D.C.

Machines

Construction
EMF and torque equations
Characteristics of DC generators and motors
Speed control of DC motors
DC motor starters.

Mechanical Construction:
1. Stator consists of Yoke and Poles provides mechanical support to the machine.
The yoke serves the basic functions of providing a highly permeable path for
magnetic flux. It is made of cast steel. Field poles are made of thin laminations
stacked together. This is done to minimize the magnetic losses due to poles
proximity to the armature flux. The cross sectional area of the field pole is smaller
than that of the pole shoe. The pole shoe helps to spread the flux in the air gap region.
Field winding: poles alternate in their polarity. Two types of field windings shunt
field winding and service field winding. The shunt field winding has many turns of
fine wire and is connected in parallel (shunted) with the armature winding. The series
field winding is connected in series with the armature winding and has comparatively
fewer turns of heavy wire. A dc machine may have both field windings wound on the
same pole.
A machine with a shunt field winding is called a shunt machine. A series
machine is wound only with series field winding. A compound machine has both
windings.
2. Armature The rotating part of a dc machine is called the armature. The effected
length of the armature is usually the same as that of the pole. Circular in crosssection, it is made of thin, highly permeable, and electrically insulated steel
laminations that are stacked together and rigidly mounted on the shaft. The
laminations have axial slots on their periphery to house the armature coils (armature
windings). Usually an insulated copper wire is used for the armature coils owing to
its low resistivity.
There are basically two types of armature windings the lap winding and the
wave winding. This is the winding in which emf is induced (generator action) and the
torque is developed (motor action).
The lap winding is used for low voltage and high current machines. The wave
winding, on the other hand, is employed to satisfy the requirements of high voltage
and low current. The number of parallel paths of a lap wound machine is equal to the
number of poles. However, a wave wound machine always has two parallel paths,
regardless of the number of poles.
3. Commutator The commutator is made of wedge shapes hard-drawn copper
segments. The copper segments are insulated from one another by sheets of mica.
One end of the armature coil is electrically connected to a copper segment of the
commutator. In lap windings the two ends of any coil are taken to adjacent segments,
whereas in wave windings the two ends of each coil are bent in opposite directions
and taken to segments some distance apart.

4. Brushes: Brushes are held in a fixed position on the commutator by means of brush
holders. An adjustable spring inside the brush holder exerts a constant pressure on the
brush in order to maintain a proper contact between the brush and the commutator.
The brush pressure should be just right. If pressure is low, the contact will be poor
and it will result in excessive sparking and burning of the commutator. On the
otherhand, too high a pressure results in excessive wear of the brush and overheating
of the commutator. The material for the brush is normally carbon or carbon-graphite.
Commutation: For the successful operation of d.c. machine, there must be a reversal of the
current in the conductor when it moves from one pole to the next. The conductor and thereby
the coil in which the current reversal is taking place are said to be commutating and this
process of reversal of current in a commutating coil is known as commutation.
Ideally, the process of commutation should be instantaneous as shown in Fig (a). But
in practice, it takes some finite time for current reversal. This is because of the fact that both
commulator segment and brush have finite width and the coil has also a finite inductance.

For a commutation process to be perfect, the reversal of current from its value in one
direction to an equal value in the other direction must take place during the time interval t c .
Otherwise, the excess current (difference of currents in coils b and c) prompts a flashover
from commulator segment S to the trailing tip of brush A. Likewise, a flashover also takes
place from commutator segment 7 to the trailing tip of brush B. This type commutation
process is called linear commutation. To improve commutation commutating poles also
called inter pole are used to nullify the reactance voltage developed in the commutating
coil.
Principle of operation of a DC Machine:
A very elementary two pole dc generator is shown below.

