Physical System Modelling

Physical System Modelling

The purpose of the control is to achieve desired system behaviour.
The control system design task includes two main tasks.
1). Understanding of the plant behaviour : system modelling
2). Design a suitable control law : control system analysis and design
with the consideration of complexity and cost.

Mathematical Model
Model: equations or statements used to describe the behaviour of a
system.
Dynamic model is considered as a set of equations that describe
the dynamic behaviour of the system in the control engineering. In
control system study, the model is developed for dynamical system
analysis and control system design. This means a simplification is
required.

System

Models

Simulation Models

Dynamic Models

Models for empirical

investigation of properties

Models for control

analysis & design

Computer
simulation
models

Dynamic analysis
models

Scale simulation
models

obtained by
physical
analysis
obtained by
observation
replication &
inference

Dynamic
identification
models

Actual systems: guides the form of intuitive models

Intuitive model:

guides the type of simulation and dynamic model

Modelling Process
Start

End
If unsatisfactory

Vaidation

Modelling
Controller
Design

Models for Control System Study

Distributed / Lumped
Continuous / Discrete
Linear / Nonlinear
Time-variant / Time-invariant
Stochastic / Deterministic
The system models considered for this course are
essentially lumped-parameter deterministic models
described by linear constant coefficient (time-invariant)
equations. The system may be forced or unforced.

Linear Systems
Why linearized process is needed?
The advantages of using linear system model are
1). The principle of superposition can be applied.
2). Operational methods of analysis can be used.
3). The magnitude scale factor is preserved in a linear
system. (The property of homogeneity)
Linearization
1). Small-signal linearization
2). Linearization by feedback
3). Transformation method

(linearization)

y=f(x)

y = kx + y0

y=f(x0)
y0
x0

Example
2-12-3--
( f = kx 3 )

m&x& + cx& + kx 3 = F + mg

1 x0

x& = &x& = 0,
F = F0
x = x0

x
F


1
3

F + mg
kx03 = F0 + mg x0 = 0

2 F F = F0 + F
x0 x = x0 + x

x
x0
F
F0


m ( x0 + x ) + c ( x0 + x ) + k ( x0 + x )3 = F0 + F + mg

x0 kx03 = F0 + mg
m&x& + cx& + 3kx0 x 2 + 3kxo 2 x + kx 3 = F

x (x )2
m&x& + cx& + 3kx02 x = F

3 x x, F F
m &x& + c x& + 3kx02 x = F

Small-signal Linearization
Linearization about an operation point (equilibrium state)
Consider a system with input x(t) and output y(t)
y = f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )
If the normal operating condition are

x and y , then

the above equation can be expanded as a Taylor series

about the operating point.
y = f (x) +

i=1

df
dxi

1 n d2 f

xi = xi ( xi xi ) +
2! i = 1 dxi 2

2
(
x

x
)
+ ...(HOT )
xi = xi
i
i

If ( xi xi ) is small then second and higher-order terms in

( xi xi ) can be neglected. A linear relationship between x
and y can be represented as

y= y+

i =1

df
dxi

xi = xi

( xi xi )

Therefore,
y =

Ax
i

i=1

where

f
Ai =
xi

xi = xi

Example
The output y and input x of a device are related
by y = x + 0.4 x 3
(a). Find the values of the output for steady-state
operation at the two operating point x 0 = 1
and xo = 2
(b). Obtain a linearized model for both operation points.

y (1 ) = 1 + 0 . 4 = 1 . 4
y ( 2 ) = 2 + 0 .4 8 = 5 .2

y y0 =

y
x

x = x0

( x x 0 ) = (1 + 1 . 2 x 0 2 )( x x 0 )

y 1.4 = (1 + 1.2)( x 1)
= 2.2( x 1)
y = 2.2 x 0.8

10
8

y 5.2 = (1 + 1.2 4)( x 2)

= 5.8( x 2)

y = 5.8 x 6.4

6
4
2
0
-2
-4
0.5

1.5

2.5

Remark:
Consider the following dynamic system
x& = f ( x, u )

with

f (0,0) = 0

then a linear dynamic behaviour around the equilibrium can be

described as
x& = Ax + Bu

where

f
f
A=
, and B =
u x = 0, u = 0
x x = 0, u = 0

In practice, finding a linearized system is most easily done

simply by neglecting any term of order higher than 1 in the
dynamics.

