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Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

1.1

The beam of a rectangular thin-walled section (i.e., t is very small) is designed


to carry both bending moment M and torque T. If the total wall contour length
L = 2( a + b) (see Fig. 1.16) is fixed, find the optimum b/a ratio to achieve the
most efficient section if M = T and allowable = 2 allowable . Note that for closed
thin-walled sections such as the one in Fig.1.16, the shear stress due to torsion is

Figure 1.16

T
2abt

Closed thin-walled section

Solution:
(1) The bending stress of beams is =

My
, where y is the distance from the neutral
I

axis. The moment of inertia I of the cross-section can be calculated by considering


the four segments of thin walls and using the formula for a rectangular section
with height h and width w. I = (

1
wh 3 + Ad 2 ) in which A is the
12

cross-sectional area of the segment and d is the distance of the centroid of the
segment to the neutral axis. Note that the Parallel Axis Theorem is applied. The
result is I = 2

1 3
1
b
tb 2
tb + 2 [ at 3 + (at ) ( ) 2 ]
(3a + b) , assuming that t is
12
12
2
6

very small.
(2) The shear stress due to torsion for a closed thin-walled section shown above is

T
.
2abt

1.1.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures


C.T. Sun

(3) Two approaches are employed to find the solution.


(i) Assume that the bending stress reaches the allowable allowable first and find
the corresponding bending maximum bending moment. Then apply the stated
loading condition of T = M to check whether the corresponding max has
exceeded the allowable shear stress allowable . If this condition is violated, then
the optimized b/a ratio is not valid.

b
M
My
3M
2
=
= 2
(a) | b =
y=
I
tb(3a + b)
tb
2
(3a + b)
6
When given L = 2( a + b) as a constant, a can be expressed in terms of b
and L as a =
S=

L
b . Then we can minimize
2

tb(3a + b) tb(3L 4b)


in order to maximize , i.e.,
=
3
6

S
t
3L
L
L
, so a = b =
= 0 (3L 8b) = 0 b =
b
6
8
2
8

where the optimum ratio is

b
=3
a

3M
3M
32M
=
=
tb(3a + b) t (3L / 8) (3 L / 8 + 3L / 8) 3tL2
(b) Check max with T = M and b/a = 3 and check whether max is within
the allowable shear stress allowable .
Thus, max =

max =

T
M
32M
=
=
= max = allowable
2abt 2 ( L / 8) (3L / 8) t 3tL2

> allowable =

allowable
2

The result above means that under this assumption, shear stress would
reach the allowable stress allowable before reaches allowable . Consequently,
the optimal ratio obtained is not valid and different assumption needs to be
made.
(ii) Assume now that failure is controlled by shear stress. We assume that
max = allowable is reached first and then find the corresponding bending stress
according to the loading condition M = T .
T
2abt
Again we minimize S = 2abt = ( L 2b)bt in order to maximize , i.e.,

(a) =

1.1.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures


C.T. Sun

S
L
L
L
= 0 ( L 4b) = 0 b = , so a = b =
b
4
2
4

and the optimum ratio is

b
=1
a

T
T
8T
=
= 2
2abt 2 ( L / 4) ( L / 4) t tL
(b) Then corresponding max under the optimum condition stated above can
and max =

be obtained using M = T . We have


3M
3T
12T 3
3
=
= 2 = max = allowable
tb(3a + b) t ( L / 4) (3 L / 4 + L / 4) tL
2
2
< allowable = 2 allowable

max =

This means that when the structure fails in shear, the bending stress is
still within the allowable stress level. Thus the optimum ratio

b
= 1 is
a

valid.

(4) In conclusion,

b
= 1 achieves the most efficient section for the stated conditions.
a

--- ANS

1.1.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures


C.T. Sun

1.2

Do problem 1.1 with M = T where = 0 to .