Commutator action in d.c. machine:

The generated voltage in an individual armature coil is an alternating voltage which,
for constant speed of the armature, has the waveform similar to the waveform of the flux
distribution. The voltage must, therefore, be rectified: that is, the alternating voltage must be
converted to a direct voltage. Rectification is some times provided externally for example,
by means of semiconductor rectifiers. In a conventional d.c. machine rectification is
provided mechanically by means of a commutator, which is a cylinder formed of copper
segments insulated from one another by mica and mounted on, but insulated from, the rotor
3

shaft. Stationary carbon brushes held against commutator surface connect the winding to the
armature terminals of the machine.
For the elementary generator, the commutator shown above at all times connects the
coil side which is under the south pole to the positive brush and the coil side which is under
the north pole to the negative brush for the direction of rotation as shown. If the direction of
rotation reverses, the polarity of the brushes reverses. The commutator thus provides full
wave rectification for the single armature coil, transforming the voltage waveform between
the brushes as shown above and making available a unidirectional voltage to the external
circuit.

Armature Reaction: By armature reaction is meant the effect of armature ampere-turns

(armature mmf) upon the value and the distribution of magnetic flux entering and leaving the
armature core.

The effect of armature reaction is

i
Demagnetizing effect
ii Cross magnetizing effect.
The demagnetizing effect reduces the main pole flux and thereby reduces the generated
voltage. The cross-magnetization causes the distortion and uniform distribution is lost.
To combat armature reaction the following measures are taken.
i
Shifting of the brush position on the commutator surface.
ii Making use of compensating winding to make up the reduction of field flux.
iii Introducing inter poles or commutating poles (which is used to improve
commutation). With the help of inter poles the net flux along the geometrical neutral
axis can be brought to zero for any load.
Calculation of EMF generated in the armature winding of d.c. machine:
When the armature of a dc machine is rotated through one complete revolution each
conductor cuts the lines of flux emanating from all North poles and also those entering all
South poles. Consequently, if be the total flux per pole, in webers, entering or leaving the
arm, p be the number of pairs of poles, and N be the speed in revolution per minute, then time
taken for 1 revolution = 60/N sec and time taken by a conductor to move one pole pitch =
(60/N)(1/2 p) sec so, average rate at which the conductor cuts the flux =
6 1 2Np

= 60 ws/sec .
N 2p
6

And thus the average emf generated in each conductor =

2Np
volts.
60

If z be total number of armature conductors, c be number of parallel paths through the

winding between positive and negative brushes (c = 2 for wave winding and c = 2p for lap
winding) therefore, z/c be the number of conductors in series per path.
total emf between brushes = average emf per conductor No. of conductors in series per
path.
2Np z
E=
volts.
60
c
Alternating Derivation:

We know induced emf in a conductor of length l moved across a magnetic field of

density B at a speed v m/sec.
2N
e = Blv.volts. The velocity v =
r , r is the radius of the rotor.
60
2N
= B.l.
r volts. Again Bl.2r. = 2p = total flux
60
N
z
= 2p
volts. = No. of conductors in series per path
60
c
z Np
E=2
volts.
c 60
Resistance of then armature winding:

Let l be the length of one armature conductor including front and backend
connections, a be cross sectional area of the conductor and be resistivity of the material of
l
the conductor, then the resistance of one conductor = . No. of conductors in series per
a
path or circuit = z/c.
z l
resistance of one circuit = .
c a
Since there are c such parallel paths, armature resistance
z l
Ra = 2
c a

Concept of electromagnetic torque produced in a d.c. machine.

D
where D is the diameter of the
2p
armature and p be number of pole pairs. Let L be the length of the pole = length of the
D
conductor, then pole area = YL =
L
2p

2p
Flux density B = /(YL) =
.
=
D
DL
L
2p
Force experienced by an armature conductor carrying current I c =B.I c .L: Torque experienced
D 2p
D 1
by the conductor = B I c L =
.I c .L. = I c .p. .
2 DL
2

Let be the flux per pole and pole pitch be Y =

Ia
where c is the number of parallel
c
1 I
paths. If z be the total number of conductors, then total torque developed T = . a .z.p.
c
Nm, if I a is in Ampere and is in Wb.
I
1I
T = a .z.p. = 0.318 a zp Nm.
c
c
If the armature current is I a , then conductor current I c =

Classification of D.C. Generators:

Depending upon the mode of excitation d.c. generators are classified as

(A) Separately excited
(B) Self excited.
A) Separately excited generators.
I a = I L = I (say)
V = Eg I Ra
Power developed P g = E g I
Power delivered to load P L = VI

B) Self excited generators

i) Shunt wound: ii) Series wound: iii) Compound wound.

