Sport Management Review, 2000, 3, 2346

23

2000 SMAANZ

Organisational Effectiveness of Hellenic

National Sports Organisations: A Multiple
Constituency Approach
Dimitra Papadimitriou
University of Athens

Peter Taylor
University of Sheffield

This study applies the multiple constituency model of organisational

effectiveness to a sample of Hellenic national sports organisations (NSOs).
A 33-item inventory of effectiveness was developed and tested to reflect
the common effectiveness-related perceptions of six constituent groups:
board members, paid administrative staff, national coaches, elite athletes,
international officials, and scientific consultants. Four hundred and twentythree respondents from 20 NSOs participated in the study. Factor analysis
resulted in the extraction of five composite effectiveness variables: calibre
of the board and external liaisons, interest in athletes, internal procedures,
long-term planning, and sport science support. The multivariate and
univariate tests of variance revealed that athletes, coaches and scientific
staff are the least satisfied groups, while international officials and board
members produce the most favourable ratings of effectiveness. Results
suggest the value of using a multiple constituency approach when examining
the effectiveness of national sports organisations.

As Cameron (1986b) observes, organisational effectiveness is a fundamental subject

in the study of organisation. As such, it has absorbed an increasing amount of research
interest. This has led to the development of various theoretical frameworks and
guidelines for formulating criteria that measure the performance of organisations in
Dimitra Papadimitriou is with the Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences,
University of Athens, 41 Ethnikis Antistassis, Dafne, 17237, Athens, Greece. E-mail:
kalivas@ee.upatras.gr Peter Taylor is with the Leisure Management Unit at the University of
Sheffield in England.

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different settings. However, many of these important theoretical and empirical works
underline an inherent conflict and frustration experienced by researchers when seeking
to determine a set of criteria to measure effectiveness (Cameron, 1986a; Cameron &
Whetten, 1983; Zammuto, 1984). The difficulties associated with studying the
construct have both conceptual and practical dimensions.
Traditionally, conceptions of organisational effectiveness have tended to be
rationalistic in nature because theorists were bounded by principles such as goal
attainment, resource attraction or the optimisation of internal procedures. Predominant
examples of these conceptions are the goal attainment (Price, 1968), the systems
resource (Yuchtman & Seashore, 1967) and the internal process (Steers, 1977) models
of effectiveness. These models, although extensively used by various researchers to
develop sets of criteria and to measure effectiveness in different organisational settings,
have suffered from a number of conceptual and practical difficulties (Cameron, 1986b;
Hannan & Freeman, 1977). Awareness of these problems renders the above models
either less applicable or quite restrictive.
Specifically, the application of the goal model (Etzioni, 1960; Price, 1968)
for assessing the effectiveness of organisations requires the assumption that
organisations have clearly stated objectives to pursue which do not come into conflict
with each other. However, many theorists claim that organisations are complex entities
and their goal determination process is inherently enigmatic (Kanter & Summers,
1987; Katz & Kahn, 1966). Also goal attainment is difficult to assess in organisations
with multiple goals, goals which are vaguely defined, or goals that are not equally
recognised by every participant. As a result, the goal model is less useful in assessing
whether an organisation is effective or not.
The systems resource approach introduced by Yuchtman and Seashore (1967)
distinguishes effective from ineffective organisations in terms of their ability to secure
resources from their environment. However, as Chelladurai (1985) points out, although
the logic of this framework is meaningful (because resource acquisition is inherently
linked with acceptability of outcomes), publicly funded organisations often have
guaranteed minimum amounts of critical inputs from governmental agencies. Thus,
in the case of externally funded organisations, the utility of this model is of limited
value in providing evidence of effectiveness.
Finally, the process model of effectiveness (Steers, 1977) focuses on the
internal procedures of organisations. According to this model, organisations that can
provide a harmonious and efficient internal environment are viewed as effective
operations. However, the shortcomings of this model lie not only in the one-sided
view of effectiveness (as important aspects such as resources, outputs and satisfaction
of clienteles or participants are ignored), but also in identifying the valued internal
processes and in developing methods to measure them.
Notwithstanding the above concerns, another problem that is common to the
goal attainment, systems resource, and internal process model of effectiveness is

