VACUUM

Theory and Applications

Vacuum may be defined as the complete emptiness of a given volume. It is impossible to obtain a perfect
vacuum, but it is possible to obtain a level of vacuum, defined as a pressure, in a system, below barometric
pressure.
For convenience, in vacuum engineering design, the term absolute pressure is used. Absolute pressure is a
pressure above absolute zero pressure (a perfect vacuum).
Another convenient term is gauge pressure, which is a pressure measured above barometric pressure.
The relationship between the various parameters is described in Figure 1.

Pressure Relationships
Figure 1 graphically illustrates the relationship between gauge and absolute pressures. Perfect vacuum
cannot exist on the surface of the earth, but it nevertheless makes a convenient reference point for the
measurement of pressure.
Barometric pressure is the level of the atmospheric pressure above perfect vacuum.
"Standard" atmospheric pressure is 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi), or 760 millimeters of mercury
(mmHg).
Gauge pressure is measured above barometric pressure, while absolute pressure always refers to perfect
vacuum as a reference point.
Vacuum is the depression of pressure below the barometric pressure. Reference to vacuum conditions is
often made by expressing the absolute pressure in inches of mercury, millimeters of mercury, or microns.

Vacuum

In the prior discussion pressure in a system has been indicated. In order to fully understand what pressure
means in the physical world, the following explanation is presented. Vacuum was defined as "complete
emptiness". If any gas (or gases) is present in a system a perfect vacuum cannot exist; therefore, by
definition, a pressure (no matter how low) will be exhibited.
The physical basis for measuring gas pressure is THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. The latter is
based upon the elastic collisions of the existing gas molecules with the walls of the vessel.
For each impact the change in momentum is equal to:
(mv) - (-mv) = 2 mv
Where:
m = mass of molecule
v = velocity of molecule
The pressure in the vessel may be defined as the rate of change of momentum of the gas molecules
impacting upon the walls of the vessel, namely...
Pt = 2mv N
Where:
N = number of molecules impacting a unit surface per unit time
As is obvious from the above, if the number of molecules impacting upon the surface of a vessel is

reduced the pressure will also be reduced. This is the basis of obtaining a vacuum (removing gas/gases
from the vessel).
Note, the above will be valid if more than one gas is present in the vessel. Each gas will act independently
and the resultant pressure will be determined by the LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES.
The latter (DALTON'S LAW) may be stated as follows:
In a given mixture of gases, or vapors, each gas, or vapor, exerts the same pressure it would exert if it
occurred alone in the same space and at the same temperature as exists in the mixture, thus;
Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 +..
Where:
Pt = Total pressure
P1 P2 P3 .. = Partial pressure of component gases, or vapors
The partial pressure of each component may be expressed as follows:
Px = n x Pt
Px = Nx Pt
Where:
Px = Partial pressure of component x
Nx = Mole fraction of component x
Pt = total pressure

Measurement of Pressure
Vacuum may be measured by a variety of instruments depending upon application. A representative list is
provided below:
1. Mercury manometers
Mercury manometers use mercury in a glass u-tube. An open (one side) manometer will measure
pressure relative to local barometric pressure. A closed (one-side) manometer will measure
absolute pressure.
2. Bourdon Gauges
Measure vacuum (relative to local barometric pressure) by means of a flexible tube sensor.
3. Diaphragm Gauges
Use a diaphragm that will deflect under pressure
4. Electronic Gauges
Convert pressure to an electrical signal that can be transmitted, recorded, or displayed.
The reading errors will depend upon the type of gage used and in ascending order of accuracy will be
mechanical gages, manometers, and electronic gauges.

Vacuum Devices
Where, and why, is vacuum so important in power and process applications?
In many applications gases and/or vapors must be removed in order to obtain required performance, or
product. The inclusion of a vacuum system is often the most efficient method for accomplishing this. For
example, vacuum operations permit processes to operate at low temperatures and this is a decided
advantage where heat sensitive materials are involved.
How is a vacuum achieved? As indicated previously, the pressure in a vessel is the sum of the partial
pressures of component gases and vapors (DALTON'S LAW). In order to reduce the pressure (obtain a
vacuum) the gases and vapors must be removed.
Two distinct devices used to produce and maintain vacuum will be discussed.
I. Steam Jet Ejectors
The first device to be described will be the steam jet ejector (the steam jet ejector is a mass flow device).
A typical steam jet ejector assembly is shown in Figure 2. The assembly may be only one component in an
overall steam jet ejector system design. Refer to the Heat Exchange Institute Standards for Steam Jet
Vacuum Systems for nomenclature, design variations, and test procedures.
TYPICAL STEAM JET EJECTOR ASSEMBLY
1. Diffuser
2. Suction Chamber
3. Steam Nozzle
4. Steam Chest
5. Extension (if used)
6. Suction
7. Discharge
8. Steam Inlet
9. Nozzle Throat
10. Diffuser Throat

