Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2-1
INTRODUCTION
2.2
CLUTCHES
2.3
2.4
CONICAL CLUTCH
2.5
CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCH
2.6
CLUTCHES
2.7
DISC BRAKES
2.8
DRUM BRAKES
2.8.1. Short shoe external drum brake
2.8.2. Long shoe external drum brakes
2.8.3. Double shoe external drum brakes
2.8.4. Long shoe internal drum brakes
2.9
BAND BRAKES
2.9.1 self-energizing band brake
2.10.
CONCLUSION
Chapter 2
Design of Clutch and Brakes
2-2
A clutch is a device that permits the smooth, gradual connection of two shafts
rotating at different speeds. A brake enables the controlled dissipation of energy
to slow down, stop or control the speed of a system. This chapter describes the
basic principles of frictional clutches and brakes and outlines design and
selection procedures for disc clutches, disc and drum brakes.
2-3
2-4
assemblies can be purchased from specialist suppliers and the engineers task is
to specify the torque and speed requirements, the loading characteristics and
the system inertias and to select an appropriately sized clutch or brake and the
lining materials.
2.2. CLUTCHES
The function of a clutch is to permit the connection and disconnection of two
shafts, either when both are stationary or when there is a difference in the
relative rotational speeds of the shafts. Clutch connection can be achieved by a
number of techniques from direct mechanical friction, electromagnetic coupling,
hydraulic or pneumatic means or by some combination. There are various types
of clutches as outlined in Figure 2.3.
SQUARE JAW
SPIRAL JAW
TOOTHED
DISC
MECHANICAL
FRICTION
DRUM
CONE
ROLLER
OVER RUNNING
SPRANG
SPRING WOUND
MAGNETIC PARTICLES
HYSTERESIS
ELECTRICAL
MAGNETIC
EDDY CUURENT
PNEUMATIC
AND
DRY FLUID
FLUID COUPLING
HYDRAULIC
HYDRAULIC
Figure 2.2. Clutch classification
The devices considered here are of the friction type. Clutches must be designed
principally to satisfy four requirements:
1. The necessary actuation force should not be excessive.
2. The coefficient of friction should be constant.
3. The energy converted to heat must be dissipated.
4. Wear must be limited to provide reasonable clutch life.
Alternatively the objective in clutch design can be stated as maximization of a
maintainable friction coefficient and minimization of wear. Correct clutch design
and selection are critical because a clutch that is too small for an application will
slip and overheat and a clutch that is too large will have a high inertia and may
overload the drive.
POSITIVE CONTACT
2-5
a) Jaw Clutch
b) Friction clutch
Fig.2.3. Types of clutches
The selection of clutch type and configuration depends on the application.
Table 2.1 can be used as the first step in determining the type of clutch to be
used.
Table 2.1. Clutch selection criteria
Type of
clutch
Cone
clutch
Characteristics
Typical applications
2-6
torque
Single disc Used when diameter is not restricted.
Simple construction
The power transmitted can be
Multiple
increased by using more plates
disc
allowing a reduction in diameter
Centrifuga Automatic engagement at a critical
l
speed
Automobile drives
Machine tool head stocks,
Motorcycles
Electric
motor
drives.
Industrial diesel drives
Clutches are rarely designed from scratch. Either an existing design is available
and is being modified for a new application or a clutch can be bought in from a
specialist manufacturer. In the latter case the type, size and the materials for
the clutch lining must be specified. This requires determination of the system
characteristics such as speed, torque, loading characteristic (e.g. shock loads)
and operating temperatures. Many of these factors have been lumped into a
multiplier called a service factor. A lining material is typically tested under
steady conditions using an electric motor drive. The torque capacity obtained
from this test is then de rated by the service factor according to the particular
application to take account of vibrations and loading conditions. Table 2.2 gives
an indication of the typical values for service factors.
