Digital Switching System

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UNIT :2 EVOLUTION OF SWITCHING SYSTEMS

Introduction, Message switching, Circuit switching, Functions of switching systems, Distribution
systems, Basics of crossbar systems, Electronic switching, Digital switching systems.
4 Hours
DIGITAL SWITCHING SYSTEMS: Fundamentals : Purpose of analysis, Basic central office
linkages, Outside plant versus inside plant, Switching system hierarchy, Evolution of digital
switching systems, Stored program control switching systems, Digital switching system
fundamentals, Building blocks of a digital switching system, Basic call processing.
4 Hours
TEXT BOOKS:
4. Telecommunication and Switching, Traffic and Networks - J E Flood: Pearson
Education, 2002.
5. Digital Switching Systems, Syed R. Ali, TMH Ed 2002.

INTRODUCTION
switching system associated signaling system are essential to the operation of
telecommunication NW.Function performed by switching system or subsystem, in order to
provide customer with service are called facilities.This chapter will deal historical approach.

MESSAGE SWITCHING
In the early days of telegraphy a customer might sent a msg from town A to town B
although there was no telegraph ckt between A and B. However , if there was a ckt between A
and C and between C and B, this achieved by the process known as msg switching.The operator
at A send msg to C, this operator recognized the address of msg as being at B & retransmitted
the msg over the ckt B. this process as shown in the fig.

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a
)

b
)

R/
P

c
)

R/
P

d
)

A/
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A/
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exchan
ge

Fig: evolution of msg switching a) manual transfer of hardcopy b) manual transfer of paper tape c)
manual transfer of paper tape with automatic route selection d).automatic msg switching system.
T- Teleprinter R/P- reperferator A/T- automatic transfer S- store.
Message switching is still used for telegraph traffic & modified form of it, known as packet
switching, is used in data communication. Dividing long message into smaller unit, known as
pocket. Pocket switch sends each of these as a separate message.

Circuit switching
Invention of telephone introduced a new requirement: simultaneous both way communications in
real time. Message switching could not meet this requirement because of the delay. It becomes
necessary to connect the circuit of a calling telephone to called telephone & to maintain this
connection for the duration of the call. This is called circuit switching. In circuit switching, if the
required outgoing circuit from a switch is already engaged on another call, the new call offered
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to it cannot be connected. The call cannot be stored in message switching. In circuit switching is
thus example of lost call system.

Functions of a switching system:

The basic functions that all switching systems must perform are as follows,
Attending: The system must be continuously monitoring all lines to detect call requests. The
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exchange.
Information receiving: In addition to receiving calls and clearing signals, the system must
receive information from the caller as to the called line (or other service) required. This is called
the address signal.
Information processing: The system must process the information received in order to
determine the actions to be performed and to control these actions. Since both originating and
terminating calls are handled differently for different customers, class of service information
must be processed in addition to the address information.
Busy testing: Having processed the received information to determine the required outgoing
circuit, the system must make a busy test to determine whether it is free or already engaged on an
other call. If a call is to a customer with a group of lines to PBX( private branch exchanges), or
to an outgoing junction route, each line in the group is tested until a free one is found. In an
automatic system, busy testing is also required on trunks between switches in the exchange.
Interconnection: For a call between two customers, three connections are made in the following
sequence;
A connection to the calling terminal
A connection to the called terminal
A connection between the two terminals
In the manual system connections, a and b are made at the two ends of the cord circuit and
connection c merely joins them in the cord circuit. Many automatic systems also complete
connection c by joining a and b at the transmission bridge. However some modern systems
release the initial connections a and b and establish connection c over a separate path through the
switching network. This is known as call-back or crank-back. The calling line is called back and
the connection to the called line is cranked back.
Alerting: Having made the connection, the system sends a signal to alert the called subscriber.
E.g. by sending ringing current to a customers telephone.
Supervision: After the called terminal has answered, the system continues to monitor the
connection in order to be able to clear it down when the call has ended. When a charge for the
call is made by metering, the supervising circuit sends pulses over the private wire to operate a
meter in the line circuit of the calling customer. When automatic ticketing is employed, the
system must send the number of the caller to the supervisory circuit when the connection is
setup. This process is called calling line identification (CLI) or automatic number identification
(ANI). In SPC system, the data for call charging can be generated by a central processor as it sets
up and clears down connections.
Information sending ,IWKHFDOOHGFXVWRPHUV OLQHLV ORFDWHGRQ DQRWKHUH[FKDQJHWKH
additional function of information sending is required. The originating exchange must
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signal the required address to the terminating exchange (and possibly to intermediate exchanges
if the call is to be routed through them).