The following describes the basic design and operation of steam jet ejectors.
There are two separate fluid flows involved. The first is the high pressure motive steam (other motive
fluids may be used). The steam is introduced into the nozzle (Item 3 of Figure 2) and by expansion in the
diverging part of the nozzle, steam pressure is converted into velocity. This velocity will be in the
supersonic range (3000 to 4000 ft/sec).
The second fluid involved is the load (from a vessel or process) and is introduced into the suction of the
ejector (Item 6).
In the suction chamber (Item 2) the high velocity steam exiting from the nozzle entrains the load. The load
is continually removed resulting in a reduced pressure at the suction. The resulting mixture, at the
resulting velocity, enters the diffuser where this velocity energy is converted to pressure energy so that the
pressure of the mixture at the ejector discharge is substantially higher than the pressure in the suction
chamber.
II. Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps (LRVP)
The second device to be discussed is called a Liquid Ring Vacuum Pump, which is a positive
displacement machine. The LRVP uses a liquid compressant to compress entering gases and then
discharges same to the atmosphere or process.
There are two types of LRVP but the basic theory of operation is the same, namely, a crescent shaped
rotating liquid ring, formed by the offset of pump rotor, acting as a series of pistons in the rotor vanes.
One type of LRVP is called a flat port pump and is described in Figure 3.
Another type of LRVP pump uses a cone design to introduce and discharge the gases. Figure 4 describes
the internal design for this unit.
The liquid ring vacuum pump is a specific form of rotary positive displacement pump utilizing liquid as
the principal element in gas compression. The compression is performed by the liquid ring as a result of
the relative eccentricity between the casing and a rotating multi-bladed impeller.
The eccentricity results in near complete filling then partial emptying of each rotor chamber during each
revolution. The partial filling and emptying creates a piston action within each set of rotor or impeller
blades. Parts are positioned in such a manner as to admit gas when the rotor chamber is emptying of the
liquid and allow the gas to discharge once compression is completed. Sealing areas between the inlet and
discharge ports are provided to close the rotor areas, separating the inlet and discharge flows.
A portion of the liquid in the casing is continuously discharged with the gas and the cooler service liquid
is introduced to remove the heat generated during operation. Figures 3 and 4 provide typical examples of
liquid ring vacuum pumps.

Figure 3

Figure 4

Applications of Vacuum Technology

A representative number of examples will indicate how vacuum technology is used to provide a broad
range of operations in industry.
1. Power cycles
In order to maintain vacuum in a main condenser (RANKINE, or regenerative cycles), noncondensable gases must be continually removed. Steam jet ejectors or liquid ring vacuum pumps
can be used depending upon system application and economics.
2. Refrigeration and chilled water processes.
Evaporation cooling of the liquid in a vessel is obtained by maintaining a high vacuum (low
absolute pressure). Part of the water in the vessel will flash (evaporate) by using sensible heat
thus reducing the temperature. Either a LRVP or steam jet ejector might be used for this service.
3. Vacuum distillation
Vacuum distillation is used in the petroleum industry in the production of fuels. Liquid ring
vacuum pumps are normally used for this service.
4. Freeze drying
This is a complex procedure starting with a frozen product then removing water by means of
vaporization. An example would be in the preparation of orange juice concentrate. Due to the low

pressure required, multistage ejectors would normally be used.

5. Medical applications
Liquid ring vacuum pumps are used to maintain vacuum in hospital rooms.

GLOSSARY
Critical Temperature & Pressure: At the critical point physical property differences between liquid and
vapor will disappear and properties of both will become the same. Above the critical temperature no liquid
phase can exist.
Non-condensable gas : A gas at a temperature higher than its critical temperature. A noncondensable gas
is a gas that will not be liquified in the equipment supplied.
Standard Atmospheric Pressure: 760 torr or 29.92 inches of mercury
Torr: A unit of pressure equal to 1/760 of a standard atmosphere. One torr is equal to 1.0 mm of mercury.
Vapor Pressure: The pressure at which the liquid and vapor phases will be in equilibrium at a given
temperature. The vapor pressure will vary with temperature.

Steam Jet Ejectors

Steam jet Ejectors are based on the ejector-venturi principal and operate by passing
motive steam through an expanding nozzle. The nozzle provides controlled
expansion of the motive steam to convert pressure in to velocity which creates a
vacuum with in the body chamber to draw in and entrain gases or vapours. The
motive steam and suction gas are then completely mixed and then passed through
the diffuser or tail, where the gases velocity is converted in to sufficient pressure to
meet the predetermined discharge pressure.
Vacuum Ejectors are used in a variety of applications in the process,
food, steel and petrochemical industries. Typical duties involve
filtration, distillation, absorption, mixing, vacuum packaging, freeze
drying, dehysrating and degassing. Ejectors will handle both
condensible and none condensible gas loads as well as small amounts
of solids or liquids, however accidental entrainment of liquids can cause
a momentary interruption in vacuum but this will not cause damage to
the ejector.
Primary advantages over other vacuum pumps can be seen below:

No Moving Parts - Ejectors are exceedingly simple

and reliable. There are no moving parts to wear or
break in a basic ejector.
Low Cost - Units are small in relation to the work they
do and cost is correspondingly low.
Versatile - Various piping arrangements permit
adapting to environmental conditions.
Self Priming - Ejectors are self-priming. They operate
equally well in continuous or intermittent service.
Easy to Install - Relatively light in weight, ejectors
are easy to install, and require no foundations. Even
multi stage units are readily adaptable to existing
conditions.
Corrosion and Erosion Resistant - Because they
can be made of practically any workable material, or
coated with corrosion-resistant materials, ejectors can
be made highly resistant erosion and corrosion.
High Vacuum Performance - Ejectors can handle air
or other gases at suction pressures as low as 3 microns
HgA.