Table 2.2 Service factors
Description of
general
system
Steady power
source,
steady load,
no shock or
overload
Steady power
source with
some
irregularity of
load up to 1.5
times nominal
power
Small
electric
motors,
turbine
Types of driver
IC engines
( 4 to 6
IC
cylinders )
Engines
Medium to
(2 or 3
large
cylinder
electric
s)
motors
Single
cylinde
r
engine
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.2
1.8
2.0
2.4
2.7
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.7
Frequent
start-stops
over loads
cycling, high
inertia starts,
high power
pulsating
power source
2-7
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.2
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.7
2-8
2-9
2-10
2-11
The value for the maximum permissible pressure is dependent on the clutch
lining material
From the symmetry of the element about the center, area of the elemental ring,
dA = 2rdr
Axial force or normal reaction on the element perpendicular to the plane of disc,
dW = pdA = p 2rdr = pmax 2rdr = pmax 2 ri dr
Frictional force distributed over the entire differential element,
dF = dW = (pmax 2 ri dr) = 2pmax ri dr
Frictional torque on the differential element,
dT = dF r = dW r = 2pmax ri rdr
Mean friction radius according to Uniform wear theory
The actuating force or axial thrust that needs to be supplied by the spring to
transmit the torque,
W = pmax (2 ri dr) = 2pmaxri dr = 2pmaxri (ro ri)
So maximum pressure intensity, pmax =
Frictional torque on the entire surface, T = 2pmax ri rdr = 2pmax ri rdr
= 2 rdr = rdr = W
Note that the above equation indicates a lower torque capacity than the uniform
pressure assumption. This is because the higher initial wear at the outer
diameter shifts the centre of pressure towards the inner radius.
Clutches are usually designed based on uniform wear. The uniform wear
assumption gives a lower torque capacity clutch than the uniform pressure
assumption.
2.3.5. MAXIMUM TORQUE TRANSMITTED BY MULTI PLATE CLUTCH
A multi-plate system used for large transmission forces or limited-space
applications. Multiple clutches are more difficult to cool, so they are appropriate
for high load, low speed applications. The operation of multi-plate clutch is very
similar to the single plate clutch but there is an increase in the number of
contact surfaces, so increase in effective friction torque. The number of contact
surfaces are one less that the total numbers of plates in the clutch. Let n1 is
numbers of driving discs and n2 is numbers of driven discs. Therefore numbers
of friction surfaces, N = n1+ n2 1.
(2.7)
2-12
The maximum torque for any outer radius r o is found to occur when ri = 0.577 ro.
This useful formula can be used to set the inner radius if the outer radius is
constrained to a particular value.
The preliminary design procedure for disc clutch design requires the
determination of the torque and speed, specification of space limitations,
selection of materials. The procedure for determining the initial geometry is
itemized below.
1. Determine the service factor.
2. Determine the required torque capacity, T.
3. Determine the coefficient of friction.
4. Determine the outer radius ro.
5. Find the inner radius ri.
6. Find the axial actuation force required.
EXAMPLES
Example 2.1
A clutch is required for transmission of power between a four-cylinder internal
combustion engine and a small machine. Determine the radial dimensions for a
single face dry disc clutch with a moulded lining which should transmit 5 kW at
1800 rpm (Figure 2.15). Base the design on the uniform wear assumption.
Service factor = 2, coefficient of friction = 0.35, maximum pressure = 1.55
MN/m2.
Solution
Service factor is 2.
Power, P = 2 5 = 10 KW
Angular velocity, = = 188.5 rad/s
Torque, T = = = 53.05 Nm
Based on uniform wear assumption
T = W = 2pmax ri (ro ri)
= 0.35 2 1.55 106 0.577 ro (ro 0.577 ro)
53.05 = 656 103 ro3 outer radius, ro = 0.043 m
Inner radius, ri = 0.577 0.043 m = 0.025 m
The actuating force, W = 2pmaxri (ro ri) = 2 1.55 106 0.025 (0.043
0.025)
= 4382.522 N
So the clutch consists of a disc of inner and outer radius 25 mm and 43 mm
respectively, with a moulded lining having a coefficient of friction value of 0.35
2-13
Example 2.3
A multiple disc clutch, running in oil, is required for a motorcycle with a threecylinder engine. The power demand is 75 kW at 8500 rpm. The preliminary
design layout indicates that the maximum diameter of the clutch discs should
not exceed 100 mm. In addition, previous designs have indicated that a
moulded lining with a coefficient of friction of 0.068 in oil and a maximum
permissible pressure of 1.2 MPa is reliable. Within these specifications determine
the radii for the discs, the number of discs required and the clamping force.
Service factor = 3.4.
