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g ee g I,, NGP
G 2233
Byy
66.Gas
G Well
W ll Inflow
I fl Under
U d Non-Darcy
N D
Flow
7 Horizontal
7.
H i
l Gas
G Well
W ll Inflow
I fl
March 3, 2010
In the Curriculum
March 3, 2010
Lectures 1 and 2:
1. Introduction to Natural Gas
Production
2 Gas
2.
G Well
W ll IInflow
fl
under
d D
Darcy
and Non- Darcy
y Flow
March 3, 2010
Introduction
Althoughnaturalgas,withsome23%ofallworldenergydemandin
2005,isstillslightlybehindcoal(25.6%)astheworldsthird
2005,isstillslightlybehindcoal(25.6%)astheworldsthird
ll l h l b h d
l(
)
h
ld h dlargest
l
sourceofprimaryenergy(oilstilldominatesat38%),itispoisedto
move up because of significantly emerging new trade
moveupbecauseofsignificantlyemergingnewtrade.
M
MembercountriesintheorganizationforEconomicCo
MembercountriesintheorganizationforEconomicCo
b
t i i th
i ti f E
i C operationand
ti
d
Development(OECD)andtheUSA,specifically,consumeabout51%
and
and22%respectivelyofglobalnaturalgas,nowcomprisingabout103
22% respectively of global natural gas now comprising about 103
Tcf (2.9Bm3)peryear(EnergyInformationAdministration,EIA,2007
March 3, 2010
Introduction,
Thereareseveralobviousbenefitstotheuseofnaturalgas.
First,itisthecleanestburningfossilfuelandproducesfewer
First,itisthecleanest
emissionsandpollutantsthaneitheroilor,especially,coal.
Second,theresourceisbecomingincreasinglydiverse.Sincethe
early1970s,worldreservesofnaturalgashavebeenincreasing
steadily,atanannualrateofsome5%.Similarly,thenumberof
dil
l
f
5% Si il l h
b
f
countrieswithknownreserveshasalsoincreasedfromaround
40 i 1960 t b t 85 i 2005
40in1960toabout85in2005.
Thedistributionamongthosecountries,dominatingtheglobal
provedreservesofnaturalgas,isshowninthefollowingFigure
andTable.
March 3, 2010
March 3, 2010
March 3, 2010
Introduction,
Onereasonforanticipatedincreaseindemandfornaturalgasisthe
publicconcernoverenvironmentalissues.Furthermore,forecastsof
bl
l
h
f
f
rapidincreaseinnaturalgasdemandoverthenexttwodecades,in
the biggest market of all the united States have been exacerbated
thebiggestmarketofall,theunitedStates,havebeenexacerbated
byforecastsdecliningproduction.
DecliningproductionforecastshavebeenextendedtoCanada,a
reliable provider to the US thus far
reliableprovidertotheUSthusfar.
Although
Althoughnaturalgasdemandisexpectedtoincrease,suchan
natural gas demand is expected to increase such an
increaseinthenearfuturewilldedrivenbyadditionaldemandfrom
currentuses,primarilypowergeneration.Thereisyetlittleoverlap
betweentheuseofnaturalgasandoilinalllargemarkets.However,
certaindevelopmentsonthehorizon,includingtheelectrifyingof
transportation,willpushnaturalgasusetoeverhigherlevels.
March 3, 2010
TheworldsLargestnatural
Gasreservoir
March 3, 2010
l
h
percentagecomesfromindependentproducers.Thecompany
operates
operates155000kmofnaturalgaspipelinesand43compressor
155000 km of natural gas pipelines and 43 compressor
stations.
Russiaisthelargestproducerandexporter,aswellasahuge
consumer of natural gas The country produces an annual 21 Tcf,
consumerofnaturalgas.Thecountryproducesanannual21Tcf
consumerofnaturalgas.Thecountryproducesanannual21
Tcf,
consuming14.5Tcf
consuming14.5Tcf andexportingtherest.