State-transformation and Input-state

Linearization
Consider the system
x&1 = 2 x1 + ax2 + sin x1
x&2 = x2 cos x1 + u cos(2 x1 )

The nonlinearity in the first equation cannot be directly

canceled by the control input u.
Let the new state variables
z1 = x1

z2 = ax2 + sin x1
then, the new state equations are
z&1 = 2 z1 + z2
z&2 = 2 z1 cos z1 + cos z1 sin z1+ au cos(2 z1 )

Note that the new state equations also have an equilibrium

point at (0, 0). Choose the control law of the form
1
u=
( v cos z1 sin z1 + 2 z1 cos z1 )
a cos( 2 z1 )
where v is an equivalent input to be designed, leading to a
linear input-state relation
z&1 = 2 z1 + z2
z&2 = v

Model form for control study

Differential equation model
State space model
Transfer function model

Typical Control Systems

Mechanical
Systems

Electrical
Systems

Magnetic
Systems

Typical Control
Systems

Thermal
Systems

Hydraulic
Systems

Direct Physical Modelling

System: devices for handling of energy.
Dynamical behaviour: internal energetic transaction within
the system.
Source

System A

Energy port
System B

Sink

Generalized System Variables

Flow

Source

Effort

System

Effort is measured by an across meter, and flow is measured by

a through meter. Effort and flow variables are assigned to
consist with physical intuition. Also,
Power = Flow Effort

Energy = (Flow Effort) dt

(power = currentvoltage)

Basic System Elements

Energy source - effort source; flow source
Energy store - effort store; flow store
Energy dissipater
Constitutive relation
current
Any experimental curve
or law which specifies the physical
characteristics of a system element
is called a constitutive relation
or a material relation.

voltage

Constitutive Properties of Energy Source

f
f1
f1

power
out

e
ideal flow source
f
f

power
out

e1

e1

ideal effort source

Constitutive Properties of Energy Stores

(1) flow store (accumulator)
t

f a = f dt
0

= ( e)

q = i dt
=c v
c

Energy
Capacitor
t

U = ef dt
0
fa

= e df a
0

fa

U = e df a
0

1 2
q
2c

(2) effort store (accumulator)

t

ea = e dt
0

= ( f )

= e dt

Inductor

= Li
f

T*

Energy
t

T = ef dt

ea

T = f dea

ea

1 2
=

2L

= f dea

T
ea
e
U*

0
U
fa

Constitutive Properties of Energy

Dissipaters
dissipater energy converter
R

e = ( f )

v=iR

Resistor

Note: By definition a dissipater stores no energy. However,

the instantaneous power absorbed by a dissipater is
f

G+J

e f = e df + f de
=

+
G
dissipator

J
dissipator

content

co - content

= e df + f de
=

R 2 1 &2

q& +
2
2R

Lagrange Equations of Motion

Define Lagrangian function L = T U , where T denotes the
kinetic energy and U denotes the potential energy. Then, the
Lagrange Equations of motion can be represented as
d L L

= Fqi
dt q&i qi
where qi denotes the generalized coordinate and Fq denotes
i
the generalized force relative to coordinate qi .

Example
x

k
F(t)

m
b

1 2
1 2
T = mx& , U = kx , L = T U , Fqi = Fx bx&
2
2
Equation of motion:
d L L

= Fqi
dt q&i qi

m&x& + kx = Fx bx&

Interaction of System Elements

(1) series connected

(2) parallel connected

e

e
f

f1

f2

f1

2
f

e1

1
e1

e2
f = f1 = f 2
e = e 1 + e2

f2

2
e2
f = f1 + f 2
e = e 1 = e2

(1) Compatibility of effort

(2) Continuity of flow

f1

e1
1

en
n

ek

k
f

ek = 0

k =1

n
n

fk = 0

k =1

System Modelling
Interconnective
Constrains
Compatibility of
effort

Continuity of
flow

Constitutive
relation

State
space
equations

Dynamical
relation

Mathematical
model

Differential
equations

Physical System Modelling Procedure

Example
Constitutive relations

p = m vm , Fk = k xk , Fb = b vb

Dynamical relation

x&k = vk , p& = Fm

F(t)

m
b

Interconnection

F (t ) = Fk + Fb + Fm continuity of flow

v = vm = vb = vk

compatibility of effort

Select state variables: p, xk

p& = Fm = F (t ) Fk Fb = F (t ) kxk bvb

x&k = vk = vm =

p
m

State space equations:

&
p
m
x& = 1
k
m
Output equation

p
y = [0 1]
xk

k p 1
x + 0 F ( t )
0 k

Constitutive Relations and Dynamical

Relations of Ideal Elements
System
Electrical
System

Mechanical
system

flow
current: i

effort
voltage: v

flow store
capacitance: C
v =

force: f

velocity: v

i
sC

q = i dt
= Cv
mass: M
v =

f
sM

P = f dt
= Mv

effort store
inductance: L

dissipater
resistance: R

v = sLi

v=IR

= v dt
= Li

spring: K
v =

sf
K

x = v dt
f
=
K

damper: B
v =

f
B

System
flow
effort
flow store
Fluid system flow rate: Q pressue diff.: fluid capacitance:
P
C
f

P =

Q
sC f

V = Q dt
= C f P

effort store
fluid inertia: Lf

dissipater
fluid resistance: Rf

P = sL f Q

P1 / = R f Q

= P dt
= Lf Q

[1, 2]

= 1, Re < 1100
laminar flow

= 2, Re > 105
turbulence

Thermal
system

heat flow
rate: q

temperature

thermal

diff.: T

capacitance: Ct

T =

q
sCt

H = q dt
= Ct T

thermal resistance: Rt
T =

lq
= Rt q
cA

q
A

Example
Vo ( s )
Determine the transfer function (
) of the following network.
Vin ( s )