Figure 1.16

Closed thin-walled section

Solution:
My
, where y is the distance from the neutral
I
axis. The moment of inertia I of the cross-section can be calculated by considering
the four segments of thin walls and using the formula for a rectangular section
1
with height h and width w. I = ( wh 3 + Ad 2 ) in which A is the
12
cross-sectional area of the segment and d is the distance of the centroid of the
segment to the neutral axis. Note that the Parallel Axis Theorem is applied. The
1
1
b
tb 2
result is I = 2 tb 3 + 2 [ at 3 + (at ) ( ) 2 ]
(3a + b) , assuming that t is
12
12
2
6
very small.

(1) The bending stress of beams is =

(2) The shear stress due to torsion for a closed thin-walled section shown above is
T
.
=
2abt
(3) Two approaches are employed to find the solution.
(i) Assume that the bending stress reaches the allowable allowable first and find
the corresponding bending maximum bending moment. Then apply the stated
loading condition of M = T to check whether the corresponding max has
exceeded the allowable shear stress allowable . If this condition is violated, then
the optimized b/a ratio is not valid.
b
M
My
3M
2
= 2
=
(a) | b =
y=
I
tb(3a + b)
tb
2
(3a + b)
6
When given L = 2( a + b) as a constant, a can be expressed in terms of b
1.2.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures


C.T. Sun

and L as a =
S=

L
b . Then we can minimize
2

tb(3a + b) tb(3L 4b)


in order to maximize , i.e.,
=
3
6

S
t
3L
L
L
, so a = b =
= 0 (3L 8b) = 0 b =
b
6
8
2
8

where the optimum ratio is

b
=3
a

3M
3M
32M
=
=
tb(3a + b) t (3L / 8) (3 L / 8 + 3L / 8) 3tL2
(b) Check max with M = T and b/a = 3 and check whether max is
within the allowable shear stress allowable .
32M
1
T
M /
=
=
= max
max =
2

2abt 2 ( L / 8) (3L / 8) t 3tL


1
2
= allowable = allowable
Thus, max =

We have max allowable

allowable allowable

2 (since allowable > 0 is always satisfied)


(ii) Assume now that failure is controlled by shear stress. We assume that
max = allowable is reached first and then find the corresponding bending stress
according to the loading condition M = T .
T
2abt
Again we minimize S = 2abt = ( L 2b)bt in order to maximize , i.e.,

(a) max =

S
L
L
L
= 0 ( L 4b) = 0 b = , so a = b =
b
4
2
4
b
=1
a
T
T
8T
and max =
=
= 2
2abt 2 ( L / 4) ( L / 4) t tL
(b) Then corresponding max under the optimum condition stated above can
be obtained using M = T . We have
3M
3T
12T 3
=
=
= max
max =
tb(3a + b) t ( L / 4) (3 L / 4 + L / 4)
2
tL2

and the optimum ratio is

3
3
3
= allowable = ( allowable ) = allowable
2
2
2
4
3
Since max allowable allowable allowable
4
4

(since allowable > 0 is always satisfied)
3
1.2.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures


C.T. Sun

(4) From the above two approaches, we have the conclusions.


4
For 0 < , the failure is controlled by shear and the optimum ratio
(i)
3
b
of
= 1 achieves the most efficient section..
a
For 2 , the failure is controlled by bending and the optimum ratio of
(ii)
b
= 3 achieves the most efficient section.
a
4
(iii) For
< < 2 , the optimal ratio lies between 1 and 3. The most
3
straightforward way in finding the best ratio for a given in this range
is to calculate the maximum bending moments and torques for different
values of b/a ratios between 1 and 3 and pick the ratio that produces the
greatest minimum failure load, either T or M.
--- ANS

1.2.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures


C.T. Sun

1.3

The dimensions of a steel (300M) I-beam are b = 50 mm, t = 5 mm, and h = 200
mm (Fig. 1.17). Assume that t and h are to be fixed for an aluminum(7075-T6)
I-beam. Find the width b for the aluminum beam so that its bending stiffness EI
is equal to that of the steel beam. Compare the weights-per-unit length of these
two beams. Which is more efficient weightwise?