Electronic Switching:
Electronic techniques prove economic for common controls. In electromechanical
exchanges, common controls mainly use switches and relays which are originally designed for
use in switching networks. In common controls they are operated much more frequently and
wear cut earlier. In contrast the life of an electronic device is almost independent of its frequency
of operation. This gave an incentive for developing electronic common control and resulted in
electronic replacements for registers, markers etc. which have greater reliability than
electromechanical devices.
Advances in computer technology led to the development of Stored Program
Control (SPC). This enables a digital computer to be used as central control and perform
different functions with the same hardware by executing different programs. As a result, SPC
exchanges can offer a better range of facilities than other systems. In addition, the facilities
provided to an individual customer can be readily altered by changing customers. Class of
service data stored in a central electronic memory.Since the processors stored data can be altered
electronically, some of these facilities can be controlled by customers.
Examples include:
Call banning (outgoing or incoming): The customer can prevent unauthorized calls being made
and can prevent incoming calls when wishing to be left in peace.
Repeat last call: If called line is engaged the caller can try again later without having to redial
the full number.
Reminder calls: the exchange can be instructed to call customer at a pre-arranged time (wake up
call).
Call diversion: exchange can be instructed to connect calls to a different number when the
customer goes away.
Three way calls: The customer can instruct exchange to connect a third party to a call that is
already in progress.
Charge advice: As a result of the caller sending the appropriate instructions when starting a call,
the exchange calls back at the end of the call to indicate the call duration and the charge.
In order to develop a fully electronic exchange it was necessary to replace electromechanical
switches in the speech path, in addition to using common controls. One approach is to replace
the relay contacts of the switch in fig 1 by electronic device multiplied together.
Consequently switching systems may be classified as:
Space Division (SD) systems: Each connection is made over a different path in space which
exists for the duration of the connection.
Time Division (TD) system: Each connection is made over the same path in space, but in
different instants in time.

Digital Switching Systems:

While reed-electronic exchanges were being developed, TDM transmission was being
introduced for trunk and junction circuits in the form of pulse-code modulation (PCM). If time
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division transmission is used with space division tandem switching as shown in fig (a) it is
necessary to provide demultiplexing equipment to demodulate every channel to audio before
switching and multiplexing equipment to retransmit it after switching.
Space division Switching

Time division

CROSSBAR EXCHANGE

,QWKHODWHVDQGWKURXJKRXWV$7 7LQWURGXFHGYDULRXVYHUVLRQs of the crossbar

switches. This crossbar switch basically consists line link frames trunk, link frames and common
control equipments. With crossbar switches and common control equipments, the crossbar
exchange achieves full access and nonblocking capabilities. Active elements called crosspoints
are placed between input and output lines. In common control switching systems, the switching
and the control operations are separated. This permits a particular group of common control
circuits to route connections through the switching network for many calls at the same time on
a shared basis. The unique features of the crossbar switches are
(i) Common control allows the customer and the switch to share the common equipments
used to process the call.
(ii) Wire logic computer allows specific routine functions of call processing to be
handwired into the switch.
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(iii) Flexible concentration ratios allows the system designer to select the appropriate
ratio for a specific switch based on customer mix in a specific location.
(iv) Crossbar switches are easier to maintain because the switch have significantly fewer
moving parts than strowger switching system.

