Professional Documents
Culture Documents
WhatisHealth?
Healthisthestateofcompletephysical,mental,andsocialwellbeing.
Healthincreasesproductivityandensureslongevity.
WaystoEnsureGoodHealth
Balanceddiet
Personalhygiene
Exercise
Awarenessaboutpreventionandcontrolofdiseases
Properwastedisposalandcontrolofvectors
Vaccination
WhydoDiseasesOccur?
GeneticreasonsInnatedeficienciesandinheritabledefects
Infections
SedentarylifestyleJunkfood,consumptionofalcohols/drugs,lack
ofexercise
PathogenicDiseases
Pathogensaretheparasitesthatenterthehumanbodythrough
variousmeans,thenmultiply,andinterferewithnormalvitalactivities.
BacterialDiseases
Typhoid
PathogenSalmonellatyphi
SpreadsthroughContaminatedfoodandwater
SiteofinfectionSmallintestine
SymptomsHighfever,stomachpain,headache,lossof
appetite,constipation,andintestinalperforationsinseverecases
ConfirmatorytestWidaltest
Pneumonia
Pathogens
StreptococcuspneumoniaeandHaemophilus
influenzae
SpreadsthroughDroplets/aerosolsreleasedfrominfected
person,sharingofglassesorutensils
SiteofinfectionAlveoli(getsfilledwithfluid,difficultyin
breathing)
SymptomsFever,chills,cough,headache,lipsandnails
becomegreyinseverecases
ViralDiseases
Commoncold
PathogenRhinoviruses
SiteofinfectionNoseandrespiratorypassage
SpreadsthroughDropletsreleasedfromcoughingorsneezing,
orcontaminatedobjects
SymptomsNasalcongestionanddischarge,sorethroat,
cough,headache,tiredness
ProtozoanDiseases
Malaria
PathogenPlasmodiumsps.(
P.vivax,P.falciparum,P.malaria)
VectorFemaleAnophelesmosquito
SymptomsHighgradefever,chills
Amoebiasis
PathogenEntamoebahistolytica
VectorHousefly
SiteofinfectionLargeintestine
SymptomsConstipation,abdominalpain,cramps,stoolswith
mucous,andbloodclots
FungalDiseases
Ringworms
PathogensGeneraMicrosporum,Trichophyton,and
Epidermophyton
SpreadsthroughTowels,clothes,comb(Fungusisacquired
fromsoil)
SymptomsAppearanceofdry,scalylesionsonvariousbody
partswithintenseitching
DiseasesCausedbyWorms
Ascariasis
PathogenRoundworm,Ascaris
SpreadsthroughWater,vegetables,fruitscontaminatedby
faecesofinfectedperson
SymptomsInternalbleeding,muscularpain,fever,anaemia,
blockageofintestinalpassage
Elephantiasis(filariasis)
PathogenWuchereria(W.malayiandW.bancrofti)
SpreadsthroughBiteoffemalemosquitovector
SymptomChronicinflammationoftheorgans,usuallythe
lymphaticvesselsoflowerlimb
LifeCycleofPlasmodium
Plasmodiumrequirestwohoststocompleteitslifecycle.
WhenfemaleAnophelesmosquitobitesahealthyhumanbeing,it
releasesPlasmodium,whichlivesinitsbodyassporozoite(infectious
form).
Theparasitesmultiply(asexualreproduction)inthelivercellsand
finallyburstthelivercells.Sporozoitesarereleasedinblood.
ParasitesenterRBCsandfurthermultiply(asexualreproduction)here
andfinallyburstRBCsalso.
BurstingofRBCsisaccompaniedbyreleaseofatoxicsubstancecalled
haemozoin(associatedwithfeverandchills).
IntheRBCs,onlysporozoiteschangeintogametocytes(sexualstage).
Gametocytesmultiply.
WhenthediseasedpersonisbittenbyafemaleAnophelesmosquito,
gametocytesareintroducedintothemosquito.
Gametocytesfertiliseanddevelopinsidetheintestineofmosquitoto
formsporozoites.
Sporozoitesarestoredinthesalivaryglandsofmosquitoandare
releasedintothehealthypersonwhoisbittenbythismosquito.
Immunity
Whatisimmunity?
Theabilityofbodytofightthediseasecausingorganismsiscalled
immunity.
Typesofimmunity
Immunityisoftwotypesinnateimmunityandacquiredimmunity.
InnateimmunityItispresentfromthetimeofbirth.Itis
nonspecific.Itconsistsof4kindsofbarriers.
PhysicalbarriersSkinandmucuscoatingofrespiratory,
gastrointestinal,andurogenitaltractprevententryofmicrobes
intobody.