Alaskahasaprolifichydrocarbonresources,firstwiththediscovery
ofoilinthesouthcentral
ofoilinthe
southcentral((CookInletregion)partin
CookInletregion)partin1960
)partin1960s
1960ss andthen
1960
withthe1969discoveryof
withthe1969discoveryofPrudhoeBay
PrudhoeBayonthe
ontheNorthSlope
NorthSlope,theUSs
,theUSs
largestfield.
March 3, 2010
QatarNaturalGas:
Qatarisaleaderinnaturalgasreserves.IranandQatarhave
comparableamountsofgasreserves.ThisisbecauseQatarssuper
giantNorthFieldandIranssupergiantSouthParsFieldoverlieon
i t N th Fi ld d I
i t S th P Fi ld
li
thebroadQatararch.
thebroadQatararch
TheQatararchsubdividestheKhuff formationsintotwobasins
located northwest (North Field) and south east (South Pars)
locatednorthwest(NorthField)andsoutheast(SouthPars).
ThefollowingFigureshowsacomparisonsbetweentheMiddleeast
Th
f ll i Fi
h
i
b t
th Middl
t
countriesasagasreservescountries.
March 3, 2010
March 3, 2010
March 3, 2010
whereXrepresentsthedistance,Pthepressure,Vg thegasvelocity,
g thegasviscosityandkg theeffectivepermeabilitytogas.
Anamountofconnatewaterisalwayspresentwiththegas.Such
watersaturationisimmobileand,therefore,
watersaturationisimmobileand,therefore,kkg equalstheeffective
permeabilitytogasandcanbetreatedasthesingle
permeabilitytogasandcanbetreatedasthesinglephase
permeability.Itisoftendenotedsimplyask.
permeability
bilit .Itisoftendenotedsimplyask.
It i ft d
t d i l
k
March 3, 2010
Non-Darcy
Non
Darcy Flow in Porous Media
NonDarcyflowoccursinthenear
Non
Darcyflowoccursinthenearwellboreregionofhighcapacitygasand
condensatereservoirs:Astheflowareaisreducedsubstantially,thevelocity
d
t
i A th fl
i d d b t ti ll th
l it
increases,inertialeffectsbecomeimportant,andthegasflowbecomes
nonDarcy.
non
y
Therelationbetweenpressuregradientandvelocitycanbedescribedbythe
Forchheimer (1914)equation:
March 3, 2010
March 3, 2010
Forchheimerss Eequation
Forchheimer
Forchheimers equationdescribeshigh
highvelocity
velocity,single
singlephaseflowin
phaseflow
isotropicmedia.Manyreservoirsare,however,anisotropic.Wang
d
h
(2000)usedaporelevelmodelanddevelopedacorrelationto
calculate the non Darcy coefficient in an anisotropic medium for
calculatethenonDarcycoefficientinananisotropicmediumfor
singlephaseflowasshowninthepreviousTable.
ThenonDarcycoefficienthasbeenstudiedbyperforming
Thenon
experimental tests with carbonate and Berea sandstone cores The
experimentaltestswithcarbonateandBereasandstonecores.The
experimentaldatagavegoodagreementwiththecorrelation
y
g(
)
describedbyWang(2000).
AdirectunderstandingofmultiphasenonDarcyflowbehaviorin
Adirectunderstandingofmultiphasenon
Darcyflowbehaviorin
porousmediathatareanisotropicattheporescaleisstudied
elsewhere.