Basic principle. The fundamental concept of crossbar switching is that it uses common
control networks. The common control networks enables the exchange to perform event
monitoring, call processing, charging, operation and maintenance. The common control also
facilitates uniform numbering of subscribers in a multiexchange area like big cities and routing
of calls from one exchange to another via some intermediate exchanges. The common control
method of switching overcomes the disadvantages of step-by-step switching. The common
control makes no call processing until it receives entire number. It receives all the number, stores,
and then establishes connection.

Crossbar switching matrix. The basic crossbar matrix requires at least M N sets of
contacts and M + N or less activators to select one of the contacts. Fig. 4.10 illustrates the 3
4 crossbar switching. It contains an array of horizontal and vertical wires (shown as a solid
line). Both wires are connected to initially separated contact points of switches. Horizontal
and vertical bars (shown as dotted lines) are mechanically connected to these contact points
and attached to the electromagnets.

When both horizontal and vertical bars connected to the electromagnet are activated,
the contact of the intersection of the two bars will close together. Thus the contact is made and
continues to hold. When the electromagnets are deenergized both horizontal bar and vertical
bars are released from the contact. In order to prevent the catching of different crosspoint in
the same circuit, a procedure is followed to establish a connection. Accordingly, horizontal bar
is energised first and then vertical bar is energised to make contact or in reverse. But while
removing contact horizontal bar is deenergized first and then the vertical bar is deenergized.
The crossbar switch is known as a non-blocking crossbar configuration. It requires N2
switching elements for N subscribers. Thus for 100 subscribers, 10000 crosspoint switches are
required. Hence, crossbar is economic only for small private exchanges requiring small switches.
For connecting and releasing the subscriber, the select magnet and bridge magnet should
be energised and deenergised respectively. External switch must decide which magnet to
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operate. This is called marker. A marker can control many swtiches and serve many registers.
Thus, even a large exchange needs few markers. In Ericsson ARF system, groups of 1000
subscribers are served by a line switch network controlled by the two markers.

Diagonal crosspoint matrix. A diagonal matrix for 5 subscriber is shown in Fig. 4.11.
The number of crosspoints are reduced to N (N1)/2, where N is the number of subscribers. It
is also called triangular matrix or two way matrix.

The diagonal crosspoint matrix is fully connected. When subscriber c initiates a call, his
horizontal bar is energised first and then the appropriate bar. The diagonal crosspoint
matrix is nonblocking configuration. The difficulty is that the failure of a single switch will
make some subscribers inaccessible.

Blocking Configurations. By blocking configuration the crosspoint switches required

can be reduced significantly. Fig. 4.12. shows the two stage matrices. Fig. 4.12. shows that there
are now four paths between input and output in Fig. 4.12 (a) and four paths between any of the
stations in Fig. 4.12 (b). For the rectangular matrices with N inputs and N outputs, the number of
switches is now 2N2 compared to N2 for the single stage. Here, the random failure of a limited
number of switches will not preclude connections

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Multistage switching. The single stage structures are called non-blocking and the multistage
crosspoints are called blocking. Many of the limitations of the single stage matrix can be
remedied by using a multistage structure. In order to produce longer switches a two stage link
system of primary and secondary switches is used. Fig. 4.13 shows a two stage link network
called line frame.

The Fig. 4.13 shows twenty switches of size 10 10 used to connect 100 incoming trunks
to 100 outgoing trunks. The links between primary and secondary are arranged systematically.
The link 29 connects the outlet of 9 of primary switch 2 and inlet of 2 of secondary switch 9.
The marker sets up a connection between incoming and outgoing trunk only when both
are found to be free. This is called conditional selection.

4.5.1. AT & T No. 5 Crossbar System

This system was developed by the Bell Telephone Laboratories and brought into service in
1948. This system is especially suitable for isolated small cities and for residential areas on the
fringes of large cities. When the percentage of calls connected to subscribers in the same office
is relatively high, No. 5 crossbar system is useful. Improvements and added features have
widened the applications of the No. 5 equipment. It is presently being used in almost all areas
including metropolitan business exchanges and rural centres of about 2000 lines or more.

