are R = M LT- 2 ,
p = M L- 3 , V = LT-1, d = L and f.i = M L- 1 r- 1 .
Taking the dimensionless Reynolds number as the n factor n 2 , we have
n 2 = p Vd/ f.i, this factor contains f.i Taking the first n factor in a form which
contains the force R, we have
from which x+y=O, x-3y+z+u=0 and -2x-z=0, or x= -u/2,
y = u/2 and z = u.
The expression for n 1 is now
140
where u is indeterminate and Vd

have
J (pI R) is a pure number; taking u =
2 we
and the pi-theorem gives the result
or
from which
This is as far as dimensional analysis will take the solution; the form of the
function / 1 of Reynolds number must be determined by experiments.
8.5 The Theory of Models

Models are a very useful way of obtaining information about prototypescommon examples are models of ships or aircraft which are tested to obtain
information about the flow characteristics and the resistance to motion of a
prototype.
The principles of dimensional analysis may be applied to determine how the
model should be designed and tested and to find the relationships between the
results obtained on the model and the prototype.
Using the pi-theorem, the variables may be arranged in dimensionless
groups as pi-factors and the problem may be reduced to an equation of the
form 4(n 1, n 2 , . . ) = 0. Each pi-factor contains a variable that is unique to
that pi-factor, and we may arrange the equation so that the variable of
particular interest is in the n 1 -factor. The equation may now be solved for n 1
expressed by
This solution applies both to the model m and the prototype p so that
1ttm
= f(n2m
... ) and
1tlp
= f(n2p
. )
If the model is designed and tested so that n 2m

also
141
= n 2 P, n 3m = n 3 P, etc., we have
from which the particular variable of interest for the prototype may be
determined from measurements on the model.
Example 8.3
The stresses in a statically loaded beam are to be determined by measurements

on a model.
Determine the relationships between the stresses in the model and the
prototype for the following two cases of loading
(a) a concentrated load, where the weight of the beam may be neglected,
(b) the only load is the weight of the beam.
Solution
(a) The stresses depend on the modulus of elasticity E, the concentrated load
P, the length of the beam l, and the lengths a, band c which determine the shape
of the cross-section and the position of the load.
The solution is in the form F (a, E, P, I, a, b, c) = 0. Since this is statics we
have n - k = 7- 2 so there are five pi-factors, which may be taken as
n 1 = a/ 2 /P, n 2 = Efl/P, n 3 = a/1, n 4 = b/1 and n 5 = c/1. Thus
1/J
aF EF abc)
( p'p'/'/'1
= 0
Solving for n 1 which contains the variable of interest
a/2 =!(E/2 ~ ~ ~)
P
P'l'l'l
n 3 , n 4 and n 5 may be made the same for the model and the prototype by using a
geometrically similar model, so that
A further requirement is that n 2m = n 2 P, or
142
If this condition is fulfilled, we have also n 1m = n 1 P or
from which
CTP = CTm
PP
(t;:/m) X pm
2
which gives the relationship between the stresses in the prototype and the
model. If the geometrical scale model is of the same material as the prototype
we have Em= EP and the n 2 equality gives the load on the model
Pm=PPC:Y
The stress relationship is then CT P = CTm.
(b) In this case the stresses depend on the weight per unit volume y of the
beam, and we have the relationship F (CT, E, y, l, a, b, c) = 0. Trial and error
shows that n 1 CT Jyl, n 2 Efyl, n 3 ajl, n 4 b/1 and n 5 c/1, so that
~ (ft~1~T) = o
Solving for n 1 gives the result
CT
(Eabc)
yl =! yl'I'I'T
For a geometrically similar model we have (a/llm = (a/l)P, (b/l)m = (b/l)P

and (c/l)m = (c/l)P. A further condition is (Ejyllm = (Ejyl)P. We now have
( C1 Jyl)P = (C1 Jyl)m or
If the same material were to be used for the model and the prototype, we
should have Em= EP and Ym = yP, then the condition for equality of n 2 gives
the result lm = IP, so that the model would be identical to the prototype. In this
case, to use a scale factor different from unity, a material must be found such
that (Ejyflm = (E/yl)p.
Example 8.4
Determine a suitable model for the vibrating cantilever in example 8.1.
143
Solution
F (r, I, E, 11,/) = 0
From example 8.1 we have n 1 = rJ(E/J1), n 2 = 1/14 and tt>[rj(E/J1),1/14 ]

= 0, with rj(E//1) = f(l/1 4 ).
Taking a geometrical scale model (1/1 4 1, = (1/1 4 )", therefore [rj(E/11)]"
= [rj(E/J1)]m or
If the same material is used for both model and prototype, we have Em = E"
and r" = rmJ (/1"/11m). Taking the geometrical scale factor A we have
/m
= ;: and 11m = A2 /lp
Example 8.5
Determine suitable testing conditions for the resistance of the sphere in

example 8.2.
Solution
F(R,p, V,d,J1) = 0
The model sphere is obviously a geometrical scale model of the prototype, and
we find in terms of pi-factors, that
4> (
v 2~ 2 p' p ~d) = 0
or
For the test we must have (pVd/ll)m = (pVd/11)" that is, the same Reynolds
number for the model and the prototype, therefore ( V 2 d 2 p 1R)"
= (V 2 d 2 p/R)m, from which
144
If the same fluid is used for the model and the prototype, the Reynolds number
equality gives the result VPdP = Vmdm, and we find RP = ~For a model smaller than the prototype, Vm > Vp. The higher velocities for
the model test may change the physical situation and to overcome this
difficulty compressed air may be used in the model test, the larger density
allowing a smaller velocity to be used for the same Reynolds number.
The various modelling requirements are often difficult to arrange in
practical cases. Various methods have been developed to improve the
situation: increasing air pressure to increase the density of the air in fluid flow
has been mentioned in example 8.5. In a structural test dead loads may be
distributed over the model, which have the approximate effect of increasing the
density of the model. If the deflection of the model is very small, a material with
a small modulus of elasticity, such as rubber, may be used to increase the
deflection. A force field much larger than the gravitational field may be used to
increase the stresses in the model (by placing it in a centrifuge}-the field may
be assumed to be approximately uniform if the radius of the centrifuge is large
compared to the dimensions of the model.
Problems
8.1 A particle of mass m is falling through a resisting medium with velocity V.
The resisting force is -cV where cis a constant. The velocity is
where V0 is the terminal velocity. Check the dimensions of this formula.