PhysiologicalbarriersAcidinstomach,salivainmouth,tears
fromeyes
CellularbarriersBloodhasleukocytessuchaspolymorpho
nuclearleukocytes,monocytes,etc.andtissuehasmacrophages
whichphagocytosethemicrobes.
CytokinebarriersSpecialproteinscalledinterferonsare
secretedbyvirusinfectedcellsthatpreventthefurtherspread
ofviralinfection.
AcquiredimmunityItisacquired,whichmeansthatitisproduced
inresponsetoanencounterwithapathogenbasedonmemory.Itis
pathogenspecific.
Whenapathogenforthefirsttimeinfectsaperson,lowintensity
immuneresponseisgenerated(primaryresponse).
Whenthesamepathogenattacksagain,intensifiedimmune
responseingenerated,therebypreventingtheoccurrenceof
disease(secondaryresponse).
AcquiredimmunityinvolvestwotypesofcellsBlymphocytes
andTlymphocytes.
BlymphocytesSecreteproteinscalledantibodiesinresponse
topathogensAntibodiesarespecializedproteinswith4peptide
chains(2lightand2heavy),hencedenotedasH2L2.IgAIgM,
IgE,etc.areexamplesofsomeoftheantibodies.Theygenerate
humoralimmuneresponse(foundinblood).
TlymphocytesTheyhelpBcellstoproduceantibodies.They
generatecellmediatedimmuneresponse.Thisresponse
helpsthebodytodifferentiatebetweenselfandnonselfas
occursincaseofgraftrejection.
Differencebetweenactiveimmunityandpassiveimmunity
ActiveImmunity
Thisisthenaturallyacquiredimmunityproducedinthehost
bodyinresponsetoanantigen.
Immunizationandbodynaturallygettingimmunetoamicrobe
thathadcausedinfectionpreviouslyareexamplesofactive
immunity.
Passiveimmunity
Whenreadymadeantibodiesareprovidedtoanindividualto
protectagainstforeignagents
ColostrumspresentinmothersmilkcontainIgA.Also,thefoetus
getsantibodiesfrommotherthroughplacenta.
Howdoesvaccinationhelp?
Vaccinesarenothingbutinactivatedpathogens.
Theseinactivatedpathogenswhenintroducedinthebodyproducea
primaryimmuneresponseandantibodiesareproducedagainstthe
pathogen.
MemoryBandTcellsareproduced.
Nowwhenthepathogenagainattackstheperson,memoryBand
Tcellsgenerateamassiveimmuneresponseandthepathogenis
killed.
Problemsofimmunesystem
Allergies
Exaggeratedimmuneresponsetocertainantigenspresentin
environment
AllergensSubstancesinresponsetowhichallergyisproduced
E.g.,dust,pollen,etc.
AntibodiesinvolvedIgEtype
Duringallergicreactions,chemicalssuchashistaminesand
serotoninsarereleased.
SymptomsSneezing,wateryeyes,difficultyinbreathing,etc.
AllergytestPatientisinjectedwithsmalldosesofallergensto
monitorhisresponse.
Antihistamines,adrenalins,andsteroidsmaybegivensothat
thesymptomsofallergysubside.
Autoimmunity
Inautoimmunity,bodygeneratesimmuneresponseagainstits
owncells.
ReasonsGeneticandotherunknownreasons
ExampleRheumatoidarthritisisanautoimmunedisease.
Humanimmunesystem
Lymphoidorgansareoftwotypesprimarylymphoidorgansand
secondarylymphoidorgans.
Primarylymphoidorgansconsistofbonemarrowandthymus.Here,
immaturelymphocytesaredifferentiatedtoformantigensensitive
lymphocytes.
BonemarrowHere,allbloodcellsincludinglymphocytesare
produced.
ThymusItisresponsibleformaturationofTlymphocytes.This
lobedorganissituatedneartheheartandkeepsonreducingin
sizeastheageincreases.
SecondarylymphoidorgansLymphocytesmigratehereafter
attainingmaturity.Itincludesspleen,lymphnodestonsils,Peyers
patches,andappendix.
SpleenLargebeanshapedorgancontaininglymphocytesand
phagocytes,whichactsasafilterforblood
LymphnodesLocatedatdifferentpointsthroughoutthe
immunesystem,theytraptheantigenspresentinlymphor
tissuefluid,andtheseantigenscauseactivationoflymphocytes
andgenerationofimmuneresponse.