Figure 1.17

Dimensions of the cross-section of an I-beam

Solution:
(1) The expression of area moment of inertia I for an I-beam is:
I=

t
b
h
(h t ) 3 + [ t 3 + (bt )( ) 2 ] 2 ,
12
12
2

by applying Parallel Axis Theorem.

(2) First obtaining the area moment of inertia of the steel (300M) I-beam with given b,
t, and h.
5
50
200 2
(200 5) 3 + [ 5 3 + (50 5)(
) ] 2 = 8090573mm 4
12
12
2
(3) For the given condition ( EI ) Alu min um = ( EI ) Steel
I Steel =

we have I Al =

E St
200
I St =
8090573 = 22790000mm 4
E Al
71

which allows to calculate the width b for the aluminum beam with the following
result:
5
b
200 2
( 200 5 )3 + [ 5 3 + ( b 5 )(
) ]2
12
12
2
= 3089531.3 + 100020.8b = 22790000

I Al =

and b = 197 mm
---- ANS
(4) Then we compare the weights-per-unit length of these two beams.
1.3.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures


C.T. Sun

The weights-per-unit length is defined as


w = A , where = density , and A = cross-sectional area
(i) For the Steel beam

St = 7.8( g / cm 3 ) = 7.8 10 3 ( g / mm 3 )
ASt = (200 5) 5 + 2 50 5 = 1475( mm 2 )

wSt = St ASt = 7.8 10 3 1475 = 11.5( g / mm )


(ii) For the Aluminum beam

Al = 2.78( g / cm 3 ) = 2.78 10 3 ( g / mm 3 )
AAl = ( 200 5 ) 5 + 2 196.97 5 = 2945( mm 2 )
w Al = Al AAl = 2.78 10 3 2944.7 = 8.2( g / mm )
For a unit length of both materials, the aluminum beam is much lighter than the
steel beam. It means that the ALUMINUM BEAM IS MORE EFFICIENT!
--- ANS

1.3.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures


C.T. Sun

1.4

Use AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy composite to make the I-beam as stated in


Problem 1.3. Compare its weight with that of the aluminum beam.

Figure 1.17

Dimensions of the cross-section of an I-beam

Solution:
Proceed in the same manner as that of problem 1.3.
(1) The expression of area moment of inertia I for a I-beam is:
I=

t
b
h
(h t ) 3 + [ t 3 + (bt )( ) 2 ] 2
12
12
2

(2) First, obtain the area moment of inertia of the steel (300M) I-beam with given b, t,
and h. We have
I Steel =

5
50
200 2
(200 5) 3 + [ 5 3 + (50 5)(
) ] 2 = 8090573mm 4
12
12
2

(3) For the condition ( EI ) Composite = ( EI ) Steel


we have I Com =

E St
200
I St =
8090573 = 11558000mm 4
ECom
140

The moment of inertia of the composite beam is given by


5
b
200 2
( 200 5 )3 + [ 5 3 + ( b 5 )(
) ]2
12
12
2
= 3089531.3 + 100020.8b = 11558000

I Com =

Thus the width of the cross-section is obtained as b = 84.7 mm


---- ANS
(4) Then, we compare the weights-per-unit length of these two beams.
The weights-per-unit length is defined as
where = density , and A = cross-sectional area
w=A ,

1.4.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures


C.T. Sun

(i) For the composite beam

Com = 1.55( g / cm 3 ) = 1.55 10 3 ( g / mm 3 )


ACom = ( 200 5 ) 5 + 2 84.67 5 = 1822( mm 2 )
wCom = Com ACom = 1.55 10 3 1821.7 = 2.8( g / mm )
(ii) Compare the weights per unit length with that of the aluminum beam
wCom = 2.8( g / mm ) < wAl = 8.2( g / mm )
This indicates that the AS4/3501-6 CARBON/EPOXY COMPOSITE BEAM IS
MORE EFFICIENT than the aluminum beam!
--- ANS

1.4.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures


C.T. Sun

1.5

Derive the relations given by (1.4) and (1.5).