Ejectors range from Single upto Six Stage units, and can be either Condensing or
Non-Condensing types. The number of Ejector stages required are usually
determined by the economy of the ejectors and the level of vacuum required. The
operating range for each stage of Vacuum Ejector can be seen below, also for
reference 1 BarA = 760 mm HgA.
1st Stage : 810mm HgA - 30mm HgA
2nd Stage : 130mm HgA - 3 mm HgA
3rd Stage : 25mm HgA - 0.8mm HgA
4th Stage : 4mm HgA - 75 microns HgA

5th Stage : 0.4mm HgA - 10 microns HgA

6th Stage : 0.1mm HgA - 3 microns HgA

Single Stage Ejectors

Single stage Vacuum Ejectors generally cover vacuum ranges from 30mm HgA up to
atmospheric pressure. To maximise performance eight different designs are available
with each ejector being optimised to operate in a specific vacuum range. This allows
the motive steam consumption to be kept at a minimum for the selected ejector, and
also ensures that operation will be stable. All single stage ejectors are designed to
discharge either at or slightly above atmospheric pressure. Sizes range from 1 Inch
to 6 Inch, however large size are available if required. Standard materials of
construction are carbon steel or stainless steel, both of which are fitted with a
stainless steel nozzle.

Two Stage Ejectors

Staging of Ejectors is required for more economical operation when the required
absolute vacuum level is reduced. Two stage Vacuum Ejectors generally cover
vacuum ranges between 3mm HgA to 130mm HgA, however depending up on actual
operating conditions a Single Stage may be more economical if at the upper limit of
the operational envelope, or a Three Stage Ejector System if conditions are at the
lower end.
In operation a two stage system consist of a primary High Vacuum (HV) Ejector and
a secondary Low Vacuum (LV) Ejector. Initially the LV ejector is operated to pull
vacuum down from the starting pressure to an intermediate pressure. Once this
pressure is reached the HV ejector is then operated in conjunction with the LV
ejector to finally pull vacuum to the required pressure.
Two stage systems can also be either Condensing or Non-condensing types.
Condensers can be used as pre-condensers, inter-condensers, and after-condensers,
all of which help to reduce the gas load being passed on to the next ejector stage.
This helps to reduce motive steam consumption and also allows smaller ejectors to
be used with in the system. Depending up on the application Non-condensing
systems can also be used, however this can be less efficient than Condensing Types
as each ejector must entrain the full gas load from the previous stage. This can lead
to ejectors becoming large and also increases motive steam consumption. Noncondensing types are usually used where it is not feasible to install condensers, or
where service is intermittent, making operating costs a secondary consideration.

Three Stage Ejectors

Three stage Vacuum Ejectors generally cover vacuum ranges between 0.8mm HgA
to 25mm HgA, however depending up on actual operating conditions a Two Stage
Ejector system may be more economical if at the upper limit of the operational
envelope, or a Four Stage Ejector system if conditions are at the lower end.
In operation a Three Stage system consist of a primary Booster, a secondary High
Vacuum (HV) Ejector, and a tertiary Low Vacuum (LV) Ejector. As per the Two Stage
System, initially the LV ejector is operated to pull vacuum down from the starting

pressure to an intermediate pressure. Once this pressure is reached the HV ejector is

then operated in conjunction with the LV ejector to pull vacuum to the lower
intermediate pressure. Finally the Booster is operated (in conjunction with the HV &
LV Ejectors) pull vacuum to the required pressure.
Three stage systems are also usually of the Condensing type. Again as per the Two
Stage system, condensers can be used as pre-condensers, inter-condensers, and
after-condensers in order to reduce the gas load being passed on to the next ejector
stage. Depending up on the application Non-condensing systems can also be used
however this is less efficient than Condensing Types as each ejector must entrain the
full gas load from the previous stage.

Four, Five & Six Stage Ejectors

These systems are similar to Three Stage Systems, however they include additional
boosters which are equipped with Steam Jackets to prevent ice forming with in the
ejectors. These systems are usually of the Condensing type to increase efficiency and
reduce motive steam consumption.

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Suction Coefficiency =

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1-2m

~11m

2-3m

30 Torr

100 Torr
300 Torr

~0.8m

~4.0m

2-3m

30 Torr

100 Torr
300 Torr

~0.8m

~1.5m

~2.5m

2-3m

30 Torr

50 Torr

100 Torr
255 Torr
300 Torr
760 Torr

Quantity suctioned
(m 3 /min)
AIR
B