8.2
A Lagrangian function has the form
where I is a length, m1 and m2 are masses, k is a spring constant, a an angle and

the generalised coordinate () is an angle. Check the dimensions of this
expression.
8.3 A particle of mass m moves in a circle of radius r with constant velocity V.
Using dimensional analysis, determine an expression for the resultant force F
acting on the particle.
8.4 A circular shaft has a diameter d, modulus of shear G and is twisted by a
twisting moment M 1 Use dimensional analysis to determine the twist per unit
145
length (} as a function of the other factors. If (} varies linearly with M 1,

determine (} as a function of d.
8.5 The lateral vibration frequency of a uniform string depends on the
tension T, the mass per unit length Jl, the length land the acceleration of gravity
g. Determine by dimensional analysis an expression for the frequency f of the
string.
8.6 Determine the modelling conditions for the measurements of the
deflections of a beam under its own weight. The variables are the deflection o,
weight per unit volume y, modulus of elasticity E, the length of the beam land
linear dimensions a and b.
8.7 Determine the modelling conditions for the deflections of a beam of

negligible weight due to a concentrated load P. The variables are o, P, E, I, a
and b.
8.8 A beam is vibrated by an excttmg force F sin wt. Determine the
conditions for a model to measure the dynamic deflections !l of the beam. The
variables are F, w, !l, E, p, I, a, b and c.
8.9 The wave resistance of a ship is to be measured on a scale model.
Determine the resistance of the prototype as a function of the model resistance.
9 An Introduction to
Automatic Control
9.1 Introduction
All machinery and processes need some means of control to ensure proper
functioning. In the past, when machinery was slow functioning, a human
operator was able to keep engine speeds reasonably constant by manual
changing of the valve gear; as machinery became faster and bigger this soon
became impossible and automatic control had to be introduced. Early
examples are the automatic valve gear on steam pumps and the centrifugal
speed governor applied to steam engines. Many simple control systems are
present in modern houses: for instance, the ball-cock for regulating the water
level in cisterns and the thermostat in a hot-water supply or heating system.
More sophisticated control systems exist in refrigerators, washing machines,
radios and television sets.
It is obvious that manual control still has some advantages when adjustment
may be required for unexpected situations, but a human operator also has
many limitations: for instance, a low speed of reaction which deteriorates with
fatigue, limited power output and certain requirements for the physical
environment which require space, heating, lighting and so on.
An automatic control system has many advantages since its speed of
response, power output and space requirements can be arranged to suit a
particular situation; its main disadvantage may be that it is inflexible and
unable to meet unexpected conditions, though progress is being made with
systems which can adapt to new situations-adaptive control systems. Also the
system may have limited stability and there is always the possibility and
possible danger of component failure.
In many situations an automatic control system is used with a human
monitor, as in the case of the steering of ships and aircraft by automatic pilots.
The trend is towards automation but even when the main part of the control
system is automatic, as in electric train transport, a human monitor is probably necessary because of the number of failures experienced in control
systems.
The subject of automatic control is now a vast and rapidly expanding field
for which the present chapter is only meant as an introduction.
AN INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL
147
9.2 Open-loop and Closed-loop Control Systems

Automatic control systems may be divided into two basic groups: open-loop,
or unmonitored, and closed-loop, or monitored. As an example of the openloop system, consider the fuel supply to a petrol engine: the mixture is
controlled by the throttle which is controlled by the accelerator pedal guided
by the human operator; a choke tube is also supplied, which may be set by the
operator. Figure 9.1 shows a block diagram for a simple carburetter. The
system is designed to operate over a certain range, giving an approximately
constant mixture under normal running conditions. Some further control has
been introduced by the choke to give a richer mixture when the engine is cold,
but, since there is no way of measuring the fuel mixture that we try to control,
this information cannot be fed back to the control and so we have to accept the
unmonitored system or open-loop system in this case.
Figure 9.1
A simple control system is shown in a block diagram in figure 9.2, where the
input, which is proportional to the desired response, is applied to a controller
which takes the action necessary to get the desired response. The system will
work satisfactorily under conditions for which it is calibrated, but, if these
conditions are changed by a disturbance, the system will no longer function
properly.
Figure 9.2
An example of a closed-loop system, is shown in the block diagram in figure

9.3. The response is measured and the information returned to an error
detector which will alter the control as appropriate.
F12edback
Figure 9.3
148
9.3 Transfer Functions

For a block or element in a control system, we are particularly interested in the
relationship between the output and the input; the ratio output/input is
termed the transfer function for the element.
Figure 9.4
Consider the system shown in figure 9.4. This consists of a light spring of
spring constant k, a body of mass m and a viscous damper with damping
coefficient c. The equation of motion is
k(xl -x2)-cx2 = mx2

Using the operator D, this is
k(x 1 -x 2)-cDx 2 = mD 2x 2
from which we find the transfer function
k/m
Introducing w 0 2 = kjm, d = cfcc and cc = 2mw0 , where w 0 is the circular

frequency for a mass mona spring k, dis the damping ratio and cc is the critical
damping coefficient, we have
dec
- = - = 2dwo
so that
x2
x1
-=
Wo2
2
2
w 0 +2dw0 D+D
Introducing T = 1/w0 , we find
x2
x1
1 + 2dTD + T 2D 2
(9.1)
The factor Tis called the time constant for the system, which is said to have a
complex exponential lag from the solution of the equation.
149
If the mass m is small, we have a simple system for which the transfer
function may be found from the previous function
k
x 1 = k+cD+mD 2
x2
For m = 0, the result is

x2
x1
k+cD
1+-D
-=---=---
Taking T = cjk, we have
x1
1 + TD
(9.2)
If this system is at rest and the left-hand end is given a displacement x 10, we
have the starting conditions for the system x 1 = x 10 and x 2 = 0 at t = 0, and
the equation of motion is, from the transfer function
(1 + TD)x 2 = X1o
This is a first-order equation for which the total solution is the sum of the
transient solution and a steady state solution, or the solution to the equation
(1 + TD)x 2 = 0 and a particular solution.
The solution to (1 + TD)x 2 = 0 is of the form x 2 = Ae"' and substituting
this gives the resultthat Ae"'(1 + nT) = 0, from which n = -1/T. A particular
solution is x 2 = x 10 , with the total solution
x2 = Xlo + Ae-t/T
The constant A is determined from the starting condition that x 2 = 0 when

t = 0, which gives A= -x 10 ; thus the solution is
x2
= xlO(l-e-tfT)
When t-+ oo, x 2 -+ x 10 exponentially; however x 2 will never reach this value
and this response is said to have a simple exponential lag.
Figure 9.5
An electrical analogue to the mechanical system in figure 9.4 may be of the

form shown in figure 9.5. The difference in e.m.f. is
150
e 1 -e 2
di
= Ldt +Ri = LDi+Ri
For the condenser the e.m.f. grows by the expression de 2 /dt = i/C or De 2
= i/C and Di = CD 2 e 2 ; combining the two expressions, we have e 1 -e 2
= LCD 2 e 2 + RCDe 2 , from which the transfer function is
e2
e1
1
1 +RCD+LCD 2
(9.3)
which is similar in form to equation 9.1.

