GEOHYDROLOGY

(Compiled by Dr, V.N.Singh, Department of Earth Sciences, University of

Roorkee, Roorkee)
This subject is also known as Groundwater Hydrology. It is defined as the
science of the occurrence, distribution, and movement of water below the earth
surface.
The subject of Hydrogeology differs from Geohydrology by its
greater emphasis on geology. The subject of Hydrology deals with the scientific
study of the properties, distribution, effects of water and ice on the earths land
surface, in the soil and underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere. The water
below the earths surface, or groundwater, is commonly understood to mean
water occupying all the voids within a geologic stratum. This saturated zone is
distinguished from an unsaturated, or aeration, zone where voids are filled with
water and air. The subject of Geohydrology is concerned with
1.

occurrence and distribution of groundwater in rocks,

2.

rock properties affecting groundwater,

3.

properties and types of aquifers (i.e., water bearing

4.

groundwater movement and laws governing the same,

5.

well hydraulics,

6.

design and drilling of water wells,

7.

groundwater levels and environmental influences,

8.

quality of groundwater,

9.

pollution of groundwater,

strata),

10. groundwater modelling,

11. surface and subsurface investigations of groundwater, and
12. recharging of groundwater.
Thus the subjects of geohydrology covers a vast range of topics related to
groundwater.

CONCEPT OF A SYSTEM
The system may be defined as a group of interacting, interrelated or
interdependent elements forming or regarded as forming a collective identity.
The group of element is functionally related with a certain finding entity or
entities. For example the earth may be regarded as a system consisting of crust,
mantle and core with heat as the binding entity. The surface features of the
earth are the result of plate motions, which in turn are driven by heat coming
from earths core.
Near the earths surface it is possible to recognise such elements as
lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere which interact in a number of
different ways. Of these the most important is the Hydrologic system. This
system must be considered fundamental to any problems of environment
because water is essential to life and many other phenomena. Modification of
the hydrologic system, which is usually in balance with forces of nature, may
invoke unsuspected consequences.
The essential binding entity of the hydrologic system is, of course, water. The
water moves from the oceans to atmosphere, to the land, and back to the ocean
again in a complex cycle. The energy required for movement of water comes
from the sun in the form of heat. Water evaporates from the oceans, circulates
with the atmosphere, and is eventually precipitated as rain or snow. Most of the
water that falls on the land returns to the oceans by surface run off and
groundwater seepage. Water may also be temporarily stored in lakes and
glaciers. Water may also be returned to the atmosphere by evaporation from
lakes, and transpiration from plants. Water moving over earths surface causes
erosion and transportation of surface rock material, and deposits it as dealt as
beaches and other types of sedimentary formations. Thus water movements
result in a continually changing landscape.
Compared to total mass of the earth, the total mass of water in the
hydrosphere is extremely small, only about 0.022% of the mass of the earth.
Water covers 71% of the surface of the earth.
The vast reservoir of the oceans constitute about 97.5% of all the water in the
earth. Water in the form of ice constitutes about 2% of the earths total. Most of
this water is located in the great glaciers that cover Greenland and Antarctica.

Groundwater, the water contained in the pore spaces of rock and soil,
accounts for 0.5% of the total water mass of the earth.
Lakes contain approximately 0.017% of the earths water.
The amount of water in the atmosphere is only 0.001% of the
earths water.
The volume of water in the earths rivers is only
about 0.001%.
The various parts of the hydrologic systems are interrelated. The atmosphere
is related to rivers and lakes, which are interrelated to the groundwater
reservoirs, and all are ultimately related to the ocean. This system is highly
susceptible human influence, e.g., building of dams, pollution, etc.

GROUNDWATER SYSTEM
Groundwater is an integral part of the hydrologic system and a vital natural
resource. It is distributed everywhere beneath the surface. Largely the porosity
and permeability of the rocks through which it flows control the movement of
groundwater. Porosity determines how much water a rock body can hold. The
capacity of a rock to transmit fluids is known as permeability. Permeability
depends on size of the voids and the degree to which they are interconnected.
There are four main types of pore spaces or voids in rocks: (1) spaces
between mineral grains (2) fractures (3) solution cavities, and (4) vesicles. In
sand and gravel deposits pore space can constitute from 12 to 45% of the total
volume. Porosity is greatly reduced if several grain sizes are abundant and the
smaller grains fill in the space between larger grains or if a significant amount
of cementing material fills the space between grains.
Permeability varies with the fluid viscosity, hydrostatic pressure, the size of
openings, and particularly the degree to which the openings are interconnected.
A rock can have high porosity but low permeability. Conglomerates, sandstones,
basalt and certain limestones have high permeability. Shale, unfractured granite,
quartzite, and other dense, crystalline metamorphic rocks have low
permeability.

Regardless of the degree of permeability groundwater flows extremely slowly

in comparison to the turbulent flow of rivers. The flow velocity of groundwater
commonly ranges from 1m per day to 1m per year.

WATER TABLE
As water seeps into ground gravity pulls it downward through two zones of
soil and rock. In the upper zone, the pore spaces in the rocks are only partly
saturated, and the water forms a thin film, clinging to the grains by surface
tension. This zone, in which pore space is filled partly with air and partly with
water, is called the zone of aeration. Below a certain level, all of the openings of
the rock are completely filled with water. This area is called the zone of
saturation. The water table is the upper surface of the zone of saturation. It is
an important element in the groundwater system. It may be only a meter or so
deep in humid regions, but it might be hundreds or even thousands of meters
below the surface in deserts. In swamps and lakes, the water table is essentially
at the land surface.
The water table has been studied and mapped with data collected from
wells, springs, and surface drainage. In addition to the movement of
groundwater has been studied by means of radioactive isotopes, dyes and other
traces. In general the water table tends to follow the surface topography. In flat
country, the water table is flat. In undulating terrain it rises and falls with the
surface of the land. Where impermeable layers (such as shale) occur within the
zone of aeration, the ground water is trapped above the general water table,
forming a local perched water table. If a perched water table extends to the side
of a valley, springs and seeps occur.
The movement of groundwater is directed toward areas of least pressure. If
we could trace the path of a particle of water, we would find that the gravity
slowly pulls it through the zone of aeration to the water table. When a particle
encounters the water table, it continues to move downward by the pull of
gravity along curved paths from areas where the water table is high towards
areas it is low (lakes, streams, and swamps). The path of groundwater
movement is not down the slope of the water table. Water at any point below
the water table beneath a hill is under greater pressure than water at the same
elevation below the lower water table in a valley. Groundwater therefore moves
downward towards points of lesser pressure.
The groundwater system is a dynamic part of the hydrology system, is in
constant motion and is intimately related to surface drainage. At considerable
depths all pore spaces in the

rock are closed by high pressure and there is no free water. This is the lower
limit, or limit of the groundwater system.
The groundwater system is an open system in which water enters the system
by surface water infiltrating into the ground moves through the system by
percolating through the pore spaces of the rock, and ultimately leaves the

system by seeping into stream or lakes.

Connate Water :
This term denotes the water that has been out of contact with the
atmosphere for at least an appreciable part of a geologic period. Essentially it
consists of fossil interstitial water that has migrated from its burial location.
This water may have been derived from oceanic or freshwater sources and,
typically, is highly mineralised.
Magmatic Water:
Water derived from magma. It is called plutonic water if it is deep seated
and volcanic water when it comes from relatively shallow depth (perhaps 3 to 5
km).

Juvenile Water :
It is new water of magmatic or cosmic origin that has not been a part of the
hydrological system.
Metamorphic Water :
It is the water that is or has been associated with rocks during their
metamorphism.
Meteoric Water :
It is the water that comes to the earth from the atmosphere in the form of
rain or snow.

Age of Groundwater :
Various techniques of age determination have revealed ground water ranging
in age from a few years or less to many thousand years (~30000 years)
Aquifer :

Of all the different types of geologic formations in which ground water

occurs, those known as aquifers are of most importance. An aquifer may be
defined as a formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to
yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs. This implies an ability
to store and transmit water. Unconsolidated sands and gravels are a typical
example. An aquifer includes the unsaturated portion of the permeable unit.
Aquifer may also be called groundwater reservoir and water bearing formation.
Aquifers are generally aerially extensive and may be overlain or underlain by a
confining bed. The confining bed is a relatively impermeable material
stratigraphically adjacent to one or more aquifers.
Aquiclude :
A saturated but relatively impermeable material that does not yield
appreciable quantities of groundwater of wells, e.g. clay
Aquifuge :
A relatively impermeable formation neither containing nor transmitting
water, e.g. solid granite.
Aquitard :
A saturated but poorly permeable system that impedes groundwater
movement and does not yield water freely to wells but that may transmit
appreciable water to or from adjacent aquifers, and where sufficiently thick,
may constitute an important groundwater storage zone, e.g. sandy clay.
Some Important Terms
Water table is also known as phreatic surface. Zone of Aeration may be
further subdivided into the soil water zone, the intermediate vadose zone and
the capillary zone. Water in the soil water zone exists from the surface to the
depth to which roots of plants extend. Its thickness varies with soil type and
vegetation. This zone is of great importance to agriculturists.
The intermediate vadose zone extends from the lower edge of the soil water
zone to the upper limit of the capillary zone. The thickness of this zone may
vary from zero to more than 100m. In this zone the vertically downward moving
water passes.
The capillary zone or capillary fringe extends from the water table upto the
limit of capillary rise of water. The thickness of this zone varies inversely with
the pore size of the soil or rock. Just above the water table all pores contain
capillary water. Water content of pores decreases with increasing height from
water table.
Specific Retention of a soil or rock is the ratio of the volume of water it will