Solution
Service factor is 2.7.
Power, P = 3.4 75 = 255 KW
2-14
2-15
2-16
2-17
Table 2.4 is the ratio of frictional braking force generated to the actuating force
applied.
Brakes can be designed so that, once engaged the actuating force applied is
assisted by the braking torque. This kind of brake is called a self-energizing
brake and is useful for braking large loads. Great care must be exercised in
brake design. It is possible and sometimes desirable to design a brake, which
once engaged, will grab and lock up (called self-locking action).
A critical aspect of all brakes is the material used for frictional contact. Normally
one component will comprise a steel or cast iron disc or drum and this is
brought into frictional contact against a geometrically similar component with a
brake lining made up of one of the materials listed in Table 2.3. Section 2.3.1
gives details about the configuration design of disc brakes and Section 2.3.2
introduces the design of drum brakes.
SHORT SHOE
DRUM
LONG SHOE
BAND
CALIPER
DISC
FULL DISC
MECHANICAL
FRICTION
DISC
ELECTRICAL
MAGNETIC
ELECTIRCAL ON
ELECTRICAL OFF
AUTOMATIC
PNEUMATIC
HYDRAULIC
AND
Figure 2.19 Brake classification
TYPE OF BRAKES
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Differential band brake
Winches, hoist, excavator, tractors
External drum brake (leading trailing Mills, elevators, winders
edge)
Internal drum brake (leading trailing Vehicles (rear axles on passenger cars)
edge)
Internal drum brake (two leading Vehicles (rear axles on passenger cars)
edges)
Internal drum brake (duo-servo)
Caliper disc brake
Full disc brake
2-18
2-19
For an annular disc brake the effective radius is given by the following equations
re =
( assuming uniform pressure)
re =
(assuming uniform wear)
For circular pads the effective radius is given by re = r, where values for is a
function of the ratio of the pad radius and the radial location, R/r. The actuating
force for circular pads can be calculated using:
F = R2 Pav
Example 2.4
A caliper brake is required for the front wheels of a sports car with a braking
capacity of 820 N m for each brake. Preliminary design estimates have set the
brake geometry as ri = 100 mm, r0 =160 mm and = 45. A pad with a
coefficient of friction of 0.35 has been selected. Determine the required
actuating force and the average and maximum contact pressures.
Solution
The torque capacity per pad = 820/2 = 410 Nm
The effective radius (assuming uniform wear) is
re == = 0.13 m
The actuating force is given by
F = = = 9.011 kN
The maximum contact pressure is given by
Pmax = = = 1.912 MN/m2
The average pressure is given by
Pav = Pmax = 1.912 = 1.471 MN/m2
2.8. DRUM BRAKES
Drum brakes apply friction to the external or internal circumference of a
cylinder. A drum brake consists of the brake shoe, which has the friction
material bonded to it, and the brake drum. For braking, the shoe is forced
against the drum developing the friction torque. Drum brakes can be divided
into two groups depending on whether the brake shoe is external or internal to
the drum. A further classification can be made in terms of the length of the
brake shoe: short, long or complete band.
Short shoe internal brakes are used for centrifugal brakes that engage at a
particular critical speed. Long shoe internal drum brakes are used principally in
automotive applications. Drum brakes (or clutches) can be designed to be selfenergizing. Once engaged the friction force increases the normal force
nonlinearly, increasing the friction torque as in a positive feedback loop. This
can be advantageous in braking large loads, but makes control much more
difficult. One Example associated with some drum brakes is stability. If the brake
2-20
has been designed so that the braking torque is not sensitive to small changes
in the coefficient of friction, which would occur if the brake is worn or wet, then
the brake is said to be stable. If a small change in the coefficient of friction
causes a significant change to the braking torque the brake is unstable and will
tend to grab if the friction coefficient rises or the braking torque will drop
noticeably if the friction coefficient reduces.
2.8.1. SHORT SHOE EXTERNAL DRUM BRAKE
2-21
If the brake direction is reversed the friction moment term Fnc becomes
negative and the applied load Fa must be maintained to generate braking
torque. This combination is called self-de-energizing. From Eq. 2.34, note that if
the brake is self-energizing and if c > b then the force required to actuate the
brake is zero or negative and the brake action is called self-locking. If the shoe
touches the drum it will grab and lock. This is usually undesirable with
exceptions being hoist stops or over-running clutch type applications.