(1.4) : V x = t a
Remark:
(1.5) : V y = t b

Solution:
(1) Consider a very small section within the curved panel with thickness t and length
L . is the constant shear stress, so we have the shear force V = ( L t )
acting on the cross section.
(2) It is possible to take apart the shear force into x and y direction shown in the
figure, where
V x = V cos = L t cos = t (L cos )
= t x
similarly, V y = t y
(3) Now consider the length to be extremely small, therefore V x dV x as well as
V y dV y . The horizontal component and the vertical component of the shear

force V x , V y can be verified as following:


a

V x = dVx = t dx = t a
0

V y = dV y = t dy = t b
0

1.5.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures


C.T. Sun

1.6

The sign convention (positive direction of resultants) used in the beam theory
depends on the coordinate system chosen. Consider the moment-curvature
relation
d 2w
M = EI 2
dx
in reference to the coordinate system shown in Fig. 1.18. If w is regarded as a
positive displacement (or deflection) in the positive y-direction, find the positive
direction of the bending moment. State the reason.

Figure 1.18

Coordinate system for a beam

Solution:
d 2w
d 2w
gives
that
is always
dx 2
dx 2
opposite in sign to M. (It is quite obvious that both E and I are always positive.).
(2) We can assume a moment M applying to the beam as shown below, which makes
(1) The moment-curvature relation M = EI

the beam concave upwards. It is not difficult to observe that the slope
increases with increasing x and thus a positive

dw
dx

d 2w
.
dx 2

(3) By applying the statement (1), it is concluded that the deformation described in (2)
is produced by a negative moment while a positive moment makes the beam
concave downward as shown below..

1.6.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures


C.T. Sun

1.7

Compare the load-carrying capabilities of two beams having the respective


cross-sections shown in Fig. 1.19. Use bending rigidity as the criterion for
comparison. It is given that a = 4 cm, t = 0.2 cm, and the two cross-sections
have the same area.

Figure 1.19

Cross-sections of two beams

Solution:
When using the bending rigidity ( EI ) as a criterion for comparison, Youngs modulus
E and the area moment of inertia I should be estimated.
(1) Youngs modulus E :
Assume the Youngs modulus of the beam having the left-hand-side
cross-section and the right-hand-side cross-section are

El

and

Er

respectively.
(2) Moment of inertia I :
(i) Left cross-section:
Il =

1 4 1
a = 4 4 = 21.33cm 4
12
12

(ii) Right cross-section:


Ir =

b
bt 3
( a + 2b) 3
a
12
12

or { I r =

--- (a)

t 3
1
a b
a + [ b4 + b2 ( + )2 ] 2 }
12
12
2 2

where b remains unknown. There is another condition, two cross-section


have the same area, which will help to solve b.
Al = a 2 = 4 2 = 16cm 2 , Ar = 2 b 2 + a t = 2 b 2 + 4 0.2

1.7.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures


C.T. Sun

let Al=Ar => b = 2.7568cm , then we have


Ir =

2.7568
(4 + 2 2.7568 )3 (2.7568 0.2 ) 4 3 = 184 cm 4
12
12

or { I r =

0 .2 3
1
4 2.7568 2
4 + [ 2.7568 4 + 2.7568 2 ( +
) ] 2 = 184 cm 4 }
12
12
2
2

(3) Performance:
The ratio of the moments of inertia of the two cross-sections can be expressed as
( EI )l
EI
21.33 El
El
E
= l l =
=
= 0.12 l
( EI )r Er I r 184.18 Er 8.635 Er
Er
The cross-section to the right is much better if the same material is used for
both beams.
(i) If Er < 0.12 El
The left cross-section outperforms the right one.
(ii) If Er = 0.12 El
They are equivalent.
(iii) If Er > 0.12 El
The right cross-section outperforms the left one.
--- ANS

1.7.2

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