retain after saturation against the force of gravity to its own volume.
Specific Yield of a soil or rock is the ratio of the volume of water, that after
saturation, can be drained by gravity to its own volume. Values of specific yield
depend on grain size, shape and distribution of pores, compaction of the
stratum, and time of drainage. Five grained materials yield little water whereas
coarse grained materials permit a substantial release of water and hence serve
as aquifers. In general specific yields for thick unconsolidated formations tend
to fall in the range of 7-15% because of the mixture of grain sizes present in the
various
strata. Further more, they normally decrease with depth due to compaction.
Specific yield measured by methods based on well-pumping test generally give
most reliable results for field measurements.
Natural and Artificial Discharge
Groundwater reservoirs discharge naturally wherever the water table
intersects the surface of the ground. Generally such places are inconspicuous,
typically occurring in the channels of streams and on the floors and banks of
marshes and lakes. Under various special geological conditions, the water table
intersects the ground surface and discharges as springs and seeps. The natural
discharge of groundwater into streams is the reason why streams continue to
flow even in dry season.
Artificial discharge results when water is extracted from wells. Artificial
discharge, when excessive, modifies the groundwater system. When more water
is removed by artificial discharge the water table is lowered.
Ordinary wells are made simply by digging or drilling holes through the zone
of aeration into the zone of saturation. Water then flows out of the pores into
the well, filling it to the level of the water table. When a well is pumped, the
water table is drawn down around the well in the shape of a cone, called the
cone of depression. If water is withdrawn faster than it can be replenished the
cone of depression continues to grow and the well ultimately goes dry. The cone
of depression around large wells, such as those used by cities and industrial
plants, can be many hundreds of meters in diameter. All wells within the cone
of depression are affected. Computer simulation studies are carried out through
mathematical modelling. Such studies simulate subsurface conditions such as
permeability, direction of flow, and level of the water table. The models predict
what changes will occur in the groundwater system if given amounts of water
are drawn out of a well, over specified periods of time.
Extensive pumping can lower the general surface of the water table. This can
have serious consequences in urban areas. Although the groundwater is, being
continually replenished by precipitation, the migration of groundwater is so
slow that it can take hundreds of years of raise a water table to its former
position of balance with the hydraulic system.
ARTESIAN WATER

Artesian water is confined ground water that builds up an abnormally high

hydrostatic pressure. The necessary geologic conditions for artesian water
include the following:
(a)

The rock sequence must contain interbedded permeable and

impermeable strata. The sequence occurs commonly in nature as
interbedded sandstone and shale. Permeable beds in such s sequence
constitute aquifers.

(b)

The rocks must be tilted and exposed in an elevated area where water can
infiltrate into the aquifer.

(c)

Sufficient precipitation and surface drainage must occur in the outcrop

area to keep the aquifer filled.

The water confined in an aquifer bed behaves much like water in a pipe.
Hydrostatic pressure builds up, so that where a well or fracture intersects the
bed, the water rises in the opening, producing a flowing well or artesian spring.
Geologic Formations as Aquifers
Many types of geologic formations serve as aquifers. A key requirement of
any formation which is to serve as aquifer is its ability to store water in its pore
spaces. Porosity may be derived from intergranular spaces or from fractures.
Probably 90% of all developed aquifers consist of unconsolidated rocks,
chiefly gravel and sand. Volcanic rock can from highly permeable aquifers :
basalt flows in particular often display such characteristics. Sandstones, being
cemented rocks, have reduced porosity and the best sandstone aquifers yield
water through their joints. In solid forms igneous and metamorphic rocks are
relatively impermeable and do not constitute aquifers where such rocks occur
near the surface under weathering conditions, however, they can yield small
quantities of water for domestic water supply. Clay and coarser materials mixed
with clay are generally porous, but their pores are so small that they may be
regarded as relatively impermeable.
Types of Aquifers
Most aquifers are of large areal extent and may be visualized as
underground storage reservoir. Water enters a reservoir from natural or
artificial recharge; it flows out under the action of gravity or is extracted by
wells. Aquifers may be classified as unconfined or confined, depending on the
presence or absence of a water table, while a leaky aquifer represents a
combination of the two types.
An unconfined aquifer is one in which a water table varies in undulating
form and in slope, depending on areas of recharge and discharge, pumping

from wells and permeability. Rises and falls in the water table correspond to
changes in the volume of water in storage within an aquifer. Contour maps and
profiles of the water stable can be prepared from elevations of water in wells
that tap the aquifer to determine the quantities of water available and their
distribution and movement.
Confined aquifers, also known artesian or pressure aquifers, occur where
groundwater is confined under pressure greater than the atmospheric pressure
by overlying relatively impermeable strata. In a well penetrating such an aquifer,
the water level will rise above the bottom of the confining bed. The piezometric
surface or potentiometric surface, of a confined aquifer is an imaginary
surface coinciding with the hydrostatic pressure level of the water in the
aquifer. The water level in a well penetrating a confined aquifer defines the
elevation of the piezometric surface at that point. Should the piezometric
surface lie above ground surface, a flowing well results.
In case of leaky or semiconfined aquifers (which are a common feature in
alluvial valleys plains or former lake basins) a permeable stratum is overlain or
underlain by a semi-pervious aquitard, or semi-confining layer. Pumping from
a well in a leaky aquifer removes water in two ways : by horizontal flow within
the aquifer and by vertical flow through the aquitard into the aquifer.
For mathematical calculation of the storage and flow of groundwater,
aquifers are frequency by assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic. Such
idealized aquifers do not exist, however,

good quantitative approximations can be obtained by these assumptions,

particularly where average aquifer conditions are employed on a large scale.
Storage Coefficient
Water recharged to, or discharged from, an aquifer represents a change in
the storage volume within the aquifer. For unconfined aquifers this is simply
expressed by the product of the volume of aquifer lying between the water table
at the beginning and at the end of a period of time and the average specific
yield of the formation. In confined aquifers, however, assuming the aquifer
remains saturated, changes in pressure produce only small changes in storage
volume. Thus, the hydrostatic pressure within an aquifer partially supports the
weight of the overburden while the solid structure of the aquifer provides the
remaining support. When the hydrostatic pressure is reduced, such as by
pumping water from a well penetrating the aquifer, the aquifer load increases. A
compression of the aquifer result that forces some water from it. In addition,
lowering the pressure causes a small expansion and subsequent release of
water. The water yielding capacity of an aquifer can be expressed in terms of its
storage coefficient.

A storage coefficient (or storativity) is defined as the volume of water that

an aquifer releases or takes into storage
per unit surface area of aquifer per unit change in the component of head
normal to that surface. For a vertical column of unit area extending through a
confined aquifer, the storage coefficient S equals the volume of water released
from the aquifer when a piezometric surface declines a unit distance. The
coefficient is a dimensionless quantity involving a volume of water per volume
of aquifer. In most confined aquifers values fall in the range 0.00005< S <0.005,
indicating that large pressure changes over extensive areas are required to
produce substantial water yields. Storage coefficient can best be determined
from pumping tests of wells. The fact that S normally varies directly with
aquifer thickness enables the rule of thumb relationship.
(1)

S = 3x10-6

where b is the saturated aquifer thickness in metres to be applied for

estimating purposes. The storage coefficient for an unconfined aquifer
corresponds to its specific yield.

Groundwater Basin
A groundwater basin may be defined as a hydrogeologic unit containing one
large aquifer or several connected or interrelative aquifers. Such a basin may or
may not coincide with a physiographic unit.
Groundwater Movement
The flow of groundwater through an aquifer can be expressed by Darcys Law.
Hydraulic conductivity is a measure of the permeability of the media. It is an
important constant in the flow equation. Determination of hydraulic
conductivity can be made by several laboratory or field methods.
Darcys Law
Let Q be the volume of water flowing per second across a area A when there
is a hydraulic gradient dh/dl across this area. Then Q is given by
Q

=
Q/A

- KA(dh/dl)
=

or

- K (dh/dl)

(2)

The quantity (Q/A) is known as Darcy velocity (v) or specific discharge. The
quantity dh/dl is the hydraulic gradient, also called head loss. K is hydraulic
conductivity and it is the measure of the permeability of the porous medium.
The negative sign indicates that the flow of water is in the direction of
decreasing head. Thus, in simple words, the flow velocity v is equal to the
product of the constant K and the hydraulic gradient.
In the above discussion, it has been assumed that flow occurs through the
entire cross section of the material without regard to solids and pores. Actually,
the flow is limited to the pore space only so that the average interstitial velocity
(va) is given by

Q
] = voverphi
(3)
A
where is porosity. This
indicates that for a sand with a porosity of 33%, va = 3v. To define the actual
flow velocity, one must also consider the microstructure of the rock material. In
water flowing through sand, for example, the pore spaces vary continuously
with location within the medium.
Va= [

The means that the actual velocity is non uniform, involving endless
accelerations, decelerations and changes in directions and changes in direction.
Thus, the actual velocity depends on specifying a point location within the
medium. For naturally occurring geological material the microstructure cannot
be specified three dimensionally; hence actual velocities can only be quantified
statistically.
Because velocity in a laminar flow, such as water flowing in a capillary tube,
is proportional to the first power of the hydraulic gradient, it seems reasonable
to believe that Darcys law applies to laminar flow in a porous medium. To
distinguish between laminar and turbulent flows, a dimensional quantity, called
Raynolds number NR , is defined. This number is defined as the ratio of inertial
(those which help the flow) to viscous (those which retard the flow) forces. This
number is given by
PVD
NR = ----