2.8.2. LONG SHOE EXTERNAL DRUM BRAKES
2-22
pivot to the heel of the lining (rad); and 2, centre angle from the shoe pivot to
the toe of the lining (rad).
This is based on the assumption that the local pressure P at an angular location
is related to the maximum pressure by
P=
The local pressure P will be a maximum when = 90. If 2 < 90 then the
pressure will be a maximum at the toe. The relationship given in Eq. 2.38
assumes that there is no deflection at the shoe or the drum, no wear on the
drum and that the shoe wear is proportional to the frictional work and hence the
local pressure.
Note that if = 0 the pressure is zero. This indicates that frictional material near
the pivot or heel of the brake does not contribute significantly to the braking
action. For this reason, common practice is to leave out the frictional material
near the heal and start it at an angle typically between 1=10 and 1=30.
With the direction of rotation shown in Figure 2.23 (i.e. the brake is selfenergizing), the magnitude of the actuation force is given by
Fa =
Where Mn is the moment of the normal forces (Nm); Mf, the moment due to the
frictional forces (Nm); and a, the orthogonal distance between the brake pivot
and the line of action of the applied force (m).
The normal and frictional moments can be determined using Eqs 2.40 and 2.41,
respectively. If the geometry and materials are selected such that Mf = Mn, then
the actuation force becomes zero. Such a brake would be self-locking. The
slightest contact between the shoe and drum would bring the two surfaces into
contact and the brake would snatch giving rapid braking. Alternatively values for
the brake geometry and materials can be selected to give different levels of selfenergization depending on the relative magnitudes of Mn and Mf.
Mn = (2 1) (sin 22 sin 21)
Mf = r (cos 1 cos 2) + (cos 22 cos 21)
If the direction of rotation for the drum shown in Figure 2.22 is reversed, the
brake becomes self-de-energizing and the actuation force is given by
Fa =
Example 2.5.
Design a long shoe drum brake to produce a friction torque of 75 Nm to stop a
drum rotating at 140 rpm. Initial design calculations have indicated that a shoe
lining with = 0.25 and using a value of pmax = 0.5 106 N/m2 in the design will
give suitable life. Assume the trial values for the brake geometry, say r = 0.1 m,
b = 0.2 m, a = 0.3 m, 1 = 30, 2 = 150. Using Eq. 2.37 and solving for the
width of the shoe.
2-23
2-24
Example 2.6
Determine the actuating force and the braking capacity for the double internal
long shoe brake illustrated in Figure 2.29.The lining is sintered metal with a
coefficient of friction of 0.32 and the maximum lining pressure is 1.2MPa. The
drum radius is 68 mm and the shoe width is 25mm.
2-25
Solution
B=
0.0152+ 0.0552
= 0.05701 m
As the brake lining angles relative to the pivot, brake axis line, are not explicitly
shown on the diagram, they must be calculated. 1 = 4.745, 2 = 124.7.
As 2 > 900, the maximum value of sin is sin 90 = 1 = (sin )max
For this brake with the direction of rotation as shown, the right-hand shoe is selfenergizing. For the right-hand shoe:
The moment of the normal force with respect to the shoe pivot
Mn = (124.7 4.745) (sin 249.4 sin 9.49)
= 153.8 Nm
Mf = 0.068 (cos 4.745 cos 124.7) + (cos 249.4 cos 9.49) = 57.1 Nm
a = 0.055 + 0.048 = 0.103 m
The actuating force, Fa = = = 938.9 N
The torque applied by the right-hand shoe is given by
Tright shoe = wr2(cos 1 cos 2)
= 0.320.0250.0682(cos 4.745 cos 124.7) = 69.54 Nm
The torque applied by the left-hand shoe cannot be determined until the
maximum operating pressure pmax for the left-hand shoe has been calculated.
As the left-hand shoe is self-de-energizing the normal and frictional moments
can be determined using Eqs 2.47 and 2.48.
Mn = =
Mf = =
The left-hand shoe is self-de-energizing. So, Fa = = 938.9 N
938.9 = Pmax = 0.5502 106 N/m2
2-26
2-27
2-28
2-29