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The basic stucture of the No. 5 crossbar system is shown in Fig. 4.14. It consists of line link
frame, trunk link frame and common control equipment. The No. 5 system employs a single
switching train to handle incoming, outgoing or switch through. Also, the connection of the
subscriber to the dial register circuit is also made through this switching train. Subscriber lines
and incoming trunks terminate on the line link frames, trunks and orginating registers
termination on the trunk link frames. The line link and trunk link frames are interconected by
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Line link frames. The basic line link frame is a 2 bay frame work with each bay mounting
ten 200 point, 3 wire switches. The ten switches on one bay are used as combined line and
junctor switches and provide terminations for 100 junctors and 100 lines. The ten switches on the
other bay are line switcKHVZKLFKSURYLGHWHUPLQDWLRQVIRUDGGLWLRQDOOLQHVDQGWHQQR WHVW
verticals used to obtain access to busy lines. Thus a line link frames provides 290 line
terminations and 100 junctor terminations.
A feature of this line link frame is that the same frame can serve customers who have various
classes of service. Like coin telephone, emergency line facility, hot line facility, a maximum of
thirty classes of service can be served on a frame.
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Junctors. Each line link frame has 100 junctor terminations which are used to connect to all
the trunk link frames in the office. The number of junctors in a group depends on the number of
trunk line frames in the office. For example, in an office with eight trunk link frames and sixteen
line link frames, each junctor group contains either twelve or thirteen junctors.
Trunk link frames. The trunk link frame is made up of trunk switches, junctor switches and
relays for marker access to the frame. Trunks and originating registers, which register the called
number are connected to the trunk switches. The trunk links run from vertical to vertical, the
junctors being connected to the horizontals of the junctor switches and the trunks to the
horizontals of the trunk switches. Thus, the trunk is accessible to all the junctors on the frame but
only to either, the left or right junctors on one channel test.
Common control equipments : The common control equipments used in AT & T crossbar
system are originating and incoming registers, markers, translators, senders and connectors.
These equipments are explained briefly below.
Marker. It is the most active part of common control equipment. All the markers and their
associated equipment serves up to a maximum of 20,000 members make a marker group. There
are three types of markers. The combined marker performs dialtone, alloting the jobs between
markers. The dialtone marker is used exclusively on dialtone jobs. Completing marker performs
all the other jobs. The principal functions of the marker are to respond demands for dialtone,
determine the proper route, establish connection, determine the class of service, recognize the
status of the connection etc.
Outgoing registers. It furnish dialtone to subscribers and record the digits that are dialed, and
then the called number is transmitted from register to marker. The originating circuit may be
assigned to seize the pretranslator after either the second or third digit has been dialed.
Pretranslator. The pretranslator determines, how many digits the register should expect before
seizing a marker. A pretranslator can be placed in the outgoing register. For complex Evaluation
of Telecommunication Switching Systems numbering plans, a separate pretranslator circuit is
provided. The pretranslator determines how many more digits should be dialed and instructs the
register, the time it must wait to make connection to marker.
Outgoing Sender. The marker transfers the required digits of the called number to a sender
which is connected to an outgoing trunk. The sender type is based on the switching system used.
In crossbar No. 5 office, four different types of outgoing senders provided are Dial pulse (DP),
Multi frequency (MF), Reventive pulse (RP) Panel call indicator (PCI) This four types of
outgoing senders and intermarker group senders may be located on one sender link frame.
Connectors. It is used for interconnecting two equipment elements for short interval of time. If
more than one type of equipment originate action toward another type, the connector is named
according to both the originating and terminating action :
Important features of No. 5 crossbar system :
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(i) The use of precious metal, non-sliding contacts results in noise free conversations.
(ii) Various options of charging methods such as AMA or message resister and coin.
(iii) Provision of toll and tandem switching features with the same common control equipment
as is used for local traffic.
(iv) Good trouble shooting procedures and additional features like eleven digit capacity,
alternate routing, code conversion, marker pulse conversion etc.
(v) Improved distribution of usage over various equipment units by means of rotating
sequence and memory circuits.