(4_

where is the fluid density, v the velocity, D the diameter of capillary tube and
is the viscosity of the fluid. This number has been employed to establish the
limit of flows described by Darcys law, corresponding to the value where the
linear relationship is no longer valid. To adapt this criterion to flow in porous
medium, the Darcy velocity is employed for v and an effective grain size for
which 10% of the material is smaller than this size (d10 ) is substituted for D.
Certainly a grain diameter represents an approximation of the critical flow
dimension for which it is intended. However, measuring pore size distribution
is a complex task.
Experiments show that Darcys law is valid for NR <1 and does not depart

seriously upto NR =10. This then represents an upper limit to the validity of
Darcys law. Most natural underground flow occurs with NR<1 so Darcys law is
applicable. Deviations from Darcys law can occur where steep hydraulic
gradients exist, such as near pumped wells. Also turbulent flow can be found in
rocks such as basalt and limestone that contain large underground openings.
Permeability
Intrinsic Permeability : The permeability of a rock or soil defines its ability
to transmit a fluid. This is a property of the medium only and is independent of
fluid properties. To avoid

confusion with hydraulic conductivity, which includes the properties of ground

water, intrinsic permeability k may be expressed as

k=

k
g

(5)

where K is hydraulic conductivity, is dynamic viscosity, is fluid is fluid

density, and g is acceleration due to gravity. Inserting the value of K from Eq. (5)
in Eq. (2) yeilds.

k = - [

v
g(dh/dl)

] \ (6)

The intrinsic permeability has units

of area (m2 ). Because k is very small, it is usual to express K in (m)2 = 10-12 m2.
In the petroleum industry the value of k is measured by a unit termed the
darcy. When a fluid which has a viscosity of 1 centipoise flows at a rate of one
cubic cm per second across an area of 1 cm2 under a pressure gradient of 1
atmosphere per cm, the intrinsic permeability of the medium is said to be 1
darcy. It can be shown that
1 darcy = 0.987 ( m)2

(7)

For practical work in ground water hydrology, where water is the prevailing
fluid, hydraulic conductivity K is employed. A medium has unit hydraulic
conductivity when it transmits in unit time a unit volume of groundwater at the
prevailing kinematic viscosity through a cross section of unit area, measured at
right angles to the direction of flow, under a unit hydraulic gradient. The units
of K is m/day indicating that the hydraulic conductivity has units of velocity.

Transmissivity :
The term, transmissivity. T is widely employed in groundwater hydraulics.
It may be defined as the rate at which water of prevailing kinematic viscosity is
transmitted through

a unit width of aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient. It has units of m2 /day,
and is the product of K and thickness of the aquifer.
Hydraulic Conductivity of Geologic Materials
The hydraulic conductivity of geologic materials depends on a variety of
physical factors, including porosity, particle size and distribution, shape of
particles, arrangement of particles, and other factors. In general for
unconsolidated porous media, hydraulic conductivity varies with particle size;
clayey materials exhibit low values of hydraulic conductivity, whereas sands and
gravels display high values. For a given type of soil or rock a range of values of
hydraulic conductivity exists depending on such factors as weathering,
fracturing, solution channels and depth of burial. Broadly speaking, following
five categories are recognised:
1. Very high hydraulic conductivity (~104) metres/day)
Clean Gravel Vesicular and scoriaceous basalt and cavernous
and dolomite

limestone

2. High Hydraulic conductivity (10 to 100 m/day)

Clean sand and sand and gravel
3. Moderate hydraulic conductivity (10-2 to 10 m/day)
Clean sand, clean sandstone and fractured igneous and metamorphic rock
4. Low hydraulic conductivity (10-4 to 10-2 m/day)
Silt, clay, and mixtures of sand, silt and clay Laminated sandstone,
shale, mudstone
5. Very low hydraulic conductivity (~104) metres/day)

Massive clay, massive igneous and metamorphic rocks

Hydraulic conductivity in saturated zones can be determined by a variety of
techniques, including calculation from formulas, laboratory methods (using
permeameters), tracer test, auger hole tests and pumping tests of wells.

Anisotropic Aquifers
The values of K is rarely same in all directions, particularly for undisturbed,
unconsolidated alluvial materials. Instead, anisotropy is the rule where
directional properties of hydraulic conductivity exist. In alluvium this results
from two conditions. One is that individual particles are seldom spherical so
that when deposited under water they tend to rest with their flat sides down.
The second is that alluvium typically consists of layers of different materials,
each possessing a unique value of K. If the layers are horizontal, any single
layer with a relatively low hydraulic conductivity causes vertical flows to be
retarded, but horizontal flows can occur easily through any stratum of relatively
high hydraulic conductivity. Thus, the typical field situation in alluvial deposits
is to find a hydraulic conductivity Kx in the horizontal direction that will be
greater than a value kz in a vertical direction.
If there are n layers, all horizontal, having hydraulic conductivities K1, K2, .....Kn
and thickness z1,z2,....zn then the equivalent horizontal hydraulic conductivity Kx
for the n-layered stratified sequence is defined as

Kn =

K 1 z1 + K 2 Z 2 + ......+ K nzn
(8)
z 1 + z 2 + .....+ z n

The equivalent vertical hydraulic conductivity Kz is defined as

Kz =

z1 + z 2 + ..... z n
(9)
z1 + z 2 +.... z n
K1 K2
Kn

Ratios of Kx/Kz usually fall in the range of 2 to 10 for alluvium but values upto
100 or more occur where clay layers are present.
For consolidated geologic materials, anisotropic conditions are governed by
the orientation of strata, fractures, solution openings, or other structural
conditions, which do not necessarily possess a horizontal alignment.
In applying Darcys law to two dimensional flow in anisotropic media, the
appropriate values of K must be selected for the direction of flow. For direction
other than horizontal or vertical, The K value can be obtained from

1
K

Cos
Sin
+
Kx
Kz
2

(10)

where K is the hydraulic conductivity in the direction making an angle with

the horizontal.
Groundwater Flow Rates
The rate of groundwater movement is governed by the hydraulic
conductivity of an aquifer and the hydraulic gradient. To obtain an idea of the
order of magnitude of natural velocities assume a productive alluvial aquifer
with K = 75 m/day and a hydraulic gradient i = 10 m/1000 m = 0.01. Then,
v = Ki = 0.75 m/day

(11)

This is approximately equivalent to 0.5 mm/min which demonstrate the

sluggish nature of natural groundwater movement.
Groundwater velocities vary widely depending on local hydrologic
conditions : values from 2m/year to 2m/day are normal. Usually, velocities tend
to decrease with depth as porosities and permeabilities also decrease. Velocities
can range from negligible to those of turbulent streams in underground
openings within basalt and limestone. Mechanism such as wells and drain act to
accelerate flows.
Groundwater Flow Direction :
Groundwater can be imagined to flow along a family of curved lines known
as flow lines. At a given point on a flow line as tangent can be drawn which
defines the direction of local macroscopic velocity vector. Another family of
lines can be drawn intersecting the flow lines such that two families of lines are
everywhere perpendicular to each other. The second set of lines constitute
equipotential lines. Along an equipotential line the pressure (or head) remains
the same. The two adjacent equipotential lines differ by a constant pressure (or
head). The two sets of lines, the flow lines and the equipotential lines,
constitutes a flow net. This constitute an orthogonal pattern of small squares.
Let the total head loss h be divided into n squares between any two adjacent

flow lines and let the flow be divided into m channels by flow lines, then the
total flow is given by
Kmh

Q =

----

(12)

n
where K is the overall hydraulic conductivity.
In anisotropic media, flow lines and equipotential lines are not orthogonal
except when the flow is parallel to one of the principal directions.
Because no flow crosses an impermeable boundary, flow lines must parallel
it. Similarly if no flow crosses the water table of an unconfined aquifer it
becomes a bounding flow surface. Under these conditions flow lines lie
perpendicular to water table contours. Similarly flow lines within a confined
aquifer are orthogonal to contours of the potentiometric surface.
From field measurements of static water levels in wells within a basin a
water level contour map can be constructed. Flow lines, sketched perpendicular
to contours, show directions of movement. Contour maps of groundwater
levels, together with flow lines, are useful data for locating new wells. Convex
contours indicate regions of groundwater recharge, while concave contours are
associated with groundwater discharge. Furthermore, areas of favourable
hydraulic conductivity can be ascertained from the spacing of contours. Areas
with wide contour spacings possess higher hydraulic conductivities than those
with narrow spacings. When a contour map of groundwater levels contains
closed contours around a group of wells of known total discharge Q, the
transmissivity of the regional aquifer can be calculated. The typically
irregularity of groundwater contour often makes construction of an accurate
flow new difficult.

Although most groundwater movement in shallow aquifers tends to be nearly

horizontal, regional flow patterns can become quite complex. Reasons for this
stem from the diversity of field parameters areas and magnitudes of recharge
and discharge, topography, stratigraphy and anisotropy. The variability of a
water table could produce a variety of flow patterns. Accurate evaluation of
groundwater flows is contingent on a detailed knowledge of hydrogeologic
conditions.
Dispersion
In saturated flow through porous media, velocities vary widely across any
single pore, just as in a capillary tube where the distribution in laminar flow is
parabolic. In addition, the pores posses different sizes, shapes and orientations.