i)

Shunt (wound) generators:

The field winding is converted across the armature terminals, i.e. shunted
across the armature. So they are called shunt generators. Here, armature current I a =
V
where R sh is the total resistance of the shunt
I L + I sh. Shunt field current I sh =
R sh
field circuit. Terminal voltage V = E g I a R a . Power developed P g = E g I a . Power
delivered P L = V I L
ii) Series (wound) generators:

I a = I se = I L = I (say)
V = E g I (R a + R se )
Pg = EgI
P L = VI.
iii) Compound (wound) generators:
(a) Short shunt compound wound generator:
Series field current, I se = I L.
V + Ise R se
Shunt field current, I sh =
.
R sh
Armature current, I a = I L + I sh .
Terminal voltage, V = E g I a R a I se R se .
Power developed, P g = E g I a .
Power delivered, P L = VI L .

(b) Long shunt compound wound generator:

V
.
R sh
Armature current, I a = series field current, I se = I L + I sh .
Terminal voltage, V = E g - I a R a - I se R se
= E g I a (R a + R se ).
Power developed, P g = E g I a .
Power delivered, P L = VI L .

Shunt field current, I sh =

10

Cumulative compounding: Series field assists the shunt field as shown in Fig (a)
Differential compounding: Series field opposes the shunt field as shown in Fig (b).
Classification:

D.C. Machines
Generating Mode:

i
ii

I a is in the direction of induced emf Eg V (terminal voltage) = E g - I a R a where I a is

current delivered to load and R a is the armature resistance. Here E g > V.
The mechanical power converted to electrical form is

11

Pmech (input)
iii

net

= E g Ia = Pelect (output)

gross

The net electrical power outputted is Pelect (output)

net

= P0 = V Ia

Also E g I a V I a = Ia R a = armature cu-loss

iv
v

and Pmech (input) gross = shaft power = Pmech (intput) net rotational losses .
In this mode torque (T) of electromagnetic origin is opposite to the direction of
rotation of armature, i.e. the mechanical power is absorbed and a prime mover is
needed to the machine.
The conductor emf and current are also in the same direction.

Motoring Mode:

i
ii
iii

I a flows in opposition to induced emf E b (back emf) V (terminal voltage) = E b + I a R a .

here supply voltage V > E b .
The electrical power converted to mechanical form is
Pelect (input) net = E b Ia = Pmech (output) gross .
The electrical power inputted is
Pelect (input) gross = V Ia
2

Also V I a E b I a = Ia R a = armature cu-loss.

iv
v

And Pmech (output) net = shaft power = Pmech (output) gross - rotational losses
In this mode torque (T) of electromagnetic origin is in the direction of armature
rotation ie. Mechanical power is put out and absorbed by the load (mechanical).
Conductor emf and current are also in opposite directions.

Characteristic curves for d.c. generators:

A) Separately excited generator:

i) No load characteristic(magnetization characteristic)
(O.C)
The armature being driven at its rated speed and the field excited from a separate
supply. The induced emf across A 1 and A 2 is given by
z Np
volts.
E g = 2.
c 60

12

The flux is changed by varying the field current I sh . The difference between the two
curves (with increasing and decreasing excitation) is due to hysteresis of iron part of the
magnetic circuit.

ii)

Load characteristic (External characteristics).

The armature being driven at its rated speed. The field current is adjusted at the
rated value such that on no load the voltmeter reads the rated voltage. The load is
gradually increased without changing the excitation and speed maintained at the
rated value. The terminal voltage (voltage shown by the voltmeter) gradually
drops as the load current is increased.
The terminal voltage V will be given as V = E g I L R a (here I a = I L ); R a is the
resistance of the armature circuit comprising of the resistance of the armature
winding, resistance of the brush and brush contact resistance. Apart from all these
drops, the voltage at the generator terminals drops from its unload value because of
armature reaction.

Characteristic Curves of Shunt Generator:

Shunt generators are most widely used types of d.c. generators because they are self
excited needing no additional source of excitation and provide a steady voltage up to its rated
load.
Conditions of building up of a shunt generator.
a) There must be residual magnetism in the field system
b) The field terminals should be so connected that the field current increases flux in the
direction of residual magnetism.

