Professional Documents
Culture Documents
DAVID W. FOY
Graduate School of Education and Psychology
Pepperdine University
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The life of the missionary is wrought with challenge and difficulty. On the field, many cross cultural
workers have been exposed to poverty, direct violence, indirect violence, life-threatening illness, car
accidents, crime, difficult living conditions, a heavy
workload, estrangement from family, and a number
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more important than prediction and control (Nelson, 2003). Given the lack of qualitative work on this
topic and the need for a more in-depth understanding of the relationship between the constructs, a qualitative focus group design was employed.
Summary and Hypothesis
As the above discussion has shown, cultural transitions and their impact on cultural identity is an important area of research for those involved with the
increasing number of short-term missionaries. Further
research is necessary to understand the complex relationship between cultural identity and cultural transitions, especially in relation to reentry and reentry distress (Belay, 1996; Sussman, 2000). The current study
was designed for two purposes: (a) to qualitatively
assess the hypothesis that cross cultural reentry results
in cultural identity changes in participants of shortterm missions trips and (b) to explore the nature and
content of these cultural identity changes.
METHOD
Participants
Participants were recruited from a private, evangelical Christian college in the United States. Twenty
students participated in three focus groups (5 male,
15 female). The participants ranged in age from 19 to
25 with an average age of 21.5 (SD = 1.07). Information on marital status and ethnicity was not collected
in an effort to protect the confidentiality of the participants. All of the participants were currently enrolled
as undergraduate students or had recently obtained
bachelors degrees, and all had previous cross cultural
missions experiences. One student had participated
in one trip; 12 students had participated in less than
five trips; 6 students had been on more than five trips;
and 1 student grew up on the mission field. Of the
students, 14 went on their most recent mission trip in
the summer of 2002; 4 went in 2001; 2 went in 2000;
and 1 went in 1999. The trips the students participated in varied widely in objective and destination. The
focus groups were conducted in May of 2003, which
was approximately eight months post-trip for most
participants. Trips to seventeen different countries
on five continents were represented in the sample:
Kenya, Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa, Mexico
(3 participants), Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador (2 participants), China, India, Japan, Thailand, India, Russia,
Maldova, England and Australia. The majority of participants (n = 16, 80%) worked with children and
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the note takers used the aliases to track the participants comments.
All groups discussed a uniform set of questions
presented in the same order (see Appendix A). The
questions were developed by the research team to
facilitate discussion of the students experience of
short-term missions work and of cross-cultural reentry. The set of questions was then evaluated by a larger group of researchers with expertise in the field of
international missions.
After data collection, a team of three graduate
students transcribed the audio-recorded responses.
The graduate students did not transcribe the sections of the tape that they planned to use for
research questions. Three portions of individual
responses were difficult to transcribe word for word.
In these situations, all three transcribers listened to
the difficult portions of the audio tape and used the
notes taken during the focus groups to decipher the
major content of the responses but not the exact
wording. In such situations, all three transcribers
reached a consensus as to the major theme or meaning of the content. None of the responses were
excluded from data analysis.
Data Analysis Procedure
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TABLE 1
Frequency and Extensiveness of Subthemes Grouped by Node
Extensiveness
(N = 156)
(N = 20)
% subthemes
Negative reentry
Frustration (general)
Adjustment (general)
Reentry (general)
Positive reentry
Debriefing
Frequency
Personal growth/learning
8
5.23
6
3.85
6
3.85
5
3.21
4
2.56
4
1.92
2
1.28
1
.64
1
.64
Cultural awareness/diversity
10
6.41
6
3.85
1.92
3
2
1.28
2
1.28
1
.64
Adjustment
9
5
2
2
2
2
5.77
3.21
1.28
1.28
1.28
1.28
% participants
9
5
6
5
3
2
3
2
2
2
2
1
45
25
30
25
15
10
15
10
10
10
10
5
7
6
3
3
4
3
2
1
35
30
15
15
20
15
10
1 5
5
4
3
2
2
2
1
20
15
10
10
10
5
3
3
2
1
1
1
15
15
10
5
5
5
4
3
20
15
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Personal Growth/Learning
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change at home; and 3 discussed the challenges to personal identity that they experienced as part of the trip.
The participants talked about many different types
of learning and growth. Among the most intense were
the discussions of belonging and purpose. One male
participant articulated the challenge of integrating his
trip with his identity as an American:
Why am I here in America? I dont know all the answers, but
the one thing I know is that there must be some purpose that I
have, some reason that I was born here. I could have been
born in an Asian country or in Africa or some other country. I
know I benefit from this culture and I dont understand why.
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of specific other culture was coded 6 times and hospitality of other culture was mentioned 3 times.
As far as extensiveness, general cultural awareness was mentioned by four participants (25%),
appreciation of specific other culture was mentioned
by 3 participants (15%), and 2 (10%) participants
mentioned hospitality of other culture.
Many of the participants were impressed with the
strengths of the countries that they visited. Of particular note are this males comments on the hospitality
of Kenya:
Over there people would invite you in; people would like pull
you in from the streets and make you food. Theyd go into
debt and borrow milk from their neighbor . . . just so they
could make you tea. . . . The people in Kenya are the nicest
people youll ever meet.
When asked how short-term mission trips influenced their view of their home culture, student participants gave a variety of responses. The things that they
experienced on their trips caused them to view their
home culture critically, or with anger or guilt. Yet they
reported that their experiences inspired personal
growth and gave them new perspectives about personal purpose, belonging and calling. Their experiences
increased their appreciation for other cultures and
made them more aware of their countrys place on the
world stage. The students indicated that their trips
involved several adjustments, and they noted the particular difficulty of reentry. Some respondents specified that their mission trip increased their appreciation for their home culture and helped them to see the
benefits of being American.