As a result, when a labelled miscible fluid, referred to as a tracer, is introduced

into a flow system, it spreads gradually to occupy an increasing portion of the
flow region. This phenomenon is known as dispersion and constitutes a non
steady, irreversible mixing process by which the tracer disperses within the
surrounding water. Dispersion is essentially a microscopic phenomenon caused
by a combination of molecular diffusion and hydrodynamic mixing occurring
with laminar flow through porous media. The net result produces a conic form
downstream from a continuous point-source tracer and an expanding ellipsoid
from a single tracer injection. Most mathematical descriptions of dispersion are
based on statistical concepts because of the difficulties in defining the
microstructure of porous media as well as the relative roles of molecular
diffusion and mechanical dispersion. The pattern of a point tracer as it moves
downstream from its source tends to a normal (Gaussian) distribution both
longitudinally and transversely.
In groundwater hydrology dispersion may be encountered whenever two
fluids with different characteristics come into contact. Prime examples of this
include tracers for evaluating directions and velocities of groundwater flow,
introduction of pollutants into the ground, artificial recharge of water with one
quality into an aquifer containing groundwater of another quality, and intrusion
of saline water into freshwater aquifers.
Groundwater and Well Hydraulics
Solution of groundwater flow problems in the presence of wells rank
highest in important. By pumping tests of wells, storage coefficients and
transmissivities of aquifers can be determined. Furthermore with these
characteristics known, future declines in groundwater levels associated with
pumpage can be calculated. Well flow equations have been developed for steady

(independent of time) and unsteady (time dependent) flows, for various types of
aquifers, and for several special boundary conditions. For practical applications
most solutions have been reduced to convenient graphic or mathematical form.
Steady flow implies that no change occurs with time. Flow conditions differ
for confined and unconfined aquifers and are considered separately.
In a confined aquifer, steady unidirectional flow with a velocity v results in
the linear decrease of head in the same direction provided the aquifer is of
uniforms thickness.
For the similar flow situation in an unconfined aquifer, under some
assumptions, it is found that the water table is parabolic in form. In many
situations the assumptions are not valid and the solutions do not apply.
Steady Radial Flow to a Well

When a well is pumped, water is removed from the aquifer surrounding the
well, and the water table or piezometric surface, depending on the type of
aquifer is lowered. The drawdown at a given point is the distance the water level
is lowered. A drawdown curve shows the variation of drawdown with distance
from the well. In three dimensions the drawdown curve describes a conic shape
known as the cone of depression. Also, the outer limit of the cone of depression
defines the area of influence of the well.
For a confined aquifer the head increases indefinitely with increasing
distance from the well. From a practical standpoint, the head approaches the
value before pumping started. The drawdown varies with the logarithm of the
distance from the well. The mathematical relation for this case is known as
Thiem equation, which is given by

Q = 2Kb

h - hw
(13)
ln(r/ r w )

where b is thickness of the aquifer, hw is height of the level of water in the well
above the aquifer, and rw is the radius of the well; h is the head at a distance r
from centre of the well. This equation enables the hydraulic conductivity or the
transmissivity of a confined or the transmissivity of a confined aquifer to be
determined from a pumped well. Because any two points define the logarithmic
drawdown curve, the method consists of measuring drawdowns in two
observation wells at different distances from a well pumped at a constant rate.
The transmissivity is given by

T = Kb =

Q
2 ( h2 - h1 )

ln r 2 (14)
r1

where r1 and r2 are the distances and h1 and h2 are the heads of the respective
observation wells.
From a practical standpoint, the drawdown s rather than the head h is
measured so that eq. (14) can be rewritten

T=

Q
2 ( s 2 - s1 )

ln r 2 (15)
r1

To apply the above equation pumping must continue at a uniform rate for a
sufficient time to approach a steady state condition - that is, one in which the
drawdown changes negligibly with time. The observation wells should be
located close enough to the pumping well so that their drawdowns are

appreciable and can be readily measured. The derivation of the above equation
assumes that the aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic, is of uniform thickness
and is of infinite areal extent; that the well penetrate the entire aquifer, and that
initially the piezoelectric surface is nearly horizontal.
For an unconfined aquifer the transmissivity equation becomes
T=

ln r 2 (16)
2 [( s1- s ) - ( s 2- S )] r 1
2ho
2ho
2
1

2
2

In this equation ho is the saturated thickness of the unconfined aquifer. In

practice drawdown should be small in relation to the saturated thickness of the
aquifer.
In the case of a well penetrating an unconfined aquifer that is recharged
uniformly at rate W from rainfall, excess irrigation water or other surface water
sources, the flow Q toward the well increases as the well is approached,
reaching a maximum of Qw at the well. Total flow of the well equals the recharge
within the circle defined by the radius of influence. Conversely the radius of
influence is a function of the well pumpage and the recharge rate only. This
results in a steady

state drawdown. The analysis assumes an idealized circular outer boundary

with a constant head and no flow. This conditions rarely occur in the field. The
equation of the drawdown curve is

2
2
ho - h =

w 2 2 Qw ro
( r -r ) +
ln
2K
k r

(17)

The value ro corresponds to the point where h = ho.

WELL IN UNIFORM FLOW

Drawdown curves for well flow considered so far have assumed an ideally
horizontal groundwater surface. A practical situation is that of a well pumping
from an aquifer having a uniform flow field, as indicated by a uniformly sloping
piezometric surface or water table. The circular area of influence associated

with a radial flow pattern becomes distorted. However, for most relatively flat
natural slopes, a simplified analysis can be carried out. For wells pumping from
an area with a sloping hydraulic gradient, the hydraulic conductivity can be
determined from following formula :

K=

2Q
(18)
r ( h w + hd ) ( i w + i d )

This formula holds for an unconfined aquifer where Q is the pumping rate,
hw and hd are the saturated thickness, and iw and id are the water table slopes at
distance r upstream and downstream, respectively, from the well. For a confined
aquifer, piezometric slopes replaces water table slopes, and (hw + hd) is replaced
by 2b where b is the aquifer thickness.
Unsteady Radial Flow
When a well penetrating an extensive confined aquifer is pumped at a
constant rate, the influence of the discharge extends outward with time. The
rate of decline of head times the storage coefficient summed over the area of
influence equals the discharge. Because water must come from a reduction of
storage within the aquifer the head will continue to decline as long as long as
the aquifer is effectively infinite therefore unsteady, or transient, flow exists.
The rate of decline, however, decreases continuously as the area of influence
expands. By

assuming that the well is replaced by a mathematical sink of constant strength

and imposed in boundary conditions h=hO for t=0 and h hO as r for 0, the
following solution in obtained

s=

Q e4 - du

4T u u

(19)

where s is drawdown, Q is the constant well discharge and

2
S
u= r
UTt

(20)

where r is radial distance from the pumped well, S is storage coefficient and T is
transmissivity.
Equation (19) is known as the nonequilibrium or Theis, equation. The
integral in (19) is a function of the lower limit u and is known as an exponential
integral. The nonequilibrium equation permits determination of the formation
constant S and T by means of pumping tests of wells. This equation is widely
applied in practice and is preferred over the equilibrium equation (13) because a
value of S can be determined, only one observation well is required, a shorter
period of pumping is generally necessary, and no assumption of steady state
flow conditions is required. The assumptions inherent is eq (19) are the
following :
(1)

The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic, of uniform thickness

infinite areal extent.

(2)

Before pumping, the piezometric surface is horizontal.

(3)

The well is pumped at a constant discharge rate.

and of

(4)

The pumped well penetrates the entire aquifer, and flow is

everywhere horizontal within the aquifer to the well.

(5)

The well diameter is infinitesimal so that storage within the well can be
neglected.

(6)

Water removed from storage is discharged instantaneously with decline

of head.

These conditions are rarely satisfied but recognition of them can create
an awareness of the approximations involved for employing the
nonequilibrium equation under field conditions. Average values of S and T
can be obtained in the vicinity of a pumped well by measuring in one or
more observation wells the charge in drawdown with time under the
influence of a constant pumping rate. Because of mathematical difficulties
encountered in applying the equation (19), several investigations have
developed simpler approximate solutions that can be readily applied for
field purposes.
Theis Method :
Equation (19) may be simplified to

S =(

Q
) W(u) (21)
4T

where W(u), termed the well function, is a convenient symbolic from of the
exponential integral equation (20) can be rewritten as
2

r = ( 4T )u (22)
t
S
From the equation (21) and (22) it can be seen that the relation between W(u)
and u must be similar to that between s and r2/t because the terms in
parentheses in the two equations are constants. Given this similarity a graphic
method of superposition has been suggested to have an approximate solution
for S and T. A type curve is prepared by plotting W(u) versus u. Another curve is
prepared by plotting s versus r2/t on logarithmic scale of the same size as the
type curve. Matching of two curves given values of W(u), u, s and r2/t for any
convenient point, and S,T obtained from equations (21) and (22).
Cooper-Jacob Method :
It was noted by Cooper and Jacob that for small values of r and large
values of t, u is small. Under these conditions drawdown can be written as

S=

2
S
Q
(-0.5772 - ln r )
4t
4T

(23)

Eq. (23) can be re written as

S=

23.Q
2.25Tt
log 2
4T
r S

(24)

Therefore a plot of s versus the log t forms a straight line. From the following
equations result

S=

2.25T t O
r

(25)

and

T=

2.30Q
(26)
4s

where t = tO for s = O and s is the drawdown difference per log cycle of t. From
(25) and (26) S and T can be determined.
The straight line approximation for this method should be restricted from small
values of u (4<0.001) to avoid large errors.
Chow Method :
This method has the advantages of avoiding curve fitting and being
unrestricted in its applications. Measurements of drawdown in an observation
well near a pumped well are made. The observational data are plotted on
semilogarithmic paper in the same manner as for the Cooper-Jacob method. On
the plotted curve an arbitrary point is chosen and its coordinates, t and s, are
noted. Next, a tangent is drawn to the curve at the chosen point and the
drawdown difference s per log cycle of time is determined. Then a function
F(u) is computed from

F(u) =

s
(27)
s

and the corresponding value of W(u) and u are found from a figure which shows
a graph between F(u) and W(u). Finally, T is computed from eq. (21) and S from
(22).