The system in figure 9.4, with m = 0, may be described by the electrical
system in figure 9.5 with L omitted; the transfer function is then, from equation
9.3
el
1
1
..,..---::- = - - 1 + RCD
1 + TD
where the time constant T = RC, this transfer function is analogous to the
function given by equation 9.2.
A further example is the hydraulic relay shown in figure 9.6. The relay
consists of a spool valve and a ram piston as shown; for convenience the
distance AB has been taken equal to the distance BC; from the geometry a
displacement x of point A as shown results in displacements u andy as shown,
with u = i(x- y). If the oil flow through the valve is q we have, approximately,
q = ku, where k is a constant and u is the valve opening. For the ram piston of
area A, we have Adyjdt = q, or
ADy = q = ku = -(x- y) .
2
Oil
Figure 9.6
151
from which the transfer function is

y
1+ 2AD
k
1+TD
where T = 2A/k is the time constant. Again the transfer function is of the
simple form given in equation 9.2. One of the great advantages of using
transfer functions is that very different types of elements have the same type of
transfer function.
For the rate gyro in figure 7.1 we found the relationship (Ka 2 )a ~ I.w.t/1, for
constant t/1. For a large spin velocity w, we may take H = I.w. as the moment of
momentum of the gyro, and with a viscous damper attached of damping
coefficient c we may consider the motion as small, damped, forced vibrations
for a variable input t/1. The equation of motion is then approximately
or
I.D 2 a + cDa + (Ka 2 )a = Ht/1
from which the transfer function is

H
~=
Ka 2
+cD+I,D 2
Taking the time constant T = c/Ka 2 and w 0 2 = Ka 2 /I,, we find
H/Ka 2
~=
02
1 + TD+-wo 2
Thus the rate gyro has a complex exponential delay.

In vibratory systems of several masses connected by springs there is usually a
considerable interaction between the elements of the system. In control theory
there is usually also some interaction between elements: for instance, in a
hydraulic relay we assume that the flow through the spool valve is not
influenced by the operation of the ram, but this is not the case since the forces
on the spool valve are not balanced when it opens so there is some interaction
between the valve and the ram. In general in control theory it is a great
simplification if we can assume that there is no interaction between the
elements in a series of elements, and hence that no element is influenced by the
FfCD) ,x,~
fiCD)
Xa
Figure 9.7
~ I;:( D)
Xn
....
!52
behaviour of the next element in the series. With this assumption, consider an
open-loop control system as shown in figure 9.7. This consists of n elements in
series; the transfer functions of the individual elements are as shown and we
have
multiplying these transfer functions together, the result is the over-all transfer
function
which may be expressed as

Xn
= KF(D)
(9.4)
In equation 9.4 K is independent of D and F (D) is a function of the operator

D. K is called the total loop gain or amplification.
In a closed-loop series as shown in figure 9.8, we have the output X 0 = xn
which is compared to the value of X; and the difference 6 = X; - X 0 is fed into
the first element; 6 is called the deviation or the error. From equation 9.4 we
find
from which the transfer function for the closed-loop series is

X0
X;
KF(D)
1 +KF(D)
(9.5)
Figure 9.8
9.4 A Remote Position Control System

As an example of a control system that may be relatively simple, consider a
remote position control system. Such a system may be the power assisted
153
steering in a car, where the position of the road wheels follows the signal input
represented by the position of the steering wheel; other examples are the
control of anti-aircraft guns and rocket launchers.
Transducer
for eo
e
Figure 9.9
A simple remote position control system is shown in figure 9.9. The angular
position of the rotor must be controlled by the motor. A transducer picks up
the angular position 00 of the rotor and sends the signal to the differencer
which compares it to the input Oi and sends the error signal e = Oi- 00 , usually
amplified, to the motor. The motor produces a torque T 0 = Ke, which we
assume to be independent of the motor speed; we also assume that there is no
time delay in the operation of the motor. The torque T0 drives the load, so that
To = IIJo + c00 , or To = (10 2 + c0)00 ; with e = Oi- 00 = T0 / K we have
K(Oi -Oo) = (10 2 +cO)Oo

or
(9.6)
= K/1
Introducing
W0 2
damping cc
= 2lw
0,
and the damping ratio d
we find cjK
= dcc/K = 2djw
=~
Cc
where the critical
and
(9.7)
Multiplying equation 9. 7 by W 0 2 and writing it in the usual differential form, we
obtain
(9.8)
Since the independent variable Oi may be any arbitrary function of time, this
equation may be compared to the equation for linear forced vibrations with
viscous damping of a one-degree-of-freedom system which is the well known
equation
x+ 2dw X + w/x =
0
_!__
f(t)
(9.9)
All the results obtained by the investigation of the vibration equation 9.9 may
be directly applied to equation 9.8 for the remote position controller in figure
9.9.
154
For a position controller a damping ratio of d ::::: 0.6 would normally be

used-with this amount of damping any transient motion would soon be
damped out and still leave a reasonably fast response with a relatively small
overshoot. Suppose now that the system is required to respond to a constantly
changing input with (}i = wt; the equation of motion is then, from equation 9.8
(}0
+ 2dwo(}o + wo
(}0
= wo wt
The particular integral to this equation is the steady state solution which we
may determine by substituting (}o = At+ B where A and Bare constants. The
result is t(w 0 A- W 0 W) + (2dA + W 0 B) = 0 which is satisfied at all times if the
two brackets are equal to zero, with the result that A =wand B = - 2d wfwo
= - cwj K, so that (}o = wt- cwj K. We now have the error E = (}i - (}o
= cwj K, which is the steady state error in this case and this error increases
with increasing damping. A better system would be obtained if the control
system were to consider not only the error t: but also the tendency of the error
to increase, that is, the system should respond to both t: and dt:/dt with the
motor torque having a component proportional tot: and another component
proportional to dt:/dt, this effect may be introduced by the so-called derivative
control method.
9.5 Derivative Control