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Effectiveness of Hellenic NSOs

25

their failure to consider the political nature of organisations. Non-profit organisations,

such as Hellenic national sports organisations (NSOs), are political entities whereby
multiple constituencies (volunteers, coaches, paid administrative staff, state
representatives, etc.) function together to realise organisational goals and seek
satisfaction for their needs or expectations. In these terms the multiple constituency
model can provide a more representative picture of the effectiveness of such
organisations. This is because in reality strategic constituent groups determine the
way organisations are functioning and what is to be perceived as effective or ineffective
(Connolly, Conlon, & Deutsch, 1980).
By using the concept of constituencies, researchers indicate that individuals,
groups or organisations exert influence on the activities and decisions of organisations
(Connolly et al., 1980), have identifiable common interests that they attempt to
promote, they are irreplaceable as an expert or authority group (Miles, 1980), and
therefore can legitimately form evaluations on the operation of the organisations
(Pennings & Goodman, 1977).
It is important to note that the criterion problem (what criteria should be chosen
and who dominates the assessment of an organisations effectiveness) has remained
unaddressed conceptually, as fragmentation within the political models of effectiveness
(see Zammuto, 1984) tends to emphasise the importance of some constituent groups
over others. However, what these models pinpoint is the value-oriented nature of the
effectiveness construct, which suggests strongly that organisations be aware of the
multiple constituent definition and determination of effectiveness (Connolly et al.,
1980; Zammuto, 1984).
Implicit in the multiple interest-oriented definition of effectiveness are also
the notions of value, change and conflict or paradox, as these have been explored by
Cameron (1986b), Quinn and Cameron (1983), and Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983).
More specifically, the competing values approach of effectiveness suggested by Quinn
and Rohrbaugh (1983) constitutes a significant attempt to integrate the relevant
literature by determining the construct space of effectiveness as this is perceived by
organisational theorists. The results of Quinn and Rohrboughs study (1983) reduce
Campbells initial list of 30 effectiveness criteria to 17 measures, identifying an implicit
theoretical framework. This framework, reflecting a balanced set of effectiveness
indicators, consists of three value dimensions, which are orthogonal to each other
and relate to organisational structure (stability/flexibility), orientation (internal/
external) and means and ends (process/outcomes). The competing values approach
explicitly acknowledges the notions of value choice and contradiction in the study
and measurement of effectiveness. According to this approach, organisations that
desire to become effective should be in a position to harmonise competing value
dimensions of their activity and performance.
The advantage of the multiple constituency approach over the competing
values approach of effectiveness lies in the question of who is selecting the appropriate

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Papadimitriou and Taylor

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criteria for assessing the construct. The competing values approach, although allowing
for value articulation, represents a shared construct which reflects the limits of the
Campbell list and the panelists common exposure to prior writings and research
(Lewis & Minton, 1986, p. 522). Further, its empirical application restricts the selection
of effectiveness measures to those incorporated into the four suggested models of the
competing values approach. Since the multiple constituency model does not impose
any particular set of effectiveness criteria, it overcomes the criticism related to criteria
choice. Nevertheless, the outcomes of the present study could be incorporated into
the competing values approach in future studies.
Given the matters reviewed above, it becomes apparent that an overall
statement about the effectiveness of an organisation is neither valuable nor desirable.
Furthermore, universally acceptable, objective, stable and transferable measures of
effectiveness are less apparent in the recent literature on organisational effectiveness
(Cameron & Whetten, 1983; Chelladurai, 1987; Zammuto, 1984). Given that the
criterion problem of effectiveness remains complex, the study of the construct may
benefit from a research reorientation that focuses on a specific organisational setting
and the perspectives of the coalitions associated with its function.
The purpose of this work is to apply the strategic constituency approach to
NSOs by investigating whether multiple constituency-related expectations concerning
the functioning and outcomes of NSOs demonstrate diversity and incongruence. Three
questions particularly germane to this approach are investigated:
1) What constituencies exist for the Hellenic national sports organisations
environment?
2) What is the dimensional structure of the commonly accepted effectiveness
criteria presented by strategic groups of the Hellenic NSOs?
3) Are the constituencies of the NSOs differentiated in terms of their effectiveness
ratings?
Over the past decade, several organisation theorists have defined effectiveness
in terms of interests and expectations (cf. Cohen, 1993; Herman & Renz, 1997;
McKenna, 1999), but few have undertaken empirical investigations to identify and
compare the strategic sets of interests influencing the internal environment of
organisations. This is a significant oversight in the study of effectiveness. If there is
evidence that the strategic constituencies differ in the way they perceive organisational
effectiveness, then the construct may need to be defined and studied by focusing on
single groups. However, if there is considerable convergence among the effectivenessrelated views of strategic constituent groups, this indicates that there may be one
widely acceptable set of procedures and outcomes on which a sport organisation
should focus.