Recovery Test :
At the end of a pumping test, when the pump is stopped, the water levels is
pumping and observation wells will begin to rise. This is referred to as the
recovery of ground water levels, while measurements of drawdown below the
original static water level (prior to pumping) during the recovery period are
known as residual drawdowns. It is a good practice to measure residual
drawdown because analysis of the data enable transmissivity to be calculated,
thereby providing an independent check on pumping test results.
Measurements of the recovery with a pumped well will provide an estimate of
transmissivity even without an observation well. Furthermore, the rate of
recharge Q to the well during recovery to the mean pumping rate, where as
pumping rates often vary and are difficult to control accurately in the field. This
method does not yield a value of S.
The above methods for the nonequilibrium equation applied to pumping
tests in confined aquifers can also be applied to unconfined aquifers providing

that the basic assumptions are satisfied. In general, if the drawdown is small in
relation to the saturated thickness, good approximations are possible.
WATER WELLS
A water well is a hole or shaft, usually vertical, excavated in the earth for
bringing groundwater to the surface. Many methods exist for constructing wells.
Selection of a particular method depends on the purpose of the well, the
quantity of water required, depth of groundwater, geologic conditions and
economic factors. Shallow wells are dug, bored, driven, or jetted; deep wells are
drilled by cable tool or rotary methods. After a well has been drilled, it is
completed, developed for optimum yield, and tested. Well are usually sealed
against entrance of surface pollution and given periodic maintenance.
Before drilling a well in a new area, it is common practice to put down a
test hole to determine depths to water table, quality of water and physical
character and thickness of aquifers. Diameters seldom exceed 20 cm. If the test
hole appears suitable as a site for a finished well; it can be converted into a
larger permanent well. During drilling of a test hole or well, a careful record, or
log, is kept of the various geologic formations and the depths at which they are
encountered.
Shallow wells, generally less than 15 m in depth, are constructed by
digging, boring, driving or jetting. Dug wells range in depth unto 20 m or more,
depending on the position of

the water table, while their diameters are usually 1 to 10 m. Dug wells can yield
relatively large quantities of water from shallow sources. Their large diameters
permit storage of considerable quantities of water if the wells extend some
distance below the water table. Most dug wells are excavated by hand, or by
excavated equipment. A serious limitation of large open dug wells involves of
ease of their pollution by surface water, airborne material and objects falling or
finding entrance into the wells.
Bored wells, having diameter unto 1 m, are constructed with hand driven
or power driven earth augers. Hand-bored wells seldom exceed 20 cm in
diameter and 15 m in depths. Power driven augers will bore holes unto m in
diameters and to depths which, in favourable circumstances, exceed 30 m.
A driven well consists of a series of connected lengths of pipe driven by
repeated impacts into the ground to below the water table. Water enters the well
through a drive (or sand) point at the lower and of the well. This consists of a
screened cylindrical section protected during driving by a steel cone at the
bottom. Diameters of driven wells fall in the range of 3 to 10 cm. Most of these
wells are less than 15 m. Such wells are best suited for domestic suppliers, and
for exploration and observation.
Jetted wells are constructed by cutting action of a downward directed

stream of water. The high velocity stream washes the earth away, while the
casing, which is lowered into the deepening hole, conducts the water and
cuttings up and out of the well. Small diameters holes of 3 to 10 cm are formed
in this manner to depths grater than 15 m. These wells are useful for
exploratory test holes and observation wells.
Most large, deep, high capacity wells are constructed by drilling. These are
constructed by the cable tool method or by one of several rotary methods.
Wells drilled by the cable tool, also called percussion or standard, method,
have diameters of 8 to 60 cm and depths of the order of 600 m. Theis method
works best in consolidated formations but not in unconsolidated sand and
gravel. Such wells can be constructed in formations consisting of boulders and
which are fractured, fissured, broken or cavernous.
Rotary method is suited to drill rapidly in unconsolidated strata. Deep
wells unto 45 cm in diameter and even larger, can be constructed. During
drilling, drilling mud is used.
After a well has been drilled it must be completed. This can involve
replacement of casing, cementing of casing, placement of well screens, and
gravel packing. However, wells in hard rock formations can be left as open holes
so that these components may not be required. Following completion, a new
well is developed

to increase its specific capacity, prevent sanding and obtaining maximum

economic well life. These results are accomplished by removing the fiver
material from the natural formations surrounding the perforated sections of the
casing. The importance of developing wells can not be underestimated.
Development procedures include pumping, surging use of compressed air,
hydraulic jetting, addition of chemicals, hydraulic fracturing and use of
explosives.
Following development of a new well, it should be tested to determine its
yield and drawdown. This information provides a basis for determining the
water supply available from the well, for selecting the type of pump, and for
estimating the cost of pumping. A test is accomplished by measuring the static
water level, after which the well is pumped at a maximum rate until the water
level in the well stabilizes. The depth of water is then noted. The difference in
the depths is the drawdown, and the discharge - drawdown ratio is an estimate
of the specific capacity of the well.
Well pumps produce flow by transforming mechanical energy to hydraulic
energy. A wide variety of pumps are produced annually by many manufacturers.
For shallow wells where only small discharges are needed, hand-operated
pitcher pumps, turbine pumps and gear pumps may be installed. In deep wells
requiring lifting water from great depths, large-capacity pumps are installed,
e.g., plunger, displacement air lift, jet and most importantly, deep well turbine
and submersible. The selection of a particular size and type of pump depends

on several factions, e.g.,

(i) pumping capacity
(ii) well diameter and depths
(iii)
depth and variability of pumping level
(iv)straightness of the level
(v) sand pumping
(vi)total pumping head
(vii) duration of pumping
(viii) type of power available
(ix)
costs
Well most be protected from pollution, frost, etc. Wells, though designed
for long life, fail. i.e., they yield decreasing quantities of water with time. Wells
fail due to depletion of the groundwater supply faulty well construction and
corrosion or incrustation of well screens. Such wells may be rehabilitated using
several method.

GROUNDWATER LEVELS AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES

Any phenomenon that produces a change in pressure on groundwater will
cause the groundwater level to vary. Differences between supply and
withdrawal cause levels to fluctuate. Stream-flow variations are closely related
to groundwater levels. Other diverse influences on groundwater levels include
meteorological and tidal phenomena, urbanisation, earthquakes and external
loads. And, finally, subsidence of the land surface can occur due to changes in
underlying groundwater conditions.
Secular variations of groundwater levels are those extending over periods
several years or more. Alternating series of wet and dry years, in which rainfall
is above or below the mean, will produce long period fluctuation of levels.
Rainfall is not an accurate indicator of groundwater level changes. Recharge is
the governing factor. It depends on rainfall intensity and distribution and
amount of surface run off.

Many groundwater levels show seasonal pattern of fluctuation. This

results from influences such as rain fall and irrigation pumping that follow well
defined seasonal cycles.
Groundwater levels often display characteristic short term fluctuations
governed by the primary use of groundwater is a locality. Clearly defined
diurnal variation may be associated with municipal water supply wells. Similarly
weekly pattern occur with pumping for industrial and municipal purposes
where a stream channel is in direct contact with an unconfined aquifer, the
stream may recharge the groundwater or receive discharge from the
groundwater, depending on the relative levels. A gaining stream

is one receiving groundwaters discharge, a losing stream is one recharging

groundwater. Often a gaining stream may become a losing one, and conversely,
as the stream stage changes.
The term rising water is applied to marked increases in stream flow in
reaches where a subsurface restriction forces groundwater to the surface.
During a flood period of a stream, groundwater levels are temporarily
raised near the channel by inflow from the stream. The volume of water so
stored and released after the flood is referred to as bank storage.
Stream flow originating from groundwater discharge is referred to as
groundwater runoff or base flow. During periods of precipitation streamflow
may be contributed by base flow. Typically, base flow is not subject to wide
fluctuations, and is indicative of aquifer characteristics within a basin.
Unconfined aquifers with water tables near ground surface frequently
exhibit diurnal fluctuations that can be ascribed to evaporation and/or
transpiration. Both processes cause a discharge of groundwater into the
atmosphere and have nearly the same diurnal variation because of their high
correlation with temperature.
Evaporation from groundwater increases as the water table approaches
groundwater. The rate also depends on the soil structure, which controls the
capillary tension above the water table and hence its hydraulic conductivity. For