March 3, 2010
March 3, 2010
March 3, 2010
A. Steady
Steady--state flow
March 3, 2010
A. Steady
Steady--state Gas Flow Equation
Theflowrateqisconstantastheflowisundersteadystate,the
Theflowrateqisconstantastheflowisundersteadystate,the
previousEquationcanbeintegratedbyseparatingthevariablesand
previous
Equationcanbeintegratedbyseparatingthevariablesand
b
db
h
bl
d
settingattheouterboundaryre,aconstantpressureP
settingattheouterboundaryre,aconstantpressurePe :
VanEverdingen andHurst(1949)quantifiedtheconditionofthe
nearwellboreregionwiththeintroductionoftheconceptoftheskin
llb
i
ih h i
d i
f h
f h ki
effect.Thisisanalogoustothefilmcoefficientinheattransfer.This
skin effect results in an additional steady state pressure drop given
skineffectresultsinanadditionalsteadystatepressuredrop,given
by:
March 3, 2010
A. Steady
Steady--state Gas Flow Equation
Thus,theflowequationcanprovidethetotalpressuredifference
includingboththereservoirandthenear
includingboththereservoirandthenear
l d b h h
d h
wellborezoneand
llb
d
becomes:
March 3, 2010
A. Steady
Steady--state Gas Flow Equation
ThelastEquationisvalidforlargelyincompressible(i.e.,oil)flow
understeadystate.Forhighlycompressiblegas,theformation
d
d
h hl
bl
h f
volumefactor,B
volumefactor,
Bg,variesgreatlywithpressure.Thereforeanaverage
expressioncanbeobtainedasfollow:
expression can be obtained as follow:
IntroducingthegasrateinMscf/d(thousandstandardcubicfeetper
d i
h
i
f/d ( h
d
d d bi f
day),withrelativelysimplealgebra,TherateEquationwillbe:
andfinally:
March 3, 2010
ThisEquationisvalidforgasflowundersteadystate
gasflowundersteadystate(withaconstant
pressureouterboundary).Morecommonly,wellseventuallyfeel
theirassignedboundary.
March 3, 2010
March 3, 2010
March 3, 2010
March 3, 2010
Solution:
Aftersubstitutionofvariablesintheflowequation,itbecomes:
GasviscosityandZ
GasviscosityandZfactoratdifferentflowingbottompressuresare
calculatedbyusingLeeetal.(1966)andDranchuk
calculatedbyusingLeeetal.(1966)and
l l t db
i L
t l (1966) d Dranchuk
D
h k etal.(1974)correlations,
t l (1974)
l ti
respectively.Theaveragepropertiesarethearithmeticaveragewith
propertiesatPeof3,000psi.ResultsaresummarizedinthenextTable.
p
p
,
p
Asanexamplecalculation,forPwf =1,000psi,theaboveequationyields:
March 3, 2010
March 3, 2010
March 3, 2010
March 3, 2010
Inanisotropicreservoirwithconstantpermeability,thisEquationcanbe
simplifiedto:
Performingthedifferentiationontherighthandsideoftheprevious
Equation,assumingthattheviscosityandgasdeviationfactoraresmall
functions of pressure and rearranging it gives:
functionsofpressure,andrearranging,itgives:
March 3, 2010
Thisapproximationlooksexactlyliketheclassicdiffusivityequationforoil.
hi
i
i l k
l lik h l i diff i i
i f
il
Itssolutionwouldlookexactlylikethesolutionsoftheequationforoil,but
instead
insteadofP,thepressuresquared,P
of P, the pressure squared, P2,shouldbeusedasareasonable
, should be used as a reasonable
approximation.
AlHussainy andRameyusedafarmoreappropriateandexactsolutionby
Al
andRamey
employingtherealgaspseudopressurefunction,definedas:
wherePo issomearbitraryreferencepressure(usuallyzero).Thedifferential
pseudopressure,m(p),definedasm(P)
d
( ) d fi d
( ) m(P
( wf),isthenthedrivingforcein
) i h
h di i f
i
thereservoir.