DIGITAL SWITCHING SYSTEMS

Purpose of Analysis
The reliability of digital switching systems is becoming increasingly important for users of
telephone services. Currently most Internet access takes place through digital switching systems.
Almost all electronic money transfers depend on the reliability of digital switching systems. The
federal government requires that all network outages exceeding 30 minutes be reported to the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The Bell Operating Companies require that the
outage of digital switches not exceed 3 minutes per system per year.

Basic Central Office Linkages

During the analysis of a digital switching system, it is helpful to define the extent of a central
office (CO) and its linkages to other facilities. Figure 1.1 shows a typical central office along
with some important facilities. Familiarity
with this setup is essential to better understand various operations that may impact the overall
reliability of a digital switching system. The following relate to the basic linkages of a typical
central office:

Main distributing frame (MDF)

Location where all lines and other related links are cross-connected to a central office switch also
referred to as the line side of a switch. The MDF is probably extensive part of a CO. All lines
from subscribers terminate in the MDF. The MDF has two sides: a vertical and a horizontal. The
subscriber cables terminate on the vertical side. The wiring from the digital switching system
referred to as line equipment terminates on the horizontal side. Based on the assignment of
subscribers to line The word "CO" or "switch" for Central Office will be used ,wires are
connected between the vertical (cable pair) and the horizontal (line equipment pair).

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Figure 1.1. Basic central office linkages

Trunk distributing frame (TDF).

Location where all trunks and other related links are cross-connected to a central office switch,
also referred to as the trunk side of a switch. The TDF is usually smaller than the MDF. All trunk
cabling from different locations terminates in the TDF. The TDF has two sides: a vertical and a
horizontal. The trunk cables terminate on the vertical side. The wiring from the digital switching
system, referred to as trunk equipment, terminates on the horizontal side. Based on the
assignment of cable to trunk equipment, the vertical cable pair are connected to the horizontal
trunk equipment pair. The assignment process for trunks to trunk equipment is usually
automated.

Power plant.
A combination of power converters, battery systems, and emergency power sources which
supply the basic -48- and +24-V direct-current (dc) power and protected alternating-current (ac)
power to a CO switch or a group of switches. These should not be confused with the power
distributing
frames in the central offices that provide special voltage conversions and protection for the CO.

Carrier facilities.
Facilities which provide carrier or multiplex transmission mode between central offices and with
other parts of the telephony network. These facilities typically employ coaxial cables (land or
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undersea) and radio and satellite systems. The carrier facilities usually terminate on the TDF for
cross connection to the digital switching system.

Digital X-connect.
Digital cross-connect provides automatic assignments and cross-connection of trunks to digital
switching systems. It can be considered a small switching system for trunks.

Special services.
Those services which require special interfaces or procedures to connect central office facilities
to a customer, eg., data services and wireless services.

1.2.3. Outside Plant versus Inside Plant

Most of the telephone companies classify their telephone equipment as
Outside plant or inside plant. This classification becomes important during the analysis of a
switching system, since indirectly it defines the extent of a CO and consequently the scope of
analysis. As shown in Fig. 1.1 and explained above, any element of telephony equipment outside
the CO box, such as MDF and carrier systems, is classified as outside plant. CO
equipment, such as central processors, switching fabric, and tone generators, are considered
inside plant.

Switching System Hierarchy

Figure 2.2 also shows the different classes of switching system in the North American network:

Figure 2.2. Switching system hierarchy

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- Local exchange (class 5).