In many control systems the input and feedback signals are in the form of
voltages which may be easily modified by electrical networks. If we introduce
such an electrical modifying network before the motor in figure 9.9, the motor
receives a modified signal input which may be of the form t: + Tdt:/dt. A
suitable network for this modification is shown in figure 9.10.
Figure 9.10
The sum of the currents through R 1 and C is equal to the current through
R 2 , so that
I 55
from which
or
R
1 + -1 +R 1 CO
R2
Taking T = R 1C and introducing y = R 2 /(R 1 + R 2 ), we find
eo
ei
y(l +TO)
1 +yTO
The value of y is less than 1 andy may be made as small as necessary, so we have
approximately e0 /ei ~ y(1 +TO) which is of the required form
eo~
ei(Y +yTO)
= yei + (yT)
de
dt'
Actually this element produces the transfer function y(1 + T0)/(1 + yTO), but
it may be shown, by considering the equations of motion, that the effect of this
is approximately the same as the effect of the transfer function y(l +TO).
With an element with transfer function (1 +TO) introduced before the
motor in figure 9.9, we have three elements in series with transfer functions
(1 +TO), K and 1/(/0 2 +cO). Multiplying these together gives
eo
e
where e =
()i-
K(1 +TO)
/0 2 +c0
80 , so we have
or
[/0 2 + (c + KT)O + K]eo
= K(1 +TO) ei
= Kei,
that modifying the error signal in this way keeps the natural circular frequency
W 0 2 = K/ I unchanged, while the damping has effectively been increased; it is
now (c + KT) instead of c, which means that the transient response has been
improved without introducing extra damping on the load. For a constantly
changing input ei = wt, we find a particular integral to the equation of motion
It may be seen, by comparing this with the equation (/0 2 +cO+ K)8 0
Ilio + (c + KT)Oo + Keo

by substitutin"g eo
= Kwt + KTw
= At+ B which leads to
the equation
t(KA -Kw)+ [ (c+KT)A +KB-KTw] = 0
156
Setting both the brackets equal to zero, we find A =wand B = - (c/K)w, so

that the steady state solution is
(J =
o
c
wt--w
K
and
e=
c
K
(}. - (J = - w
I
The steady state error is unchanged with this modification of the error signal.
Input
ea--e.
Figure 9.11
Derivative control is often used, but sometimes has the disadvantage that
the error signal contains high frequency oscillations or noise which is imposed
on the main signal. A different modification is the so-called velocity feedback
method as shown in figure 9.11. With this modification extra damping is
introduced without introducing the problem of noise in the system. A second
loop is introduced into the system, as shown; the loop contains a differentia tor
which gives an output signal T0 0 , so that the modified error signal
e'
= ((Ji- 80)- TOO = ((Ji- (Jo)- TD(Jo
The result is now
Eliminating e' leads to
0 (/0 2 +cO) = Ke' = K(Oi- Oo)- KTDOo

0
or
[10 2 + (c + KT)D + K]Oo = K(Ji

Comparing this to the original equation (10 2 +cO+ K)(Jo = K(Ji shows that
the result of this modification is an increase in the damping from c to (c + K T),
without any introduction of noise.
For a constantly changing input

motion that
(Ji
157
= wt, we find from the equation of
IiJo + (c + KT)0 0 + K80 = Kwt

substituting 00 =At+ B, we find the equation
t(KA-Kw)+[(c+KT)A+KB] =0
or A= wand B = -[(c+KT)/K]w, with 00 = wt-[(c+KT)/K]w. The
steady state error is now
e = (}.I -
8 = ( ~K + T) w
0
which is an increase from the previous case where we hade= (c/K)w.

The increase in the velocity lag may be reduced by further modification of
the error input, by introducing the so-called integral control, where a term is
added to the error signal; this term is a modification of the error signal to the
integral of the error, so the signal is now modified to e + T J~ edt. It may be
shown that with this modification the equation of motion becomes a thirdorder equation which introduces a greater possibility of instability, and also
that the steady state error may be eliminated by using integral control.
9.6 Routh's Criterion for Stability

We generally define a system as being stable if the oscillations resulting from a
disturbance are transient, that is, the vibrations die out and the system returns
to its normal condition after a certain time. The faster the system returns to
normal the more stable it is. If on the other hand the oscillations after a
disturbance do not die out but increase in amplitude till a limit is reached by
the power input, or because the system breaks down, the system is termed
unstable. It is, of course, necessary for a control system to be stable.
The stability of a system depends on the transient solution, since the steady
state solution is not involved in stability considerations.
Consider now a governing equation of the first order x+ a 1 x = a 0 , a
particular solution is x = a 0 /a 1 , while the transient solution is obtained by
substituting x = Ae"-1 in the equation x+ a 1 x = 0. The complete solution is
then the sum of the particular solution and the transient solution. Substituting
x = Ae"-1 in the equation x + a 1 x = 0 leads to Ae"-1(A. + a 1 ) = 0, which is
satisfied for all times if A.= - a 1 ; the transient solution is then x =A e-a,r and
this solution clearly vanishes exponentially if a 1 > 0.
For a second-order equation the transient solution is the solution of the
equation x + a1 x + a2 x = 0; substituting x = Ae"-1 leads to the equation
Ae"-1(A. 2 + a 1 A.+ a 2 ) = 0, which is satisfied for all values of time if A. 2 + a 1 A.+ a2
158
= 0. The roots of this equation are
A=
-a;Je~
2- a2)
The transient solution is aperiodic motion if (at/2) 2 ~ a 2 , and vibratory

motion if (at/2) 2 < a2 , when the roots are
These are conjugate complex roots, and taking
where p is a real, positive constant, we obtain
and the transient solution is