The results from this student population confirm
previous research findings indicating that anger and
other negative reactions toward the home culture are
a common part of reentry (Sussmann, 2000; Raschio, 1987). Negative Reaction to Home Culture
was the most extensively and most frequently discussed theme, indicating that negative reactions
were among the most salient for participants. The
prevalence of themes reflecting general negativity,
anger, and criticism support Sussmans theory that
cross cultural experiences create an internal conflict
between the cultural values of the home culture and
the values of the culture of service. The
Positive/Neutral Reaction to American Culture
theme was the least extensively coded and only 3
participants discussed the appreciation for home culture subtheme.
Additionally, the findings appear to confirm that
returned participants of short-term mission trips
experience changes in cultural identity. The analysis
indicated that many participants felt negatively about
America and Americans. Since all of the participants
were American citizens or long-term residents, it is
The two subthemes in the Positive/Neutral Reaction to Home Culture theme were appreciation of
DISCUSSION
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Further research is needed to explore how cultural identity directly influences the reentry process.
Additional questions and opportunities for clarification can contribute to a deeper understanding of the
individual experience of cultural identity during
reentry. For example, using a focus group design,
good follow up questions could be How does your
negative view of America and Americans affect your
view of yourself? and How do feel about your own
American identity and American citizenship? It is
also important to assess individuals of different ages,
cultures, and marital status. In addition, the finding
that some people experienced positive changes in
cultural identity suggests the need to understand
why their outcomes were different. It is also important to learn whether negative reactions during reentry are associated with negative outcomes such as
depression, or anxiety.
REFERENCES
Adler, N. J. (1981). Reentry: Managing cross-cultural transitions.
Group and Organizational Studies, 6, 341-356
American College Health Association. (2004, June). National
college health assessment summary. Retrieved January 4, 2005
from http://www.acha.org/projects_programs/ ncha_sampledata_public.cfm. 2004.
Armes, K., & Ward, C. (1988). Cultural transitions and sojourner
adjustment in Singapore. Journal of Social Psychology, 129,
273-275
Austin, C. N., McDonald, D. E., & Austin, S. A. (1988). An addendum to Cross cultural reentry: An annotated biography. Journal
of Psychology and Theology, 16, 360-377
Belay, G. (1996). The (re)construction and negotiation of cultural
identities in the age of globalization. Interaction and Identity, 5,
319-341.
Boyatzis, R. E. (1998). Thematic analysis and code development: Transforming qualitative data. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Carter, J. (1999). Missionary stressors and implications for care.
Journal of Psychology and Theology, 27, 171-180.
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Eriksson, C. B., Vande Kemp, H., Gorsuch, R., Hoke, S., & Foy,
D. W. (2001). Trauma exposure and PTSD symptoms in international relief and development personnel. Journal of Traumatic
Stress, 14, 205-212.
Tuttle, K. A. (2000). The effects of short-term mission experiences on college students spiritual growth and maturity. Christian Education Journal, 4, 123-140.
Uehara, A. (1986). The nature of American student reentry adjustment and perceptions of the sojourn experience. International
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10, 415-438.
Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1993a). Acculturation and cross cultural
adaptation of British residents in Hong Kong. Journal of Social
Psychology, 133, 395-398.
Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1993b). Psychological and socio-cultural adjustment during cross cultural transitions: A comparison of
secondary students overseas and at home. International Journal
of Psychology, 28, 129-147.
AUTHORS
WALLING, SHERRY M. Address: Graduate School of Psychology,
Fuller Theological Seminary, 135 North Oakland Ave., Pasadena,
CA 91182. Degree: MA.
ERIKSSON, CYNTHIA. Address: Graduate School of Psychology,
Fuller Theological Seminary, 135 North Oakland Ave., Pasadena,
CA 91182. Title: Assistant Professor of Psychology. Degree: Ph.D.
MEESE, KATHERINE J. Address: Graduate School of Psychology,
Fuller Theological Seminary, 135 North Oakland Ave., Pasadena,
CA 91182. Title: Assistant Professor of Psychology. Degree:
Psy.D.
CIOVICA, ANTONIA. Address: Graduate School of Psychology,
Fuller Theological Seminary, 135 North Oakland Ave., Pasadena,
CA 91182. Degree: M. A.
GORTON, DEBORAH. Address: Graduate School of Psychology,
Fuller Theological Seminary, 135 North Oakland Ave., Pasadena,
CA 91182. Degree: M. A.
FOY, DAVID W. Address: Graduate School of Education and Psychology, Pepperdine University: Encino Graduate Campus, 16830
Ventura Blvd., Suite 200, Encino, CA 91436. Title: Professor of
Psychology. Degree: Ph.D.
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APPENDIX A
Focus Group Questions
The focus group interview included the following questions:
1. How did working with the people you served influence your experience (children, adults, mixed children and adults)?
2. What changes have you experienced since returning from your trip(s) (i.e., emotional, psychological, interpersonal, etc.)?
3. Describe your most rewarding experience on your mission trip(s).
4. Describe your most distressing experience on your mission trip(s).
5. How did your most distressing experience on your trip(s) influence your spirituality?
6. How did your experiences on your trip(s) influence your view of your home culture?
7. How did your experiences on your trip(s) influence your view of other cultures?