It is also referred to as the end office (EO). It interfaces with subscribers directly and
connects to toll centers via trunks. It records subscriber billing information.
- Tandem and toll office (class 4).
Most class 5 COs interface with the tandem offices. The tandem offices primarily switch
trunk traffic between class 5 offices; they also interface with higher-level toll offices. Toll
operator services can be provided by these offices.
- Primary toll center (class 3).
The class 3 toll center can be directly served by class 4 or class 5 offices, depending upon the
trunk deployment. In other words, if the normal number of trunks in these offices are exhausted,
then. traffic from lower-hierarchy offices can home into a class 3 office. Class 3 offices have the
capability of storing, modifying, prefixing, translating, or code-converting received digits as well
as finding the most efficient routing to higher-level toll offices.
- Sectional toll center (class 2).
It functions as a toll center and can home into class 1 offices.
- Regional toll center (class 1).
It functions as a toll center and can home into international gateway offices.
- International gateway.
These offices have direct access to international gateway offices in other countries. They also
provide international operator assistance.

The advantage of the hierarchical network is that it provides an efficient way of searching
for a path through the network.
The disadvantage is that if the primary sectional, or regional toll center goes down, then
large areas of North America can become inaccessible.

The following table shows approximate numbers of end offices and toll centers in North
America.
Class
5
4
3
2
1

Type
End office
Toll and tandem office
Primary toll center
Section toll center
Regional toll center

Number in1977
19,000
1,300
230
67
12

Number in1982
19.000+
925
168
52
10

These figures show that the number of class 5 COs is increasing while the number of toll
centers is decreasing.

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This switching hierarchy and the classification of offices are covered here to emphasize
that just analyzing the reliability of a digital switching system may not solve the problem
of overall network reliability.
However, to the analyst who understands the interconnection of digital switching
systems, it is clear that every part of a switching network must be analyzed to fully
appreciate the impact of network reliability.

Evolution of Digital Switching Systems

The evolution of digital switching systems as background to understand the current
architecture of modern digital switching systems.
For instance, the control structure, call handling, alternate routing, billing, etc., all
evolved from earlier crossbar switching systems.

1. Stored Program Control Switching Systems

With the advent of software-controlled central processors, the control of switching
functions was programmed into memory and actions were executed by the controlling
processor.
The early versions of electronic switching systems had temporary memory for storing
transient-call information and semi permanent memories that carried programming
information and could be updated.
A stored program control (SPC)switching system, shown in Fig. 1.3, depicts a simplified
view of a telephony switch.

Figure 1.3. Basic control structure of a central office

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The basic function of an SPC system is to control line originations and terminations and
to provide trunk routing to other central or tandem offices.
The SPC system also provided control of special features and functions of a central
office, identified here as ancillary control.
The intelligence of an SPC system resided in one processor, and all peripherals were
controlled by this single processor. These processors were duplicated for reliability.
A modern digital switching system employs a number of processors and uses distributed
software and
hardware architectures.
Control of the maintenance functions of the modern digital switching system also
evolved from earlier SPC systems.
These systems depended heavily on a single processor to conduct all maintenance

functions of the switch.

Most of the modern digital switching systems employ a separate processor for

maintenance functions. The maintenance functions of a digital switching system are so

important.

2.Digital Switching System Fundamentals

Extend the basic concept of SPC switching systems to modern digital switching systems.
Many basic elements of the digital switching system already exist in the SPC switching
system.

A switching system is called digital when the input to and output from the switching
system network can directly support digital signals.
A digital signal can be defined as coded pulses that can be used for signaling and
control.
However, analog signals can still be processed through the digital switching system via
analog-to-digital (A/D) or digital-to- analog (D/A) converters. This presents a very
simplistic view of a digital switching system.

The evolution to digital switching from analog switching is shown in Figure 1.4a to d.

Figure 14a shows a typical analog switch with analog lines and trunks. This figure also
shows the line side and trunk side of a switch.
The basic function of a switching system is to switch lines and trunks. Many other

advanced switching functions are handled by digital switching systems.