MALT(Mucosalassociatedlymphoidtissue)Linesmajortracts
(respiratory,digestive,urogenital,etc)constitutes50%oflymphoid
tissueinbody
AIDS&Cancer
AIDS(AcquiredImmunoDeficiencySyndrome)
CausedbyHIV(HumanImmunodeficiencyVirus)[HIVisaretrovirus
(RNAvirus)]
TransmissionofHIVoccursthrough:
Sexualcontactwithinfectedperson
Sharinginfectedneedles(asincaseofintravenousdrug
abusers)
Transfusionofcontaminatedblood
Infectedmothertochildthroughplacenta
TimelagbetweeninfectionandappearanceofsymptomsFew
monthstomanyyears(510years)
HowdoesAIDSinfectionspread?
Virusentersthebodyofapersonandentersmacrophages.
Here,virusreplicates(viralRNAreversetranscribestoviralDNA,
whichgetsincorporatedintohostsDNAandsubsequentlynew
viralparticlesareproduced).
MacrophagesbecomeavirtualHIVfactory.
Thereafter,HIVentershelperTlymphocytes,replicates,andproduces
progenies.
Astheprogeniesarereleased,theyattackotherTlymphocytes.
Therefore,Tlymphocytesstartdecreasinginnumberandimmune
responseofthepersonbecomesweak.
Eveninfectionswhichcouldbeovercomeeasilystartaggravating.
DiagnosisofAIDSByELISA(EnzymeLinkedImmunoSorbent
Assay)
TreatmentNopermanentcureantiretroviraltherapiescanprolong
thelifeofpatient
PreventionofAIDS
Ensuringuseofdisposablesyringes
Screeningbloodfrombloodbanks
Advocatingsafesex
NACO(NationalAIDSControlOrganization)andmanyNGOsare
doingalottocreateawarenessamongpeople.
Cancer
Theprocessofdevelopmentofcanceriscalledoncogenic
transformation.
Normalcellshavethepropertyofcontactinhibition(stoppageof
growthoncomingincontactwithothercells),butcancercellslosethis
property.
Asaresult,cancercellsdividecontinuouslytogiverisetomassof
cells(tumours).
Tumoursareof2typesbenignandmalignant.
BenigntumoursRemainconfinedtotheiroriginallocationanddonot
spread
MalignanttumoursTheseexhibitmetastasisi.e.,thecellssloughed
fromsuchtumoursreachdistantsitesandwherevertheyreach,new
tumourisformed.
Malignanttumoursactuallyrepresentcancer.Thecellsactivelydivide,
grow,andstarvethenormalcellsofvitalnutrients.
Causesofcancer
CarcinogensPhysical,chemical,andbiologicalagentsthat
causecancerExampleionizingradiations(Xraysandgamma
rays),nonionizingradiations(UV)
Oncogenic(cancercausing)virusesTheyhaveviral
oncogenes(cancercausinggenes).
Sometimesnormalgenesinourbodycalledprotooncogenesget
convertedintocellularoncogenesthatcausecancer.
Diagnosingcancer
Biopsyandhistopathologicalstudies
BiopsySuspectedtissueiscutintothinsectionsand
examinedmicroscopically
Radiography,CTscan(computedtomography),andMRI
(Magneticresonanceimaging)aretechniquesofdiagnosing
cancers.
CTScan3Dimagingofinternalsofanorganisgeneratedby
Xrays.
MRIScanPathologicalandphysiologicalchangesinaliving
tissuearedetectedbyusingmagneticfieldsandnonionising
radiations.
Immunologicalandmolecularbiologicaldiagnostictechniques
canallbeusedtodetectcancers.
Identifyingcertaingenes,whichmakeanindividualsusceptible
tocancers,canhelptopreventcancers.
Treatmentofcancer
RadiotherapyTumourcellsareirradiatedtodeath.Also,
propercareistakenforprotectingsurroundingnormaltissues.
ChemotherapyDrugsspecificforparticulartumoursareused
tokillcancercells.Theyhavesideeffectssuchashairloss,
anaemia,etc.
ImmunotherapyBiologicalresponsemodifierssuchas
interferonsareused.Theyactivatetheimmunesystemof
patientandhelpsindestroyingthetumour.
CommonlyAbusedDrugs
Opioids(Heroin)
Source:Acetylationofmorphineextractedfromthelatexofpoppy
plants(Papaversomniferum)
Consumedby:Snortingorinjection
Properties:White,bitterandodourless
Modeofaction:BindstoopioidreceptorspresentintheCNSandGI
tract
Effect:Itisadepressantslowsdownbodyfunctions
Cannabinoids
Source:InflorescencesoftheplantCannabissativa
Consumedby:Inhalationororalingestion
Modeofaction:Bindstocannabinoidreceptorspresentinthebrain
Effect:Affectsthecardiovascularsystem
Cocaine
Source:CocaplantErythroxylumcoca,foundinSouthAmerica
Consumedby:Snorting
Modeofaction:Interferencewithtransferofneurotransmitter,
dopamine
Effect:StimulatestheCNS,producingasenseofeuphoriaand
increasedenergyexcessivedosagescausehallucination
DrugsNormallyUsedasMedicines
Drugslikebarbiturates,amphetamines,benzodiazepines,LSD
(Lysergicaciddiethylamides)areusedasmedicinestohelppatients
withmentalillnessandinsomnia.