March 3, 2010
Similarly:
Therefore,theEquationbecomes:
,
q
Itssolutionwouldlookexactlylikethesolutiontothediffusivity
equationcastintermsofpressure.Dimensionlesstimeis(inoilfield
units):
March 3, 2010
ThelastthreeEquationssuggestsolutionstonaturalgasproblems(e.g.,well
h l
h
i
l i
l
bl
(
ll
testing)thatareexactlyanalogoustothoseforanoilwell,exceptnowitis
the
therealgaspseudopressurefunctionthatneedstobeemployed.
real gas pseudopressure function that needs to be employed.
Thisfunctionisessentiallyaphysicalpropertyofnaturalgas,dependenton
viscosityandthegasdeviationfunction.Thus,itcanbereadilycalculatedfor
anypressureandtemperaturebyusingstandardphysicalproperty
correlations.Byanalogywithoil,transientratesolutionunderradialinfinite
acting
actingconditionscanbewrittenas:
conditions can be written as:
March 3, 2010
ThelasttwoEquationscanbeusedtogeneratetransientIPR(Inflow
q
g
(
PerformanceRelationship)curvesforagaswell.Transientbehaviorends
whenboundariesarefelt.
Acommonlyacceptedexpressionforthetimeinhourswhenpseudosteady
state
statebeginsis:
begins is:
March 3, 2010
Example 11-2:
2: Rate at the onset of pseudosteady state
UsethewellinExample1
UsethewellinExample11andcalculatethe
1andcalculatetheproductionrate
productionrateatthetime
atthetime
whenpseudosteadybeginsandalsoatonetenththetime.Useaflowing
h
d t d b i
d l
t
t th th ti
U
fl i
bottomholepressureof1,500psi.Thegassaturationinthereservoiris
about0.75andtheporosityis0.25.
p
y
Solution:
First,estimatethetimetopseudosteadystateusingtheexpressiongiven
above.Thegascompressibilityatinitialconditionscanbecalculatedexactly
b
butatarelativelylowpressureof3,000psiitcanbeapproximatedby:
l i l l
f
ii
b
i
db
Thereforethetotalcompressibilityisapproximatelyequalto:
March 3, 2010
Thentherateiscalculatedas:
March 3, 2010
References
1. Wang,X.andEconomides,M.:AdvancedNaturalGasEngineering
AdvancedNaturalGasEngineering,GulfPublishing
Company Houston Texas 2009
CompanyHouston,Texas,2009.
2. Economides,M.J.,andMarin,T.:ModernFracturing,
ModernFracturing,EnhancednaturalGas
EnhancednaturalGas
Production,EnergyTribune(ET)PublishingInc.,Houston,TX,2007.
Production
3. Ikoku,Chi.U.:NaturalGasProductionEngineering
NaturalGasProductionEngineering,KriegerPublishingCompany,
Malabar,Florida,1992.
4
4.
Katz D L and Lee R L : Natural
Katz,D.L.,andLee,R.L.:
Natural Gas Engineering Production
NaturalGasEngineering,ProductionandStorage
NaturalGasEngineering,
ProductionandStorage,
and Storage
McGrawHillPublishingCompany,1990.
5. Beggs,H.D.:GasProductionOperations
GasProductionOperations,"Oil&GasConsultantsInternational,
I
Inc.,1984.
1984
6. Smith,R.V.:PracticalNaturalGasEngineering,2nd Edition,PennWellBooks
PublishingCompany,Tulsa,Oklahoma,1990.
7. Lyons,W.C.:WorkingGuidetoPetroleumandNaturalGasProduction
Engineering,Elsevier,2010.
8
8.
Abdel Aal H K Aggour M and Fahim M A : Petroleum
AbdelAal,H.K.,Aggour,M.,andFahim,M.A.:PetroleumandGasField
PetroleumandGasField
Petroleum and Gas Field
Processing,MarcelDekker,Inc.,2003.
Processing,
9. Lee,J.andWattenbarger,R.A.:GasReservoirEngineering
GasReservoirEngineering,SPE,Richardson,TX,
1996.
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March 3, 2010