x
= e-(a,/Z)t(A 1 cos pt + A 2 sin pt)
This solution vanishes for t-+ oo if a 1 > 0, which means that we also have
a2 > 0.
For a third-order equation, the transient solution is determined from the
equation + a 1 x + a 2 + a 3 x = 0. Substituting x = A e'- 1 leads to the equation
A3 + a 1 A2 + a 2 A + a 3 = 0. For stability all the three roots of this equation must
be of a form that does not contain positive real parts; since the corresponding
term of the transient solution would increase exponentially with time, the
condition for stability may be shown to be a 1 > 0, a 2 > 0 and a 3 > 0, together
with the condition a 1 a 2 > a 3 These conditions were first established by Routh
and the conditions are known as Routh's criterion for stability.
For a fourth-order equation, the transient solution is the solution of the
equation :x + a 1 :X+ a 2 x + a 3 x + a4 x = 0. The conditions for stability are that
a 1 , a 2 , a 3 and a 4 must all be positive, together with the condition a 1 a 2 a 3 > a 3 2
+ at2a4.
The conditions for stability for nth-order equations have been established in
a generalised form by Hurwitz. The proof of the Routh-- Hurwitz criterion for
stability is, however, too lengthy to be included here.
Routh's criterion provides a simple way of determining the stability of a
second or third-order system, but for higher-order systems the expressions for
stability are generally too complicated to indicate the influence of any
particular parameter. Although the criterion shows whether a system is stable,
it gives no information about the degree of stability, and even if a system is
stable it may not be satisfactory because the transients may be only slightly
!59
damped and therefore do not decay fast enough; the system may also be too
stable so that it returns to equilibrium too slowly. Slow changes in the system
components with time may also change an originally stable system to an
unstable one. Because of these limitations on the Routh-Hurwitz criterion for
stability, graphical methods have been developed to determine the degree of
stability and the transient response, the two most important of the methods are
due to Nyquist and Bode.
9. 7 Harmonic Response Loci

A vector of length r and inclination 0 to horizontal may be plotted in an
Argand diagram as a complex number as shown in figure 9.12, where
j = j- 1. In complex form the vector may be expressed as a+ jb, where a
= r cos 0 and b = r sin 0. The vector is then expressed as r( cos 0 + j sin 0). From
Euler's formula, ejB = cos 0 + j sin 0, we also have the vector expressed in the
form rej8. Differentiating with respect to time we obtain rjOejB for constant r.
Imag.
- wb
a
Figure 9.12
For a rotating vector with 0 =
OJt
the result is
jOJrej 8 = jOJr(cos 0 + j sin 0) = jOJ(a + jb) =OJ(- b + ja)

Differentiation then multiplies the vector by OJ and rotates it 90 in the
direction of OJ, as shown in figure 9.12.
For a transfer function F(D) the harmonic input cosOJt of unit amplitude
may be replaced by a vector ejwt and the differentiation djdt will then be jOJ
which is symbolised by the operator D. The transfer function may now be
stated as F (jOJ), and the harmonic response locus may be determined by
plotting the function X 0 /X; = F (jOJ) in the Argand diagram for varying values
of OJ.
Consider, for example, an integrating element for which
X0
K
K
- = F 1 (D) = F 1 (JOJ) =- = :-
X;
]OJ
160
The plot ofF 1 (jw) is shown in figure 9.13, where we take xi = 1; the point P 1
corresponds to a value of w = Q.
4= F.(Jw) =JL
Xt
jw
Real
w =0 atco
Figure 9.13
For an element with a simple exponential delay we have
xo
- =
xi
1
1 + 1D
F 2 (D) = F 2 (Jw) = - -
1 + jwT
or
x 0 (1
+ jwT) =xi
This can be represented as in figure 9.14, where xi has the real part X 0 and the
imaginary part X 0 wT. Taking xi = 1 along the real axis, the locus of the end
point of the vector X 0 describes a semi-circle as w varies from zero to infinity, as
shown in figure 9.15. The point P 2 corresponds to a value of
w = Q. When several elements are in series and assumed non-interacting, the
I.m
Xo
Figure 9.14
161
Im
...&.: ~(jw)= -:--':-!--=xr

!+JwT
Figure 9.15
over-all transfer function is, from equation 9.4
or
F(jw) = F 1(jw)F 2(jw) ... Fn(jw)
For two elements in series we have F (jw) = F 1(jw)F 2(jw). For a particular
value of w = Q, the values ofF 1(jQ) and F 2(jQ) are complex numbers which
may be represented in the Argand diagram by two points defined by their
moduli r 1 and r 2 and arguments 0 1 and 0 2 , so that
F 1 (j.Q)F 2 (j.Q)
(r 1 eW1)(r 2 ejll,)
(r 1 r 2)ej( 9t + 9,)
The combined harmonic locus is then obtained by performing this calculation

for a series of values of w. In the case of n elements in series the transfer
function is (r1r2 ... rn)ei(91 +9,+ ... +9,),
Consider, for example, the combination of the integrating element with
transfer function F 1(jw) = Kjjw which was plotted in figure 9.13, with a
simple exponential delay element with transfer function F 2(jw) = 1/
(1 + jwT), which was plotted in figure 9.15. We want to plot the combined
transfer function
F(jw)
= F 1(jw)F 2(jw) =.
]W
(1 K.
+JW
T)
The point P 1 on figure 9.13 and the point P 2 on figure 9.15 correspond to the
same value of w = Q, so to find the corresponding point P on the combined
plot in figure 9.16, we draw the line OA as shown in the direction obtained by
adding the argument 0 1 = -90 for P 1 and 0 2 for P 2; this line is perpendicular
162
to the line 0 P 2 in figure 9.15. The length 0 P is determined as the product 0 P 1

x OP 2 . This process is repeated for a series of values of w to give the result
shown in figure 9.16.
Im.
-KT
F(jCo)):~K~
jw{J+]wT)
mg
Figure 9.16
If the transfer function for a particular element is unknown, the plot for that
element may be determined by testing the element with a suitable harmonic
input and measuring the amplitude and phase of the output; once the response
has been plotted, this diagram may be incorporated into the over-all transfer
function locus as described.
Once the over-all response for an open-loop system has been determined as
X 0 /e = F(jw), we may substitute a= xi - X 0 to find
X0
xi
F(jw)
1 + F(jw)
which gives the relationship between the open-loop and the closed-loop loci.
9.8 Nyquist's Criterion for Stability

The over-all frequency response for an open-loop system may look as shown in
figure 9.17. For a particular value of w = Q, the output vector X 0 may be in the
163
position shown. The input vector xi required to give an error signal e = 1 at