13

c) The field circuit resistance should be lower than the critical resistance corresponding
to the speed of the generator, or in other words the speed of the generator should be
above the critical speed corresponding to the field circuit resistance.

dIsh
. Where R sh and L sh are the field
dt
circuit resistance and inductance. The slope of field resistance line can be obtained as tan =
AB Ish R sh
=
= R sh . The generated voltage at this field current is AC. Therefore BC = AC
OA
Ish
dI
dI
AB = E V = Ish sh . As sh is positive , the current I sh as well as the terminal voltage V
dt
dt
dI
= I sh R sh goes on increasing till sh reaches zero value. Obviously, this takes place at the
dt
intersection of the field resistance line and no load curve, i.e. at D which determines the
steady state value of voltage and field current at no load.
During build-up of voltage at no load Eg = Ish R sh + Lsh

Critical Resistance and Critical speed:

Let the generator armature be driven at n rpm and the field circuit resistance R sh , we
obtain the generated voltage at steady state OA. If the field circuit resistance is increased to
R sh1 we get a reduce voltage O 1 A 1 . If the resistance is increased further, we get less and less
voltage at the armature terminals. If the field circuit resistance is more than R sh2 , the

14

generated voltage is very small. The value of R sh which is tangential to initial portion of no
load curve is called the critical field circuit resistance as it will give an infinite number of
intersections with no load curve for the armature speed of n rpm.
If on the otherhand, the field circuit resistance is kept at R sh and the speed is reduced
from n rpm to n 2 rpm we see the field circuit resistance line R sh becomes tangential to the
initial portion of no load curve (for n 2 rpm). If the speed is reduced further to n 3 < n 2 , again
the voltage generated is very very small. So the speed n 2 is termed as the critical speed of the
generator for the field circuit resistance R sh .
There exists a relationship amongst R sh , R c , n and n c . we get from the figure
R
ac n
=
= c . This can be used to determine the critical speed n c for the field resistance
bc n c R sh
R sh when the critical field resistance R c for n rpm is found out graphically from the given no
load characteristic at n rpm.

Load Characteristic of a shunt generator:

The external characteristic (load characteristic) is the relationship between terminal

voltage V and load current I, the field circuit resistance R sh remaining constant.

The armature of the generator is driven at the rated speed in the proper direction. The
resistance in the field circuit is adjusted such that the voltmeter gives the rated voltage. The
load is then switched on and gradually increased by decreasing the load resistance, without
altering the field circuit resistance. The terminal voltage gradually decreases and the portion
AB is obtained. As the generator is loaded, the load current increases upto a point B called
break-down point. Any further decrease in the load resistance results in a decrease in the
load current owing to a very rapid drop in the terminal voltage. When the load resistance is
decreased all the zero (a short circuit, by closing the shorting switch) the field current goes to
zero and the current through the short circuit is the ratio of the residual voltage and the
armature circuit resistance.
15

As the load current increases, the terminal voltage decreases for the following
reasons:
1. The increase in I a R a drop.
2. The demagnetization effect of the armature reaction.
3. The decrease in the field current due to drop in the induced emf.
Note: The third factor is not present in the case of separately excited generator.
Characteristic of a d.c. series generator:

The magnetization curve for the series generator is obtained by separately exciting the
series field winding. The load characteristic is obtained by closing the load switch and
varying the load resistance. The rising characteristic of a series generator makes it suitable
for voltage boosting purposes. The diverter resistance is used to control the current through
the series field winding. The basic equation that govern its steady-state operation are
V = E g - I a R a - Ise R se

Ise R se = Id R d
Ia = IL = Ise + Id .

Note: a shunt generator tends to maintain a constant terminal voltage while a series generator
has a tendency to supply constant load current.
Compound Generator characteristics:

The drooping characteristic of a shunt generator and the rising characteristic of a

series generator provide us enough motivation to explore the possibility of a better load
characteristic by fusing the two generators into one. This is done by winding both series and
shunt field windings on each pole of the generator. The compounding of both the fields gives
rise to three types of generators:
i Under compound generator,
ii Flat (level) or Normal compound generator and
iii Over compound generator.