Morphine:Itisapainkillerwhichisusedforpatientswhohave
undergonesurgery,butitisalsoabused.
Nicotine
Presentintobacco,whichissmoked,chewedorsnuffed
Modeofaction:Stimulatestheadrenalglandtoreleaseadrenalineand
noradrenaline
Effect:Increasesbloodpressureandheartrate
IllEffectsofSmoking
Increasedriskofdiseaseslikebronchitis,emphysema,coronaryheart
disease,gastriculcerandcancer(throat,lungandurinarybladder)
Increasedcarbonmonoxidelevelsinblood,leadingtooxygen
deficiency
Alcohol/DrugAbuse
Causesofalcohol/DrugAbuse
Alcohol/drugabusenormallystartsinadolescence(periodbetween
1218yrstransitionphasebetweenchildhoodandadulthood).
Manyadolescentsaremotivatedtowardsdrugs/alcoholdueto
curiosityandexperimentation.
Peerpressure,academicstress,unstablefamilystructurefurther
inclineyouthtowardsalcohol/drugabuse.
Perceptionofconsumingalcohol/drugbeingcoolandprogressiveand
useofalcohol/drugintelevision,movies,etc.furtherpromotethis
habit.
Alcohol/DrugAddiction
Whenapersonusesalcohol/drugrepeatedly,hebecomesaddicted.
Addictionreferstopsychologicalattachmenttocertaineffectssuchas
euphoriaandtemporaryfeelingofwellbeingassociatedwithuseof
alcoholordrugs.
Inaddiction,tolerancelevelofreceptorspresentinourbodyincreases
towardsthedrug.
Thisdrivesthepersontousethemevenwhentheyarenotrequiredor
whentheytendtoharmhishealth/familylife.
Subsequently,theuserrunsintoaviciouscircleofaddictionand
subsequentdependence.
Dependenceleadstomanifestationofwithdrawalsyndromeon
discontinuationofuse.
WithdrawalsyndromeAnxiety,nausea,sweating,shakiness,and
sometimesmaybelethal
EffectsofAlcohol/DrugAbuse
ImmediateeffectVandalism,violence,andrecklessbehaviour
Dropinacademicperformance,lackofinterestinpersonalhygiene,
rebelliousbehaviour,andchangeineatingandsleepingpatterns,
weightandappetitefluctuations
Mental,psychological,andfinanciallossnotonlytotheuser,butalso
tohisfamily
Thosewhotakedrugsintravenouslyhaveahighriskofacquiring
deadlydiseasessuchasAIDSandhepatitisB.
Damagetonervoussystemandliver(cirrhosis)
Useofanabolicsteroidsbysportspersonhaveadverseeffects:
InfemalesIncreaseofmasculinity,aggressiveness,
depression,abnormalmenstrualcycle,facialhairgrowth,
enlargementofclitoris,anddeepeningofvoice
InmalesAcne,aggressiveness,depression,reductioninsize
oftesticles,decreasedspermproduction,enlargementof
prostategland,breastenlargement,prematurebaldness
Ultimately,prolongeduseofalcohol/drugsleadstocomaanddeath.
PreventingAlcohol/DrugAbuse
Itisbettertopreventtheinclinationofanindividualtowardsalcohol/
drugsrightfromadolescence.Someofthewaysofpreventionare:
AvoidpeerpressureUnderstandtheuniquepersonalityand
capabilitiesofachild
EducationandcounsellingAchildmustbetaughttoaccept
successandfailureequally.Especiallyduringadolescence,he
mustbeinclinedtowardsconstructiveactivitiessuchasmusic,
yoga,sports,readingbasedonhisinterest.
HelpfromparentsandpeersThisincludesproperguidance,
advice,andtrusttoovercomeproblemssuchasstressandguilt.
IdentifyingdangersignalsIfanysignofsymptomofalcohol/
drugabuseisseenintheadolescentbyfamilyorfriends,thenit
shouldnotbeignoredbecausepreventionisbetterthancure.
SeekingmedicalhelpPsychologistsandrehabilitationprograms
surelyhelpanaddict.Medicalhelpshouldbesoughttopreventfurther
damage.