this frequency is determined from e = xi - X 0 or vectorially xi = X 0 +e. The
magnitude of X; may also be determined by connecting the point A to the point
( -1, 0) as shown in the figure.
Im.
w-oo
8 =I
R12al
CI,O)
Figure 9.17
Figure 9.17 is known as a Nyquist diagram. Suppose now that the locus of X
passes through the point ( -1, 0); at the frequency corresponding to this point
we should have xi = 0, in other words at this frequency the input signal
required to maintain an error signal e of unit amplitude would be zero. With a
zero input and a non-zero output the system is in a state of self-sustained
vibrations with a frequency equal to the frequency at which the locus cuts the
real axis at ( -1, 0). If the gain K of the system is reduced, the power supplied is
reduced and the oscillations will die out; the effect on the locus will be to cause
it to cross the real axis to the right of ( -1, 0). If K is increased the oscillations
will grow and the system is unstable; the effect Is to cause the locus to cross to
the left of ( -1, 0).
Nyquist's criterion for stability may now be stated as follows.
0
A system is stable if the Nyquist diagram crosses the negative real axis to the
right of the point ( -1, 0), and is unstable if the diagram crosses the real axis
to the left of the point ( -1, 0).
A formal proof exists for Nyquist's criterion, but this is too lengthy and
complicated to be included here. There are some exceptions to Nyquist's
criterion but these are rare and for unusual systems so they need not concern us
here.
It may happen that the Nyquist diagram crosses the negative real axis in
several points, as shown in figure 9.18, in which case the system is stable if the
point ( -1, 0) is seen to the left as a point travelling the curve in the direction of
FURTHER ENGlNEERING DYNAMICS
164
Im.
Im.
Figure 9.18
increasing w passes the point (- 1, 0) in the plane, otherwise the system is

unstable.
The margin of stability may be determined from the Nyquist diagram by the
'closeness' of the curve to the point ( -1, 0). If the locus does not cross the
negative real axis, the system is inherently stable and the gain could
theoretically be increased indefinitely. If the locus does cross the negative real
axis to the right of ( -1, 0) and the system is stable, the factor by which the gain
may be increased before the system becomes unstable is known as the gain
margin ; this is defined as the fraction by which the gain is short of the value
which just causes instability; it is the distance shown in figure 9.19.
Im.
<- 1.0)
Figure 9.19
Experience shows that for a system to operate satisfactorily the gain margin
should be larger than 0.6. The fact that the gain margin is sufficient does not,
however, mean that the system is satisfactory-a flat curve may well pass close
to ( -1, 0) even with sufficient gain margin, and a small variation in the phase
lag may cause the curve to intersect on the other side of( -1, 0); to avoid this an
adequate phase margin must be ensured. The phase margin is defined as the
increase in the open-loop phase lag which would cause the system to become
165
unstable without a change of amplitude. The phase margin is shown in figure

9.19 as the angle 4J. From experience the phase margin is normally designed to
be larger than 30.
9.9 Bode Diagrams-Logarithmic Plotting

The frequency response curves may conveniently be plotted in logarithmic
coordinates instead of plotting a Nyquist diagram. This representation has
several advantages, it permits simple straight-line representation of some of
the simple transfer functions. The amplitude of elements in series is the
product of the individual amplitude and this becomes a summation if
logarithmic plots are used. This kind of plot also gives the same accuracy for
quantities in the range from 1 to 10 as for quantities in the range from 100 to
1000.
These logarithmic plots of the frequency response are known as Bode
diagrams. It is convenient to have the logarithmic plots for various common
transfer functions. Consider, for example, the transfer function F(jw) = 11
(1 + jwT); the modulus of F(jw) is.
IF(j.w)l = J (1 +1w2 T2) = (1 +w2T2)-1i2

Using logarithms to the base 10 throughout this section, we find
In this case it is convenient to plot log IF(jw) Iagainst log wT; for wT <E:: 1 we
have log IF (jw) I ~ 0, and for w T ~ 1 we have log IF (jw) I ~ -log w T. The
Bode diagram of this function is shown in figure 9.20. Except for a region
around wT = 1 the approximations adequately represented the function.
Generally a change in power from P 1 to P2 is defined, in bels, as a change of
log(P2 I Pd bel; using the more common unit the decibel (db), the change is 10
log(P2 1P 1 ) db. In control engineering we often have the situation where an
e.m.f. e 1 is feeding into a constant resistance Rand thereby changing to e2 ; the
power then changes from e1 2 I R to e/I R. This is a change of
which gives a factor of 20. The numbers on the log IF (jw) I scale are usually
multiplied by 20, and the resulting figures then represent the gain expressed
in db.
166
-1
LogJ F(jc..~)j
r---r-~~~------T-------~--.-
Rjw)=-'J+jwT
-2
or:--------.
Phast~
angle
~ -4~r-----~----~------~
-9d~------~---------~=---~~~
0.1
1,0
10
100
Figure 9.20
The phase angle for the transfer function 1/(1 + jwT) is determined from
tan (- c/J) = w T or c/J = - tan- 1 w T; the plot of this phase angle is shown in
figure 9.20. For the transfer function F (jw) = 1 + jwT, we find the modulus IF(jw)I=J(l+w 2 T 2 )=(1+w 2 T 2 ) 112 , and logiF(jw)l=!log(l
+ w 2 T 2 ). For small wT, we have log IF(jw) I ~ 0, and for large wT we have
log IF (jw) I ~!log w 2 T 2 = log wT. The Bode diagram of this function is
shown in figure 9.21. The phase angle c/J is determined by tan c/J = wT or c/J
= tan- 1 w T; this is also shown in figure 9.21.
Gain
db
Pha~
-angle :
Figure 9.21
167
The degree of stability of a closed-loop system can be determined directly

from the Bode diagrams. The gain margin and the phase margin are
determined as shown in figure 9.22. The gain margin in db is determined when
the phase shift is -180 as shown. The phase margin is the phase angle when
the amplitude modulus is unity or log IF(jw) I = 0, with -180 substracted,
that is, with 180 added; in the figure this is about -135 + 180 = 45.
Gain
db
o+-----4~+-----w
margin
Phaseangle
Figure 9.22
Problems
9.1 Determine the transfer function for a light torsional spring of constant k
connected to a body of moment of inertia I with a viscous damper of damping
coefficient c.
9.2 For the remote position controller in figure 9.9 the error signal is
modified to e-n: Determine the equation of motion and show that the
undamped circular natural frequency and the damping are increased, while the
steady state error due to a constantly changing input is unchanged.
9.3 In problem 9.2 the signal is modified toe+ T00 Determine the equation
of motion and show that the natural frequency and the damping are increased.
9.4 Plot the harmonic response for an element with a transfer function (a)
1/D, (b) 1/D 2 , (c) 1 + TD and (d) 1 + 2cTD + T 2 D 2
9.5 Plot the harmonic response for an element with transfer function
1/(1 + 2cTD + T 2 D 2 ).
168
9.6 Plot the Bode diagram of the function 1/jw and its phase angle.
9.7 Plot the Bode diagram of the function 1/[ 1 + 2cTjw + T 2 (jw) 2 ] and its
phase angle for c = 0.1 and c = 1.
Answers to Problems
Chapter 1
1.1
1.2
L-1
6
1.3
1553N
1.4
R = 2Awh
1.5
I 1 I 2w 0
(I 1 +I 2 )t
1.6
mrV
I 0 +mr 2
1.7
3w(1 + 2 cos a)
1.8
-1 M V 2 - +--------2 )
2 4R
2
1.9
1.10
cr
2
J[
J
}(x 2 -x 0 2 )
2n
[2M 1 +9M2 ( Rg
3M 1 +6M 2
Chapter 2
2.1
J(g~ sina)
2
r) J
170
2.2
Jc~x)
1
V= -gt
2.3
2.4
849 m/s
Chapter 3
3.1
m(r- rw 2 ) = F., cos wt + F Y sin wt
3.2
r- {r0 0 2w 2 cos 2 wt + Q 2[s+ r sin (0 0 sinwt)] sin (0 0 sinwt)}