16

Voltage Regulation: The voltage regulation is a measure of the terminal voltage drop at full
load. If V nL is the no load terminal voltage and V fL is the full load terminal voltage, the
voltage regulation is defined as
V -V
VR% = nL fL 100 .
VfL
Characteristic of D.C. Motors:

The fundamental emf and torque relationships are:

1I
z Np
E=2
= KN and T = a zp = K T Ia
c
c 60
In monitoring operation it is necessary to express these relationships in the form of armature
speed and torque, i.e.
E
1 Eb
N=
= K N b rpm
T = K T Ia Nm.
K

The back emf E b = V I a (R A + R se ) and the flux per pole is determined by the equivalent
excitation.
N
I feq = Ish se Ia
N sh
Shunt motor:

17

The speed drops off from no load to full load by a few percent, in fact the speed remains
substantially constant. Such a characteristic is known as shunt characteristic.

E b = V - Ia R a
V - Ia R a
N = KN

T = K T Ia

IL = Ia + Ish
V
Ish =
R sh
N=

KN V KNRa
-
2 T
KT

Series motor:

18

 V - Ia R a + R se
N = KN

T = K T Ia

= K f Ia Considering linear magnetization.

V

I - R a + R se ; shifted rectangular hyperbola.

a

2
T = K T K f Ia ; parabola.

N=

KN
Kf

Compound Motor:

In a cumulatively compounded motor, the series field aids the shunt field so that the
flux/pole increases with the armature current and as a consequence (N I a ) lies between that
of a shunt ( = constant) and a series ( I a ) motor as shown. Unlike the series motor, the
cumulatively compounded motor has a finite no-load speed (No), while it has the loadrelieving characteristic of a series motor under heavy load conditions.

Speed Regulation: The speed regulation is a measure of the change in speed from no load to
full load. It is defined as
N - N fL
SR% = nL
100
N fL
Where N nL is the no load speed and N fL is the full load speed of a d.c. motor.

Starting of D.C. Shunt Motors:

Problems at starting: When the d.c. motor is at standstill the back emf generated in the
armature is zero, and hence E b = 0 and V = I a R a for a shunt motor and V = I a (R a + R se ) for a
series and compound motor. Therefore, with the rated applied voltage, the standstill armature
current is very high and may damage the armature winding and commutator.
Solution: To limit the armature current to a safe value (the value which the motor can
normally bear without excessive sparking) during starting, external resistance is inserted in
the armature circuit. As the motor accelerates, the induced emf is developed in the armature,
and armature current gradually reduces to a small value. Thus the resistance inserted in the
armature circuit should be decreased as the motor accelerates. This may be done manually or
automatically with the help of starters. To enable the motor to start up against frictional

19

torque and accelerate smoothly, the field excitation should be maximum at start so that the
motor speed which is inversely proportional to the field current does not suddenly rise to a
high value from rest.

A field regulator usually placed in the shunt field winding circuit for the control of
shunt field excitation must be adjusted to its minimum resistance value during the starting of
the motor.
The simplest method of starting is to insert a rheostat in the armature circuit externally
and kept at its maximum resistance value and also another resistance in the field circuit
whose value is kept at minimum initially as you have been doing in the Lab. Classes.
However, this method is modified by including protective devices such as NO-VOLT
RELEASE (NVR) and OVER-LOAD RELEASE (OLR) as shown in 3-point and 4-point
starters for shunt motors.
3-point starter:
As the starter handle is moved from OFF position to START position the external
resistances (r 1 + r 2 + r 3 + r 4 + r 5 ) are connected in series with the armature and zero
resistance is inserted to the field circuit. Now if the starter handle is moved from the stud 1 to
2, the resistance R 1 is excluded from the armature circuit but included in the shunt field
circuit. This helps to accelerate the motor as is decreasing. At the extreme right hand end,
the starter handle is held in position by the no-volt release (NVR) coil magnet. This coil is
in series with the field circuit. In case there is no power, there is no current in the field circuit
(in which the gap flux tends to zero and the motor speed tends to rise to a very high value),
the NVR coil is de-energized (i.e. it loses its magnetism). Then the starter handle is thereby

20

released and it moves back to the extreme left hand (OFF) position by spring action and the
motor stops.
To protect the motor from excessive overloading, an overload release (OLR) coil is
put in series with the line. When the line current reaches a value at which the release is
desired to operate, the plunger short circuits the NVR coil, thereby de-energizing the no-volt
release coil and the starter handle again comes back to OFF position and the motor
automatically stops.
Since the NVR coil is in series with the field winding its current varies with the field
winding current. When higher speeds are obtained with weaker field excitation, the current
in the NVR coil is reduced and the starter handle may be released. The above disadvantage is
avoided in the 4-point starter by connecting the NVR coil directly across the main supply.