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However, the main objective of digital switching systems is to switch subscribers and
trunk facilities. Figure 1.4b shows the next step in the evolution of digital switching. This
phase uses analog lines and analog trunks but employs A/D and D/A converters for
digital processing of calls. Digitized signals are sent through the switch.
Figure 1.4c shows the next step in this process, in which digital switches can "talk" to
other digital switches via digital trunks while simultaneously supporting analog lines and
trunks.

Figure 1.4d shows the ultimate, an all-digital linkage. In this arrangement, there are no
analog lines or trunks involved; all communication between digital switches is via digital
signaling. This plan assumes that all incoming lines coming to a CO are digital and that
all outgoing trunks are digital as well.

figure 2.4. Digital switch evolution

In some applications, switching from digital trunk to digital trunk is indeed performed.
But we still live in an analog world, and lots of conversion from analog to digital signals
is performed in many applications.
Currently, the telecommunications industry is moving in the direction in which video,
audio, and telephony services will all be combined and switched through digital
switching systems. Obviously this will require lots of conversions. One form of switching
not shown in Fig. 2.4 is optical switching.

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the future of telephony switching will be optically based. Optical switching systems will
provide high-speed, large-bandwidth switching.

Currently, many of the "pure" optical switches are under development, and many

advances have been made in this area.

In the case of optical switching, electrical/optical (E/0) and optical/electrical (0/E)

conversions will be required. Fiber-optic-based trunks and lines will be utilized, and
signals with very wide bandwidths will be switched.
3. Building Blocks of a Digital Switching System
Since the object of analyze digital switching systems, first a basic digital switching
system model is developed, and then is expanded gradually throughout to cover most of
the important functions associated with a modern digital switching system.
The development of this digital switching system model is described in four stages. The
first stage looks at the very basic kernel of a digital switching system, with the switching
matrix, which is called switching fabric, since not all switching systems use a matrix
arrangement for switching.
The switching fabric switches lines and the trunks under the control of a central processor
and network controller.
The second stage of this development introduces the concepts of line and trunk modules.
The third stage introduces the notion of interface controllers and distributed processing.
The fourth stage presents a high-level design of a digital switching system equipped with
service circuits.
Stage 1.
Stage 1 of conceiving a digital switching system is shown in
Fig. 1.5a. At this stage, all inputs and outputs to a digital switching system are defined. In
this particular case, which is a simple one, only lines and trunks are defined. Clearly,
there can be many types of lines and trunks.
Their design specification must be defined and their reliability assessed at this stage.The
line and trunk sides of the digital switching system are shown separately. As mentioned
earlier, this is only a convention and does not mean that trunks appear on one side of the
network and lines on the other.
The central processor controls the network controller, which in turn controls the switching
fabric. For the time being, regard the switching fabric as a "switched" path through the
CO.
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Figure 2.5a First stage with lines and trunks

Stage 2.
Stage 2 of digital switching system design is shown in Fig.2.5b. The concept of line
modules (LMs) and trunk modules (TMs) is introduced here. The line and trunk modules
are the building blocks of a modern digital switching system, and conceptually they
represent some lines or trunks grouped together on circuit packs, termed line or trunk
equipment, and connected to the switching fabric through a controlling interface.
Modern digital switching systems use various schemes to terminate lines on the line
module. Some digital switching systems allow termination of only one line on one line
module, while others allow termination of multiple lines on a single line module.
If a line module becomes defective, this may impact a number of lines if the line module
carries multiple lines. However, if a piece of line equipment becomes defective; the line
can easily be assigned new line equipment if the LM carried multiple pieces of line
equipment.

Similar schemes are used for trunks on trunk modules. In a modern digital switching
system, line and trunk modules are designed to be modular, which in simple terms means
that a number of these units can be added on an as-needed basis without reengineering
the system.

This allows for easy growth and offers flexibility in offering new services. The impact of
these design ideas on system reliability and on digital switching system operation is
explored.