+gcos(0 0 sinwt) = 0
3.3
(
+
~ml/2 + m2r 2 ) + ( ~ml/ + m2r ).x cos e+ 2m2rr0

(~m 1 l+m 2 r )g sinO= 0
m2r + m2x sine- m2r0 2 +k(r -lo)- m2g cos e+

3.4
cr = 0
m(V-twlsinO)
1 + 3 sin 2 e
'
5 vc
w =-w---smiX
7
7a
'
Chapter 4
J(~} J(~}
4.1
0.80
4.2
p1 =
4.3
p 1 =JC:).p 2 =J[ 6: }
..~,
'~'
J(7}
= B sin wt,
1.25
p2 =
A =
+0.357;
J (a+ b);
a=
-0.555
7 ~~,
+
~={:!;
b=
~~; ~: = 1
O=Asinwt,
2M 0 (4K-mw 2 )
-4KM 0
B=
N
'
N
'
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
171
N = r2 [(4K -mw 2 ) 2 -4K 2 ]
J(0.40),p
7am
4.4
Pt =
4.5
2mx + m/0 cos(}- m/(}2 sin(}+ 2Kx = F 0 sin wt;
2 =
10 + :X cos (} + g sin (}
x
4.6
4.7
J(17.60), x 1 = {+3.12
7am
x2
-0.32
0;
0. 765
(}
= A 1 smwt, = B 1 smwt;
0.76K
2
5.24
K
-;
Pt = - - , p 2 2 = m
m
mass
0.0446;
1595 N/cm;
J(~ ).
=
.
2.581 and 0.38/ to the nght
o fl e f t- hand
0.114 em
4.9
(a) 34.1 Hz, 12.2 m, (b) 31.6 Hz, 11.74 m
4.10
7.75 Hz, 9%
4.11
4.12
Chapter 5
5.2
5.3
5.4
R
--w,;
w1 , zero.
WL-wl
I,w,
Wz
4/Mgl.
>-~-2-,
s
Mgl
l,wz '
I,wz
I cos(}
w/(1, -I) cos(}+ wPI,w,- Wh
J(~ }
F 0 w2 .
F 0 (g -lw 2 ) B
N
;
,=~,
4.8
5.1
1.85
=0
172
Chapter 6
6.1
566 N m, nose tends to rise
6.2
left 1215 N; right 1455 N; thrust 332 N
6.3
5410 N m twisting AC clockwise seen from above
6.4
Ax= Bx = 0;
Ay = -448N,
By= 0;
Az = -245.7 N,
Bz = 314.4N
Chapter 7
7.1
approx. 60
7.2
Friction torque Mx = 0.77 N m on bearings of axis BB
7.3
2.27 N m/rad
7.4
go
7.5
0.075 Hz; 0.066 Hz
Chapter 8
8.3
mv 2
= C-, C dtmens10nless constant

r
8.4
8.5
~ same
8.6
Geometrical similarity and
8.7
Geometrical similarity and ;
8.8
Geometrical
8.9
similarity,~~
same
J[; J
similar and
(~2 ) similar
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
173
Chapter 9
9.1
T=
J(f)
Index
Actual displacement 38
Amplification 152
Angle of nutation 91
precession 91
spin 91
Angular acceleration 92
Angular velocity 92
Argand diagram 159
Artificial horizon 123
Automatic control 146
Automatic pilot 124
Axis fixed in body 101
Axis of precession 91
spin 91
medium 72
small 70
viscous 69
Datum position 40
Decibel 165
Degrees of freedom 36
Denny-Brown stabiliser 130
Derivative control 154
Derivatives 41
partial 41
time 41
Dimensional analysis 13 2, 134
Dimensional equations 13 2
Dimensional homogeneity 133
Dimensions 13 2
Direct precession 109
Direction indicator 123
Dynamic vibration absorber 79
Dynamics of rigid body 95
Bels 165
Bemouilli's theorem 23
Bode diagram 165
Body cone 89
Buckingham, E. 138
Buckingham's theorem 138
Electrical analogue 149

Elliptical integral 136
Energy 20
kinetic 18, 96
mechanical 24
potential 3 9
Equation, impulse-momentum 5, 8,
9, 29
impulsive motion 53
Lagrange's 36
moment of momentum 12, 16
D'Alembert's 44
rotation about a fixed point
98
work-energy 19
Equations of constraints 36
Equations of motion 1
by moment of momentum 100
Equations of relative motion 52
Equations of system of particles 1
Equations of system with variable
mass 28
Cardan suspension 123

Centre of mass 2
Closed-loop control system 147
Conservation of mechanical energy
24
Conservation of momentum 10
moment of momentum 18
Conservative forces 39
Conservative systems 40
Constant angle of nutation 103
Constraints 36
moving 37, 41
Coordinates 3 6
generalised 3 7
Coriolis acceleration 52
Coriolis force 52
D'Alembert's equation
Damping 69
large 72
44
175
176
Equivalent torsional spring 88

Error 152
signal 153
steady state 154, 157
Euler, L. 90
Euler's angles 90
Euler's equation I 0
Euler's equations for axes fixed in
body 101
Euler's turbine formula 16
Feedback 147
Force I
conservative 39
Coriolis 52
generalised 40
impact 54
of constraints 3 8
potential 39
Forced vibrations 74, 76
Frahm 79
Free vibrations 63, 69
Frequency 63
determinant 63
equation 63
natural 64
natural circular 64
Gain margin 164
Geared torsional system 88
Generalised components of momenta
54
Generalised coordinates 3 7
Generalised forces 40
Generalised impact force 54
Gimbal 121
inner 123
outer 123
Gim hallock 123
Grinding mill 112
Gyroscope 89
application of 121
Gyroscopic compass 124
Gyroscopic effects in aircraft 117
in dynamics 114
in locomotive wheels 116
in machinery 112
in rolling mills 112
in turbines 114
Gyroscopic motion 89
Gyroscopic torque I 04
INDEX
Harmonic response loci 159