R2

+
Vin
_

+
C

C
R1

Vo
_

R2

i1
C

System dynamic equations

1
(i2 i1 ) + R1i2 = Vin
sc

+
Vin
_

Vo

i2

R1

1
1
i1 + (i1 i2 ) + R2i1 = 0
sc
sc

1
i1 =
i2
2 + scR2

2 sc + s 2 c 2 R2
i2 =
Vin
1 + scR2 + 2 scR1 + scR1 R2
sc
i1 =
Vin
1 + scR2 + 2 scR1 + scR1 R2
1
Vo = i1 + R1i2
sc

Vo ( s )
1 + 2 scR1 + s 2c 2 R1R2
=
Vin ( s ) 1 + sc( R2 + 2 R1 ) + s 2c 2 R1R2

1
2

3
4

Motion in a Ball Levitator

Mass of the ball = 8.410-3 kg . At current value of i2 = 600 mA

and the displacement x1, the magnetic force fm just cancels the
gravity force mg = 8210-3 N. Therefore, the point (x1, i2)
represents equilibrium, and a linearized equation of motion can
be determined about the equilibrium point.

(8.4 103 ) &x& = 82 103 + 14x + 0.4i 82 103

Since x = x1 + x, then &x& = &x&.
The equation in terms x of is thus
(8.4 10 3 )&x& = 14x + 0.4i
&x& = 1667x + 47.6i

DC Motor

Armature-Controlled DC Motor

Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform exists for linear differential equation for which the
transformation integral converges. Therefore, for f(t) to be transformable,
it is sufficient that

t
f (t ) e 1 dt <

for some real, positive 1. If f (t ) < Met for all positive t, the integral will
converge for > 1 > , and 1 is known as the abscissa of absolute
convergence. The Laplace transformation for a function of time, f(t), is

F ( s ) = f (t )e st dt = L{ f (t )} .
0

The inverse Laplace transform is written as

1 + j
f (t ) =
F ( s )e + st ds

2j j

Transformation

p()

M 1

P()

()

L()
()

()

L1 ()
()

System Transfer Function

System transfer function: the ratio of the Laplace transform of
the output variable to the Laplace transform of the input
variable, with all initial conditions assumed to be zero.

Example
Consider the following dynamic equation
dy
d2y
M 2 + f
+ Ky = r (t )
dt
dt

The Laplace transform of this equation is

(
0
)
dy
) + f ( sY ( s ) y (0 )) + KY ( s ) = R ( s )
M ( s 2Y ( s ) sy (0 )
dt

With zero initial conditions, the ration of Laplace transform

of y(t) to the Laplace transform of r(t) is
Output
Y ( s)
1
= G( s) =
=
Input
R ( s ) Ms 2 + fs + K

Block Diagram Models

A block diagram can be used to represent the flow of
information and the function performed by elements of the
system. It shows how the functional components are
connected and mathematical equations, usually in transfer
function form, that determine the response of each component.
Complex block diagrams can be manufactured and simplified
by a number of straightforward operations.

Ea ( s ) = R ( s ) B( s ) = R( s ) H ( s )Y ( s )
Y ( s ) = G ( s ) Ea ( s )
= G ( s )[ R( s ) H ( s )Y ( s )]
Y ( s )[1 + G ( s ) H ( s )] = G ( s ) R( s )
Y ( s)
G( s)
=
R( s ) 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )

Signal-flow Graphs
The method consists of drawing a set of interconnected nodes,
which represents the signals in the system. The lines
connecting the nodes are the branches and show the signal
flow in the system. The signal at a node is the sum of all
incoming signals and is transmitted to the other parts of the
system by the outgoing branches.

G6

node:

a variable or signal

branch:

a path between two nodes

gain of branch:

source

gain between to nodes

forward
path
G 2 node G 5
1

gain
G1
G3

loop
G4

source (I/P):

node with outgoing branches only

sink (O/P):

node with incoming branches only

path:

a continuous sequence of several branches, with

direction specified by arrow, with no branch repeating

forward path:

a path from I/P to O/P such that no node is included

more than once

loop:

a closed path returning to the starting node with no

branch repeated

path gain:

the product of transmittances (gains) in a path

loop gain:

product of gain in a loop

branch

y
sink

Masons Rule
The input-output transfer function associated with a signalflow graph is given by

Y( s )
1 N
M( s ) =
=
Gi ( s ) i ( s )

U ( s ) ( s ) i =1

where
Gi : path gain of the ith forward path
: 1-(all individual loop gains)+ (gain products of all
possible two loops that do not touch)- (gain products of
all possible three loops that do not touch)+ .
i : value of for that part of the block diagram that does
not touch the ith forward path

Example
G6

u
source

gain
G1

G2

G3

forward
path
node G
1
5

loop

branch

G4

G I = G5G2G1 ,

G II = G6G1

= 1 G3G1 G4G2G1

I = 1,

II = 1

G5G2G1 + G6G1
G=
1 G3G1 G4G2G1

y
sink

Example

End of this Chapter

1

-,