Speed Control of d.c. motors:

The two methods that are commonly used to secure speed control are:
i Armature control,
ii Field control.
i

Armature control: The main requirement of this control scheme is a variable

voltage supply to the armature. In this method, the speed control is achieved by
inserting a resistance R c (called the controller resistance) in the armature circuit of a
shunt, series or a compound motor. The additional resistance in the armature circuit

21

V - Ia R
Where R = R a + R se + R c for a series and compound motor and R = R a +
K
R c for a shunt motor.
It is obvious from the above equation that any increase in the value of the
controller resistance control method, therefore, is suitable to operate the motor at a
speed lower than the rated speed while delivering the same torque.
N=

22

The principle advantage of the system is that speeds from zero upwards are easily obtainable,
and the method is chiefly used for controlling the speed of cranes, hoists, trains, etc. where
the motors are frequently started and stopped and where efficiency is of secondary
importance. On the other hand, this method has several disadvantages:
a) The relatively high cost of the controller;
b) Much of the input energy may be dissipated in the controller and the overall
efficiency of the motor considerably reduced thereby;
c) The speed may vary greatly with variation of load;
d) Poor speed regulation for shunt and compound motors.
It is also possible to control the speed of a dc motor by simply connecting its
armature to a variable voltage sources. This method of speed control is known a
Ward Leonard method.
ii

Field control: Another approach to control the speed of a d.c. motor involves the
control of the field current, which in turn controls the flux in the motor.
The field current in a shunt motor can be controlled by inserting an external
resistance (called the field regulator) in series with the field winding. Because the
field current is a very small fraction of the total current intake of a shunt motor, the
power dissipated by the external resistor is relatively small. Therefore, the fluxcontrol method is economically better than the armature resistance-control method.
To control the flux in a series motor, a field diverter resistor can be connected
in parallel with the series field winding. Sometimes, the series field is made of a few
sections and these sections are connected in series and parallel in succession and the
flux can be changed thereby the speed can be controlled. Since the speed of the motor
is inversely proportional to its flux, a decrease in its flux results in an increase in its
speed. Thus, the flux-control method makes a motor operate at a speed higher than its
rated speed.
As the torque developed by a shunt motor is proportional to the product of the
armature current and the flux per pole, a decrease in the flux must be accompanied by
a corresponding increase in the armature current for the motor to deliver the same
torque. This method of speed control is, therefore, not satisfactory for compound
motors, because any decrease in the flux produced by the shunt field winding is offset
by an increase in the flux produced by the series field winding owing to an increase in
the armature current.

Losses in a D.C. Machine:

A. Copper losses
2
i Armature copper loss: Ia R a
ii
iii

Field copper loss*: Ish R sh = VIsh

Brush contact resistance and commutator losses
2

B. Magnetic losses**
1.5
i Hysteresis loss: Wn Bmax f
ii

Eddy current loss: We Bmax f

C. Mechanical losses
i. Friction losses in bearings and commutator: N

23

ii. Air friction and windage loss of rotating armature: N3.