Holonomic systems 37
Homogeneity of dimensions 134
Hurwitz 158
Hydraulic relay 150
Ideal system 38
Impact 16, 53
Impulse 5, 53
Impulse-momentum equation
9, 129
Impulsive motion 53
Instantaneous axis 89
Integral control 157
5, 8,
Kinematics of rotation about a fixed

point 89
Kinetic energy of system of particles
18
of rigid body 96
Lagrange, J. L. 36
Lagrange's equations 36
development of 44
for conservative systems 46
for impulsive motion 53
for rotation about a fixed point
98
Lagrangian function 46
Laminar flow 13 7
Large damping 72
Linear momentum 5
Logarithmic plotting 165
Margin of stability 164
Mass, centre of 2
variable 28
Mass decreasing with time 31
Mass increasing with time 29
Mass ratio 82
Mechanical energy 24
conservation of 24
Medium damping 72
Moment of momentum 10,15
equation 12, 16
equations of motion b;y I 00
of rigid body 95
relative 12
Momentum 5, 10
generalised 54
linear 5
vector 5
177
INDEX
Monorail stabilisation 126

Moving constraints 37, 41
Natural circular frequency 64
Natural frequency 64
Nodal cross-section 6 8
Non-holonomic systems 37
Normal elastic line 68
Nutation 91
Nutation of spinning top 107
spin axis 108
Nyquist diagram 163
Nyquist's criterion 162
Open-loop control systems
14 7
Partial derivatives 41
Particle dynamics 1
Phase margin 164
Physical quantity 132
Pi-theorem 13 8
Poinsot, L. 90
Poiseuille's law 137
Potential energy 39
Potential forces 39
Precession 91
pseudo-regular 108
Principal modes 7 5
Propagation of wave 8
Rate gyroscope 121
Relative moment of momentum 12
Relative motion 52
Remote position control 152
Resonance 74
Retrograde precession 109
Reynolds number 137, 139, 143
Reynolds, 0. 137
Rigid body, moment of momentum
95
kinetic energy 96
Rotation about a fixed point 89
Routh's criterion 157
Scherl 127
Schilowsky 127
Schlick 130
Small damping 70
Space cone 89
Sperry 130
Spin 91
axis of 91
Spring constant 62
torsional 6 7
Stable system 157
Starting conditions 65
Steady precession 104
Steady state 74, 76
Steady state error 154, 157
System of particles 1
equation of motion 1
kinetic energy of 18
with variable mass 28
work-energy equations
20, 22
Theory of models 132

Time constant 148
Time derivatives 41
Torque-free motion 108
Torsional spring constant 67
Torsional system 67
Torsional vibrations 67
Transfer functions 148
Turbine formula 16
Turbulent flow 137
Two-degree-of-freedom vibrations
Units 132
Unstable system
157
Variable mass 28
Vector momentum 5
Velocity feedback 156
Vibrations 62
absorber 79
forced with viscous damping
76
forced without damping 74
free without damping 63
fundamental mode of 64
second mode of 64
torsional 6 7
with two degrees of freedom
62
with viscous damping 69
Virtual displacements 38
Virtual work 3 9
Viscous damping 69
Wave propagation 8
Work 20
virtual 39
Work-energy equation 19
system of particles 20, 22
62

Further Engineering Dynamics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Further Engineering Dynamics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Further Engineering Dynamics

Also from Macmillan Education

An Introduction to Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Second Edition

Further Engineering Dynamics

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-349-16321-2 (eBook)

This book is sold subject to the standard conditions of the

To Kirsten, Peter and Christian

1 Dynamics of a System of Particles

2 Systems with Variable Mass

2.1 Equation of Motion for a System with Variable Mass

3 Lagrange's Equations for Systems with Constraints Depending on

3.1 Some Important Concepts and Definitions in Lagrangian

of a Function of Several Variables

3.2 Some Useful Relationships for Partial and Time Derivatives

Vibrations with Two Degrees of Freedom

Free Vibrations without Damping

5 Rotation about a Fixed Point-Gyroscopic Motion

Gyroscopic Effects in Rolling Mills

7 Some Applications of Gyroscopes

8 Dimensional Analysis and the Theory of Models

Units and Dimensions

9 An Introduction to Automatic Control

The rapid developments in engineering and science mean that today's

The final chapter gives a short introduction to the subject of automatic

FURTHER ENGINEERING DYNAMICS

M we have l:m; = M and Rc = l:m;r) M. The point C is called the centre of

These two formulae are useful in further developments in dynamics. The

DYNAMICS OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

of a force F which is constant in magnitude and direction. The system is at rest

integrating the equations gives the results

.Yc = 0 so Yc = constant; since Yc = 0 at t = 0 we have Yc = 0 and

The equations of motion for each of the particles at time t are

The equations in x lead to

They equations give m(ji 1 + ji2) = 0,

= y2 = 0, we have Yt + Yz = 0 and Yt + y 2 = constant, or y 1 + y 2 = 2d + 1, so

FURTHER ENGINEERING DYNAMICS

Figure 1.3 shows a body of mass M which slides on a frictionless horizontal

The system is at rest at t = 0.

The sum of these equations gives F = Mx 1 +mx2

the equation of motion of the centre of mass is

(b) The conditions at t = 0 are

DYNAMICS OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

From (1) above

1.2 Impulse and Momentum

The linear momentum G of a system of particles is defined as the vector sum of

Integrating this leads to

Fdt = M[(Rch-(Rc)1] = M(Vc2 -

This is the impulse-momentum equation for the centre of mass of a system of

FURTHER ENGINEERING DYNAMICS

Figure 1.4 shows a system of three particles sliding on a horizontal frictionless

= 1:m;V; = mV[ ( - ~2 i+ ~2 j )-r6j+(3i+3J3j)

DYNAMICS OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

constant in magnitude and direction. At t = 0

Figure 1.5 shows a rotating disc located in bearings bolted to a rigid

Determine the components of the forces exerted by the disc on the

The centre of mass C describes a circle of radius e about 0. Introducing x and

FURTHER ENGINEERING DYNAMICS

bearing forces on the disc Fx = M.Xc and Fy = M Yc. or Fx = -Mew 2 coswt

Figure 1.6 shows a horizontal, uniform, homogeneous bar of an elastic

Determine the velocity of the compressive stress wave in the bar.

The blow produces a compressive stress PI A and a compressive strain

DYNAMICS OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

From equation 1.6 we have