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Figure 2.5b Second stage with line modules and trunk modules

Stage 3.
This stage is depicted in Fig. 2.5c. The concept of distributed processing in a digital
switching system environment is developed here. Notice the replacement of the network
controller in Fig. 1.5fcby network control processors in Fig. 1.5c and the addition of an
interface controller for LMs and TMs.
The task of controlling the switching fabric is usually assigned to a series of network
control processors that control a part of the switching fabric and a group of LMs and
TMs.
The central processor controls the actions of the network control processors. This type of
architecture is very flexible and allows the construction of different sizes of central office
by increasing the number of network control processors.

For instance, a small central office could be constructed by using just one network
control processor, while a configuration of several network control processors could be
employed for a larger central office.
Naturally, the processing capacity of the network control processors and of the central
control processor and network size also play an important role in determining the
ultimate size of a central office.

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Figure 2.5c Third stage with network control processors

Stage 4.
As shown in Fig. 2.5c, stage 4 of the digital switching system design may appear to be
the final stage of a digital switching system model, but it is not. In reality, it is only an
initial model of a digital switching system which is needed to develop a more detailed
model.
This basic model introduces the duplicated scheme now commonly used in modern
digital switching systems. Since telephony processing is a nonstop process requiring high
reliability, a duplicated scheme for processing units and associated memory units is
almost mandatory.
This basic conceptual model also shows the attachment of interface controllers and
service circuits to the line and trunk modules.

The interface controllers allow interfacing and control of LMs and TMs through the
network control processors. The purpose of the service circuits is to provide dial tone,
ringing, and other associated functions.
In a modern digital switching system, each line or trunk module or a group of modules
can be attached to service circuits.

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Figure 2.5d Fourth stage with redundant processors

Basic Call Processing

This section describes some basic types of calls that are usually processed through a digital
switching system:
- Intra-LM calls
- Inter-LM calls
- Incoming calls
- Outgoing calls
Intra-LM Calls.

When a customer dials from a telephone that is connected to a specific line module and
calls another customer who is also connected to the same line module, this type of call is
classified as an intra-LM call.
A call path for this type of call is shown in Fig. 1.6a. The off-hook (line origination
request) condition is detected by the line module, and service circuits are attached to
supply a dial tone to the calling customer.
Many other functions are performed before a dial tone is given to a calling customer; The
line module's request for a path through the switching fabric is processed by the interface
controller, which in turn works with the network control processor to make a path
assignment.

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Consequently, a path is established through the switching fabric for the called line, and a
service circuit is attached to ring the line. Again, many other functions are performed
before ringing is applied to the called customer; Since this is an intra LM call, the same
line module will be involved in controlling the origination and termination of a call.
This very simplified explanation is offered here for introductory purposes only. Later
chapters go into far greater detail in explaining various functions such as digit reception,
digit translation, and tests that are performed before a call is completed.

Figure 2.6a. Calls within a line module

Figure 2.6b. Calls outside a line module

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Figure 2.6c. Incoming/outgoing trunk call

Inter-LM Calls.

The workings of an inter-LM call are similar to those of an intra-LM call, except that the
terminating line equipment is located in another line module. Figure 1.6 & shows
interconnections for such a call. There are some subtle differences in how an inter-LM
call is handled versus an intra-LM call.

Outgoing Calls.

When a LM processes a call which has terminating equipment outside the CQ the LM
requests a path' through the switching fabric to a trunk module via the interface
controller.
The interface controller works with the network control processor to establish a path to
an outgoing trunk. Once a path is established through the switching fabric, the TM
connects a service circuit for controlling the call to the called CO or a tandem office.
Functions such as out pulsing and multi frequency (MF) signaling are provided by the
trunk service circuits. An outgoing call from an originating office is an incoming call to a
terminating office. Figure 1.6c shows the paths of incoming and outgoing calls.

Incoming Calls.

When a TM detects an incoming call, it attaches service circuits to control the call and
requests a path through the switching fabric from the interface controller and network
control processor.

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Once a path is found through the switching fabric to a LM that has the terminating line/
service circuits are attached to ring the called telephone. This also provides functions
such as audible ringing to the calling line. Use Fig. 1.6c to visualize this simple
connection of an incoming call.

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