* Losses in the series field , commutating poles and compensating windings are also
proportional to the square of the armature current.
** Due to armature reaction, flux densities at certain points of the armature increases,
consequently the iron loss is also increased. It is very difficult to estimate.
Usually Magnetic losses, Mechanical losses and Shunt field copper loss together is taken as
the CONSTANT losses. Whereas the armature series field and compole and compensating
wdg. copper loss is called the VARIABLE loss.
Therefore, Total losses in a d.c. machine
= Constant loss + Variable loss
2
= W c + Ia R where R includes armature, series, field, compole and
compensating winding, brush contact, commutator resistances.
Power Stage in a D.C. Machine :

Efficiency of a D.C. Machine:

a) Generator:
If R = total resistance of the armature circuit
I L = load current
= armature circuit current and
Ia
I sh = shunt field current, then I a = I L + I sh and total loss in the armature circuit
2
= Ia R .
If W = sum of iron, friction and windage losses and output power = VI L , input power
VI L
2
= VI L + Ia R + VIsh + W and G =
.
VI L + Ia R + VIsh + W
b) Motor:
If I L = input line current and I sh = shunt field current, then the armature circuit current
I a = I L I sh . Again assuming W be the sum of iron, friction and winding losses,
2
Ia R + VIsh + W .
Total losses =
Input power =
VI L.
2
Output power =
VI L - (Ia R + VIsh + W) .
2

And efficiency M =

VIL - (Ia R + VIsh + W)

.
VIL

24

Approximate condition for max efficiency:

Assumptions: a) shunt field current is negligible to armature curve

b) shunt field copper loss, iron loss and friction windage loss are
independent of load.
VI L
V
.
G =
=
2
VI L + I L R + VIsh + W V + I 2 R + 1 (VI + W)
L
sh
IL
m

For G max the denominator should be minimum.

1
i.e., d V + I L R + VIsh + W = 0 R - 12 VIsh + W = 0 .
IL
dI L
IL

So, I 2L R = VIsh + W Variable loss = Constant loss

d R - 1 VI + W = 2 VI + W > 0

sh

3 sh
dI L I 2L
IL
Indicates that the denominator is minimum and hence the efficiency is maximum. So
the condition of maximum efficiency for a d.c. generator is same as that for other machine.
The same result is also obtained by taking the expression for efficiency of d.c. motor.
Again

Tests to determine the efficiency of a d.c. shunt machine.

i)

Direct method: Brake test.

A pulley is fitted on the shaft of the machine and it is run as a motor at a speed rad/sec.
Over the pulley there is a belt, one end of which is connected to a spring balance and fixed
and the other end carries a weight W. Then the net pull on the motor shaft = W S. So the
torque acting on the motor is T = (W S) and the output power = T = 2N W - S . N is
60
the speed in r.p.m.
If V is the supply voltage in Volt and I is current taken from the supply in
Amp then input power to the machine = VI.
2N W -S
100
Efficiency (as a motor) =
60 VI
ii)

Indirect method: Measurement of losses

Swinburnes Test: This test is based on measurement of

25

a) No load loss of the machine when run as a shunt motor and

b) Armature circuit resistance for various armature current values.

a) Measurement of No load loss.

Input power to the armature at no load = VI a0 Watts.
Power loss in the shunt field = VI sh Watts
Input power to the armature supplies iron loss in the core friction loss at
bearings and commutator windage loss a very small I2R loss due to the
resistance of the armature circuit. It can be calculated, but it is so small that it is
usually neglected.
Va
for different readings of V a
Ia
and I a . The appropriate value is taken knowing the load current at which the
efficiency is desired.

b) Measurement of armature circuit resistance R a =

Calculation of efficiency indirectly:

Let I be line current at which the machine efficiency is to be calculated. Then

corresponding armature current
=
I + I sh as a generator
I ag
=
I I sh as a motor.
I am
If R a is the resistance of the armature circuit at working temperature for current I a , there
corresponding cu-loss in the armature circuit = I a2 R a . Since iron, friction and wintage loss =
VI a0 and shunt field cu-loss = VI sh .
total losses = Ia2 R a + Ia0 + Ish V
If the machine acts as a generator, output power = VI
2
So, input power = VI + Iag
R a + Ia0 + Ish V
And efficiency G =

VI
.
VI + I R a + I a0 + Ish V
2
ag

If the machine acts as a motor, input power = VI

26

2
R a - Ia0 + Ish V
So, output power = VI - Iam

And efficiency M =

2
VI - I am
R a - I a0 + Ish V
VI

The main advantages of Swinburnes method are:

Power required to test a large machine is comparatively small
The no-load data enable the efficiency to be calculated at any load
The main disadvantages are:
No account is taken for stray load losses
The test does not enable the performance of the machine such as temperature rise,
commutation problems etc at full load

27