water tables within one meter of ground surface, evaporation is largely

controlled by atmospheric conditions but below this soil properties become
limiting and the rate decreases markedly with depth.
Where the root zone of vegetation reaches the saturated stratum, the
uptake of water by roots equals, for practical purposes, the transpiration rate.
Magnitudes of transpiration fluctuations depend on the type of vegetation,
season and weather. Hot windy days produce maximum drawdowns, whereas
coal, cloudy days show only smell variations. Transpiration discharge does not
occur is non-vegetated areas, such as ploughed fields, or in areas where the
water table is far below the ground surface.
From a practical standpoint it is often difficult to segregate evaporation
and transportation losses from groundwater. Therefore, the combined losses,
referred to as evapotranspiration (or consumptive use) is typically the quantity
normally measured or calculated. Evapotranspiration frond groundwater can
serve to

stabilize the water table near the ground surface. Leakage from unlined canals
into the permeable alluvium can cause a steady rise in the water table. In areas
where evapotranspiration serves to control the position of the water table, water
logging, and salination of soils in the root zone occur. Agricultural lands so
afflicted can become saline wastelands unless adequate drainage systems are
installed.
Changes in atmospheric pressure produce sizable fluctuations in wells
penetrating confined aquifers. Increases in atmospheric pressure produce
decreases in water levels, and conversely. For an unconfined aquifer,
atmospheric pressure changes are transmitted directly to the water table both
in the aquifer and in a well; hence no pressure difference occurs. Air trapped in
pores below the water table is affected by pressure changes, however, causing
fluctuations similar to but smaller than observed in confined aquifers.
Temperature fluctuations in the capillary zone will also induce water table
fluctuations where entrapped an present.
Groundwater levels may show seasonal variations due to rainfall but often
these include natural discharge and pumping effects as well. Droughts
extending over a period of several years contribute to declining water levels.
Minor fluctuations of water levels are caused by wind blowing over the
tops of wells. The action is identical to the actions of a vacuum pump. This
results in rise of water level when a gust of wind blows across top of a casing.
In coastal aquifers in contact with the ocean, fluctuations of groundwater
levels occur in response to tides. As the sea levels increase, the ground water
level does also.

Small semidiurnal fluctuation of small magnitude have been observed in

pigmetic surfaces of confined aquifers located at great distances from the
ocean. These have been attributed to earth tides, produced by the attraction
exerted on the earths crust by moon, and to less extent by sun.
The process of urbanization often causes changes in groundwater levels as
a result of decreased recharge and increased withdrawal. Three conditions
disrupt the subsurface hydrologic balance and produce declines in groundwater
levels :
(1)

Reduced groundwater recharge due to paved surface

storm severs.

(2)

Increased groundwater discharge by pumping wells

(3)

areas and

Decreased groundwater recharge due to export of waste

collected by sanitary severs.

water

Observations reveal that earthquakes can cause sudden rise or falls of water
levels in wells, changes in discharge of springs, appearance of new springs, and
eruptions of water and mud out of the ground. More commonly, however,
earthquakes shocks produce small fluctuations (hydro seisms) in wells
penetrating confined aquifers.
Passing trains produce fluctuations of the piezometric surface in wells
located near railroads. This is due to loading of aquifer which causes
compressive of aquifer and increases the hydrostatic pressure. Thereafter the
pressure decreases and approaches its original value asyasytoooooically as
water flows radially away from the point where the load is applied.
Changes in groundwater lends may be responsible for subsidence of the
land surface. This can severely damage wells and can create special problems in
the design and operation of structures for drainage, flood protection and water
conveyance. Four distinct phenomena viz., lowering of piezometric surface,
hydrocompaction, dewatering of organic soils and sinkhole formation have been
observed.

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE AND GROUNDWATER

Hydrology is the study of movement and characteristics of water on
and within the land.

Water is important is all aspects of geology from fossilization

to ore deposits.

This part of geology is becoming a very lucrative field.

Municipalities cannot exist without a water supply and once

they damage it someone has to tell them how to clean it up.

Hydrogeology is a good field to get into.

Flows and Reservoirs

Water is either on the surface of the Earth as rivers, lakes and
oceans or it is within the Earth as groundwater.
A reservoir is a storage place for water.

[Overhead Figure 12.1] shows the natural reservoirs where

water is stored (oceans, polar ice and glacier ice, groundwater,
lakes and rivers, atmosphere and biosphere).

A reservoir gains water through inflows such as rivers and

rain.

Outflows are ways reservoirs lose water such as by

evaporation, river outflow and human usage.

If the inflow and outflow balance the reservoir remains the

same size.

Because water is constantly entering and leaving the system, a

given quantity of water only stays in the reservoir for a certain
amount of time, called the residence time.

The Hydrologic Cycle

Over time, the global water system is balanced.
There is a constant even flow from one reservoir to another and
there is no net gain or loss to or from the Earths interior or from
the atmosphere to outer space.
There is a cycling of water among the main reservoirs. [Overhead
Figure 12.2]
This cyclic movement of water from the ocean to the atmosphere,
through rain to the surface, through runoff and groundwater to
streams and back to the ocean is the hydrologic cycle.

Depending on the temperature conditions, water may be found

in the form of liquid, solid or vapor in this cycle.

The Sun drives the whole process by evaporating water from

the oceans and moving it as water vapor into the atmosphere.

Under the proper temperature and humidity conditions this

water vapor condenses to form tiny water droplets that fall as
rain or snow over the land and oceans.

Some of the rain infiltrates the ground through small fractures

and pores in the soil and rock.

Some of the rain evaporates from the ground and returns to

the atmosphere.

Another part is absorbed by plant roots, carried up to the

leaves and returned to the atmosphere by transpiration
(release of water vapor from plants).

Some of the rain may percolate through the ground and return
to the surface in springs that empty into rivers and lakes.

The rain that does not infiltrate the ground collects as surface
runoff.

There is a small amount of runoff that evaporates or seeps

into the ground but the majority of it eventually returns to the
ocean.

The snow that falls may form ice in glaciers.

This ice eventually returns to the oceans as glacial meltwater

or to the atmosphere by sublimation.

This process transforms ice directly to a gaseous state

bypassing the liquid state.

How Much Water Can We Use?

Humans use freshwater supplied by rivers, lakes, rain and

groundwater.

Only a small proportion of the world desalinates ocean water

to produce freshwater.

Freshwater is a renewable resource. We use it and precipitation

will eventually replace what we have used from the cycle.

The rate at which this replacement happens however can occur

much slower than humans can use it up.

The most desirable water supplies are those which are rapidly
and continually replenished by runoff and infiltration.

Hydrology and Climate

We here on the Wet Coast have ample rain all year long. Although
we sometimes ration water in the summers it is more of a
precautionary rationing, so we dont deplete the reservoirs too much
before the monsoon season starts again in the fall. We are also lucky
to have high mountain regions bordering the lower Mainland that
are great locations for our freshwater reservoirs.

In other areas of the world, weather dictates whether there is

enough water (arid regions) or too much (monsoons).

Global warming is being studied by geologists who want to

know what effect this will have on groundwater reserves and
aquifers.

As the climate warms, for example, glaciers will melt, raising

sea level and low lying coastal areas may have their aquifers
inundated by seawater.

Humidity and Rainfall

1. The relative humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air,

expressed as the total amount of water the air could hold at

that temperature if it was saturated.
e.g., if the relative humidity is 50% at 15 degrees C, the amount
of moisture in the air is half of the amount that the air could
hold at 15 degrees C.
2. Warm air can hold much more water vapor than cold air.

That is why when warm air (unsaturated) cools down it

becomes saturated and water droplets form giving us clouds.
When droplets become too heavy to remain in the air they fall
as rain.
3. Most of the Earths rain falls in equatorial regions where both

air and surface waters in the ocean are warm.

There is high humidity, lots of evaporation and when air
moves inland and up over mountains it drops its load as rain.
4. The inland sides of the mountains are called "rain shadows"

because the rain falls on the ocean side and the clouds are dry
by the time they top the mountains.
This is the reason that we on the Wet Coast receive buckets of
rain and the people in Merrit and Kamloops and farther into
the Interior dont.
5. In contrast to tropical climates where there is abundant rain,

the polar regions are quite arid.

The oceans and air are equally cold and therefore dont hold much
moisture.
Droughts
Droughts are periods from months to years when precipitation is
much lower than normal.
Not only does rainfall become minimal and affect surface reservoirs,
but underground reservoirs will shrink and water levels below the
ground will fall.

The Hydrology of Runoff

There are some complex relationships between precipitation and
runoff.

Regions that dont get a lot of precipitation because of being

arid also dont have a lot of runoff, because what does fall is
lost to evaporation and infiltration.

But arid regions may get water in the form of runoff from
large rivers that begin in regions that receive more rainfall like
the rivers that flow through the prairies but begin in the Rocky
Mountains.

Most runoff is carried by major rivers like the Amazon and

Mississippi.

Surface runoff collects in natural lakes and artificial reservoirs

created by damming rivers.

There are also natural reservoirs like wetlands, swamps,

marshes that act as sponges during heavy rainfalls and then
let the water out gradually.

They work over the long term and release water downstream
slowly acting as a natural flood control.

Groundwater
Groundwater forms when raindrops infiltrate the ground surface
and penetrate deeper by finding cracks, crevices and pores in soil
and bedrock.
Beds beneath the ground that store and transmit groundwater in
sufficient quantities to supply wells drilled by humans are called
aquifers.
How Water Flows Through Soil and Rock

The water finds pores between grains in rocks and soils to

travel through.

Porosity is the percentage of a rocks, sediments or soils total

volume that is filled up by pores.

The more loosely packed the particles, the greater the pore
space between the grains will be.

Porosity can reach up to 30% in some sandstones.

Cementation of grains in sandstones can reduce porosity.

The smaller the particles and the more angular the shape of
grains, the more they pack together and the porosity is
reduced.

The porosity in sediments and sedimentary rocks like

limestone and sandstone can be up to 10-40 percent whereas
the porosity in igneous and metamorphic rocks is as low as 1-2
percent.

Limestones can have very high porosity if they have been

dissolved by groundwater or weathering.

Shales are considered impermeable with a porosity of less than

10%. Fracturing can increase the porosity is shales.

The highest porosity is found in soils and loose sand and

gravels.

The ability of a solid to allow fluids to pass through it is its

permeability.

The smaller the pore spaces, the more tortuous the route, the
slower the water speed through water.

Generally, permeability increases as pore size increases, but

ultimately it depends on how well the pore spaces are
connected.

A sand may contain a lot of water, but if it has low permeability, it is

not much use to someone looking for a water well because the flow
rate would be too slow.
The Water Table
1. At shallow depths in the soil column material is unsaturated, that

is, the pore spaces are filled with air as well as water. This is
called the unsaturated zone.

2. Below it is the saturated zone the pores of the soil and rock are

completely filled with water.

3. The boundary between the two is called the groundwater table

(water table). When a hole is drilled into the saturated zone,

the water flows into the hole and rises to the level of the water
table.

1. The water table mimics the surface but is rounder.

2. The water table comes to the surface in rivers, lakes, and

springs. There is a flow from high points beneath hills to lower

places

Water entering the system does so by the process called

recharge. This is the infiltration of water into any subsurface
formation. It can occur as infiltration from rain or snow
meltwater.

When a stream lies at an elevation above the water table it may

leak water downwards into the water table. This type of stream
is called an influent stream. These streams are common in
arid regions where the water table is deep.

Discharge is the exact opposite of recharge. It is the exit of

water to the surface.

When a stream intersects the water table the water from the
aquifer will flow into the river. This river is called an effluent
stream. It may continue to flow into the dry season after other
streams have dried up because it has a groundwater source.

Artesian Flows
Groundwater may flow in:
1. unconfined aquifers - the water travels through beds that

extend with more or less uniform permeability to the surface

in both recharge and discharge areas. The level of the reservoir
in the unconfined aquifer is the same as the water table.

2. Permeable aquifers may be bounded above and below by

relatively impermeable shale layers that are called aquicludes.

Water either cannot flow through them or flows very slowly
through them.
3. confined aquifers occur between aquicludes. High fluid
pressures are encountered in these types of aquifers.
Because water cannot percolate downwards through the aquicludes the
recharge for confined aquifers must come from another area. This
diagram shows water entering the aquifer at the outcrop at a higher
elevation and flowing by gravity downhill.
The water in a confined aquifer is called artesian because it is under

rather high pressure. If a well is drilled into the aquifer at a point

lower than the recharge area, the water may flow out of the well (if
the well is open at the top). This well would be called a flowing
artesian well.
A perched water table is just a separate water table that lies above

the normal water table. Usually caused by an aquiclude or

impermeable layer being located within a permeable sand aquifer.
Water infiltrates and gets caught or held on the impermeable unit.
Balancing Recharge and Discharge
When recharge and discharge are balanced the reservoir of
groundwater and the water table remain constant even though water
is continually flowing through the aquifer.
Of course, with the changing seasons, rainfall fluctuates having an
effect on the recharge and therefore the level of the water table.
Pumping can cause local imbalances. When water is pumped out of
an aquifer the water level in the aquifer is lowered in a cone-shaped
area around the well called the cone of depression. The cone of
depression can make the well go dry if it extends deeper than the
bottom of the well. This situation can be remedied by stopping the
pumping and allowing the aquifer to recharge.
The extreme withdrawal of water from aquifers can create
subsidence of the ground above it, which is not desirable in cities.
Mexico City, San Joquin Valley and Venice have suffered from this
fate.
Coastal areas have a similar problem that relates to the seawaterfreshwater interface. There is a boundary between seawater
offshore and freshwater under the land. This margin slopes

downward and under the land. When pumping on the land creates a
cone of depression, it can draw down the water table to a point
where the seawater invades the well.
The Speed Groundwater Flows

Most groundwater moves quite slowly when compared to river

flows.

Groundwater usually moves at a rate of a few centimetres per

day.

Permeable gravel beds may channel flow at up to 15 cm/day.

Rivers travel at 20-5- cm/day.

Henri Darcy was a French engineer in the 1800s who studied rates
of flow in aquifers. He observed several things from studying the
levels of the water table in various wells. By mapping the heights of
the water table in wells he could measure the flow speed,
permeability and the distance travelled from well to well. These
observations are:
1. For a given aquifer and distance of travel, the rate at which

water flows from one point to another is directly proportional

to the drop in elevation between the two points.
2. The rate of flow for an aquifer with a given difference in

elevation is inversely proportional to the flow distance the

water travels. In other words, as the distance increases the rate
of flow decreases.
3. Both 1 and 2 can be combined to express the difference in

elevation over a flow distance - called the hydraulic gradient.

4. The greater the permeability (ease of flow), the faster the flow.

Darcys Law is expressed by this equation:

Q/A = K x (h/l)

The volume of water flowing in a certain time (Q) through and area
(A) is proportional to the vertical drop (D h) divided by the flow

distance (D l). The constant (K) is the hydraulic conductivity

(permeability).
Water Resources From Major Aquifers
Man has put a lot of stress on the aquifers because of our increasing
need for potable water. In many cases, the water tables have
declined substantially.
There are methods that can speed up recharge into aquifers:
1. Some areas pump used but treated water back into the

underground reservoirs to replace spent supplies.

2. Because paving in cities is an unnatural process that blocks

rain water from infiltrating the ground, some water authorities

build large basins above the recharge areas of aquifers to
channel runoff and storm drainage downward to speed up
recharge.
Erosion By Groundwater

Rain water is naturally a bit acidic.

When it infiltrates the soil, it picks up more carbon dioxide

from plants and bacteria becoming more acidic.

As the carbon dioxide rich water moves downward it can

dissolve carbonate minerals it encounters in limestone or
calcite-cemented sandstones.

It enlarges pore spaces and joints eventually forming caverns

and rooms within the bedrock.

These networks of open areas occur in the saturated zone

where caves are filled with water that allows dissolution of
carbonate material on floors, walls and ceilings.

You are able to walk around caves like the Horne Caves on
Vancouver Island because the water table within the caves has
dropped and it is now in the unsaturated zone.

Stalactites are carbonate icicles that hang from the ceiling.

They are formed when calcium carbonate from carbonatesaturated groundwater precipitates on the ceiling.

Drops from stalactites hit the floor precipitating more

carbonate and stalagmites form. When they grow together, you
have a column.

Area underlain by caves have what is called karst topography.

This is a type of topography characterized by sinkholes, caverns a

lack of surface streams.

Sinkholes are steep sided depressions in the ground surface

produces by collapse of cave structures below it. They can occur
very suddenly and are relatively catastrophic.

There are no major rivers flowing through karst areas because the
drainage is interrupted by underground drainage channels.

Short streams called disappearing streams, may end in sinkholes

and reappear kilometers away.

Karst topography forms in areas with :

1. High rainfall climate with abundant vegetation to provide

carbon dioxide rich waters.

2. Extensively jointed limestone formations.
3. Appreciable hydraulic gradients.
Water Quality
We can get contamination in our water supply from all sorts of
places.
1. In the case of open surface reservoirs like ours in Vancouver,

most of the contamination is natural (silt, bacteria).

2. In aquifers, it can be a case of contaminants leaking in from

underground gas storage tanks, agricultural drainage, landfill

drainage, septic tank leaking or even radioactive leakage.
Some groundwaters pick up dissolved minerals that make them
"hard" or "soft".
o

Hard waters contain large amounts of calcium carbonate

and magnesium carbonate that makes it hard to lather
soap.

We have soft water that makes it easy to soap and

launder.

Waters that run through organic rich material may pick up sulfur
and smell bad but are usually all right to drink.
Is The Water Drinkable?
Potable water is water that is considered fit for human
consumption.

Dissolved substances are measured in ppm (parts per million).

This dissolved material comes from dissolution of soils and

bedrock during weathering and drinkable waters usually have
about 150 ppm total dissolved materials.

Distilled water has <1ppm but is tasteless.

Natural groundwater is usually free of solid materials because

flowing through rock aquifers acts to filter the water.

The dissolved material in well water comes from the pump

materials or from seepage from above (septic tanks,
agricultural materials).

Contamination of the Water Supply

Human activities continue to contaminate groundwaters.
o

Chemical industry waste lagoons

Leaking chemical storage barrels

Sanitary landfill operations

City garbage dumps

Agricultural pesticides and herbicides and fertilizers

Septic tanks

Can we reverse the damage that has already been done?

Water Deep In The Crust

All rocks below the water table are saturated with water.

At great depths, water moves very slowly because of low

permeability, so there is a lot of time for water to acquire
dissolved constituents.

In deep igneous and metamorphic rocks, the porosity is so low

that there is very little interstitial water

Hydrothermal Waters
Natural hot springs occur in many areas (Harrison Hot Springs near
Agassiz, Yellowstone National Park in northwestern U.S., Banff
Springs)

These waters come from deep in the ground and are brought
up to the surface so rapidly that they do not cool down.

In some cases the waters can be boiling.

Hydrothermal waters are loaded with constituents dissolved

from rocks at high temperatures.

As long as the water stays hot, the constituents remain in

solution.

If the water cools, the minerals come out of solution; this

results in precipitation (opal, calcite or aragonite)

Hydrothermal waters owe their origin both to meteoric water and to

magmatic water

Definitions

Ground Water: two overlapping definitions

o

subsurface water that occurs beneath the water table in porous

geologic formations that are fully saturated

that portion of subsurface water that can be collected with wells,

drainage pipes etc., or that flow naturally to the surface via
springs and seeps (NOTE: not all subsurface water is
groundwater)

important to remember there is accessible and inaccessible

water in the subsurface

Ground Water Hydrology: the study of the origin, distribution,

movement and physical/chemical properties of ground water. A subset
of hydrology, the study of all terrestrial waters.

Surface Water Hydrology: the study of subaerial waters (in contact with
the atmosphere), excluding oceans. Civil engineers usually mean
``lakes and bays'', geologists usually mean ``rivers and streams''
when using this term.

Hydrogeology: emphasizes the hydrologic aspects of geology, e.g.

lithologic or facies influences on groundwater movement

Geohydrology: emphasizing geologic aspects of hydrology, particularly

the effects of the porous medium through which groundwater flows.

in principle Hydrogeology and Geohydrology have different meanings,

in common usage they are identical

Hydrosphere: that region of the Earth occupied by water, including

lakes, rivers, oceans, subsurface water, glaciers,
(clouds, vapor, precipitation)

atmospheric water

Aquifer Types

confining layer (aquiclude): low-permeability bed or unit

confined aquifer: an aquifer overlain by a confining layer

unconfined aquifer (phreatic or water table): water table lies below the
top of the aquifer

semi-confined: an aquifer exhibiting confined and unconfined behavior

at different locations (e.g. a sand layer in an alluvial fan)

artesian: can simply mean confined, in common usage it means an

aquifer from which water will flow upward to the surface given an
appropriate conduit (e.g. a borehole)

perched: a saturated zone lying above unsaturated rock

Aquifer Parameters

porosity: volume of open space

o

Often expressed as percentage

two basic types of porosity: primary, formed at the time the rock
was deposited, and secondary, formed later (e.g. dissolution of
carbonate in caves)

well-sorted materials tend to have higher porosities than poorly

sorted

find-grained sediments tend to have higher porosities than

coarse-grained sediments, although often poorly-connected

the interconnected or effective porosity is the most important in

hydrology, and

void ratio: ratio of voids volume to solids, , or

dry bulk density: ratio of mass of dried particles to the total volume of
sample,

..

total (wet) bulk density: ratio of total mass to total volume of sample,

moisture content (volumetric):

saturation: volume of water relative to pore volume,

head (hydraulic): the height of the potentiometric surface at any point

in an aquifer. It is a measure of the potential energy of the water, a
combination of:
o

fluid pressure

gravitational potential ( , elevation of the fluid packet)

kinetic energy (generally minimal, since groundwater moves very

slowly)

GROUBDQATER MODELLING
1. Aquifers in most water resource problems have vertical thicknesses
that are very small compared with their horizontal dimensions, e.g.,
a thickness of about 30 metres and a horizontal width of about 30 km
which gives a width-to-thickness ratio (slenderness ratio) of 1,000.
This very large slenderness ratio is typical for many water sources.
2. All aquifers must have a recharge source that replenishes water at an
average rate that is equal to the aquifer outflow. Otherwise the
aquifer will eventually dry up. An unconfined aquifer is recharged by
rainwater percolating downward and also through water ponded on the
surface of the earth or vertical leakage between aquifers. In case of
confined aquifers artificial recharge is usually carried out with
wells.
3. An important distinction between confined and unconfined aquifers is
that the water and aquifer structure in a confined aquifer must be
treated as compressible. Such compressibility effects in unconfined
aquifers are usually small enough to be neglected. Heavy weights
placed on top of confined aquifers cause water levels to rise in
nearby wells. This is observed under field conditions in wells
tapping confined aquifers adjacent to railroad tracks.
4. Too much pumping in an area can lower groundwater levels leading to
diminished groundwater supplies, saltwater intrusion, land subsidence
or groundwater pollution.
5. Groundwater being a major drinking water resource, it must be managed
and protected carefully if we want to put it to the most beneficial
use. In order to mitigate conflicts of interests and avoid severe,
even irreversible environmental damage, we must be able to predict
the reactions of aquifers to human impact with respect to both
groundwater quantity and quality. Since laboratory-scale physical
models do not allow us to study regional scale phenomena,
mathematical modelling of aquifers is a must.
6. Some of the questions involving groundwater which can be answered
through mathematical modelling are the following:
(a) Which maximum abstraction ( i.e., pumping out water from a well )
is possible under given constraints on minimum water-table
elevations? How should the wells be distibuted to keep the impact
as small as possible?
(b) What is the extent of flooding bt rising groundwater tables behind
a proposed dam? What extent of drainage measures is necessary to

protect settlements and in which locations?

(c) What is the size of a protection zone around the proposed wells in
order that nearby river does not infiltrate polluted water into
the subsurface once the pumping starts? What will be the ratio of
groundwater and river water at the wells as a function of the
pumping rates?
7. Modelling is an iterative process. Steps have to be repeated. Models
are approximations of the reality, not reality itself. Usually they
are even very crude approximations. This should always be kept in mind
when using the results of a modelling exercise to base one's decision.
Yet, a crude prediction is better than none.
8. The main merits of modelling are:
(a) Increased understanding of the interaction of simultaneous
processes and influences.
(b) Concise problem formulation
(c) Focussing of interdisciplinary efforts into one goal, where the
results of different disciplines may be represented by submodels
or even single parameters in a model.
(d) Ease of comparison of tendencies, if not of absolute values,
resulting from different courses of action, simulated in advance.
9. Groundwater flow is divided into unsaturated and saturated flow.
10. Unsaturated flow occurs in the unsaturated zone. This is essentially
directed in the vertical direction.
11. Major regional groundwater flow can only occur only in the saturated
zone. This is the saturated flow.
12. Porous aquifers are characterised by intergranular porosity. On the
other hand fractured-rock or karst aquifers have fractured or vuggy
porosity. Both types of aquifers can be dealt with same mathematical
tools.
13. In the regional approach it is assumed that the flow is essentially
horizontal. This means that there is no pressure gradient in the
vertical direction. This is called Dupuit assumption.
14. The Dupuit assumption does not hold in the following cases:
(a) in the vicinity of imperfect wells

(b) in regions with strongly varying aquifer thickness

(c) in the vicinity of infiltrating surface water bodies
(d) in regions of strong grounwater recharge
These vertical disturbances, however, will usually become negligible
over a horizontal distance of the order of magnitude of the aquifer
thickness.
15. The density of groundwater throughout the aquifer is assumed to be
constant ( homogeneity of the fluid ).
16. The flow equations for all aquifer types are obtained from two basic
principles : continuity equation (or law of conservation of mass) and
Darcy's law.
17. A simple expression for Darcy's law : Q=-KA(dh/dl).
18. The equations of flow are partial differential equations with respect
to time and space. Their solution demands specification of both
initial and boundary conditions.
19. The initial conditions consist of the known head distribution at an
initial time from which the simulation is supposed to start.
20. There are three possible types of boundary conditions which may apply
to any part of the modelled domain : Dirichlet type, Neumann type and
Mixed type.
21. Dirichlet type boundary conditions prescribe the head value.
22. Neumann type boundary conditions specify the boundary flux, which
means the head gradient normal to the boundary.
23. Mixed type of boundary conditions specify a linear combination of head
and flux at the boundary. They are used at semipervious (leakage)
boundaries.
24. Only under very simple, idealized conditions can the flow equation be
solved analytically. Some situations where analytical solutions can be
found are listed below:
(a) A single perfect well in a homogeneous, isotropic and confined
aquifer of infinite horzontal extension with no distributed
recharge.
(b) A single perfect well in a homogeneous, semi-confined aquifer of

infinite extension
25. Analytical solutions provide the appropriate means of analyzing
pumping test results or making rough estimates even on a regional
scale.
26. The application of analytical solutions to regional flow problems is
limited due to three major reasons:
(a) The requirement of homogeneity of aquifer is rarely satisfied on a
regional scale.
(b) Complex boundaries cannot be handled by analytical solutions.
(c) Distributed recharges such as, for example, accretion by
precipitation, cannot be consistently incorporated in analytical
solutions.
27. For detalied modelling on a regional scale full nemerical models are
more appropriate tool of analysis.
28. Numerical methods require a discretization in time and space. The
difference method replaces the partial differential equation of flow by
a set of difference equations in discretized space and time.
29. It is important to know that the solution of a boundary-value problem is
unique. It assures that the solutions of the same set of equations
obtained by using different methods will yield the same numerical values
of heads within the solution domain.
30. The finite difference method is one of the oldest, most generally
applicable and most easily understood methods of obtaining numerical
solutions to steady and unsteady groundwater flow problems. the general
method consists of superimposing a finite-difference grid at nodes upon
the solution domain. Each node is given a global identification number.
The problem of solving the partial differential equations is converted
into one of solving a set of simultaneous algebraic equations. One such
algebraic equation is obtained for each node. The solution yields
unknown values of the dependent variable at all nodes.