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Effectiveness of Hellenic NSOs

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Research on Effectiveness in Sport Settings

Sports-related empirical research on organisational effectiveness, although generally
limited to the works of Canadian researchers, has already established some valuable
findings on the effectiveness of national sports organisations. This body of work can
be classified into two clusters. The first cluster (e.g., Chelladurai, Szyszlo & Haggerty,
1987; Frisby, 1986) explores or tests the dimensional content of effectiveness based
on the systems-oriented view of organisations. The conclusion of this work is that
the three previously discussed effectiveness models must complement each other if a
comprehensive picture of NSOs effectiveness is to be obtained.
The second cluster (e.g., Chelladurai & Haggerty, 1991; Morrow &
Chelladurai, 1992; Vail, 1985), although acknowledging the theoretical value of the
multiple constituency approach, investigates the construct by either examining a small
number of constituent groups or imposing effectiveness variables on NSOs.
Specifically, Vail (1985) examined constituent views on a set of pre-determined
variables: adaptability, communication, finance, growth, human resources, and
planning. A study by Chelladurai and Haggerty (1991) explored differences between
voluntary and professional administrators perceptions of the effectiveness of the
processes, decision making and personnel relations. Furthermore, Morrow and
Chelladurai (1992) compare between-group differences in perceptions regarding the
contribution of structural and process characteristics to the overall effectiveness of
one organisation Synchro Canada.
The conclusions of these researchers provide conflicting evidence about the
viability of the multiple constituent view of organisational effectiveness. Vail (1985)
found different organisational groups to agree upon the importance of considering a
selected set of systems-oriented criteria to measure the effectiveness of Canadian
NSOs. Chelladurai and Haggerty (1991) provide evidence of significant differences
between professional and the volunteer administrators in their perceptions of the
effectiveness of process characteristics of Canadian NSOs. The latter study also reveals
that volunteers and professional administrators express similarly high levels of job
satisfaction, which implies that Canadian NSOs have managed to meet the needs of
different constituent groups at the same time. Morrow and Chelladurai (1992) found
that constituent groups affiliated with Synchro Canada were fairly congruent in their
perceptions about the contribution of structural and process characteristics to the
overall effectiveness of the Canadian NSO. However, in the same study, one important
constituent group, the coaches, manifested the lowest ratings in all the effectiveness
dimensions examined, which implies some disagreement within the organisation over
structural and process aspects of its operation.
A few researchers have studied multiple constituent aspects of organisational
effectiveness (i.e., Cameron, 1978; Chelladurai & Haggerty, 1991; Friedlander &
Pickle, 1968; Morrow & Chelladurai, 1992; Tsui, 1990; Vail, 1985). However, most

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research into organisational effectiveness has been carried out in non-sport settings.
As a result, little clear evidence is available for the psychometric properties of multiconstituent sources for defining effectiveness in sporting settings, such as NSOs.
Thus, the task of determining whether a multi-constituent approach would improve
effectiveness assessment in a sporting context needs further exploration.

Method
Research Site
In terms of their mission, Hellenic NSOs are not dramatically differentiated from
NSOs (which in other countries are sometimes called National Federations or
National Governing Bodies). As members of their respective international federation
(IF), NSOs have been formed to fulfil two objectives: (1) to promote a particular
sport within the nation, and (2) to advance national sport teams in international
competitions. Although, previous researchers have commented on the conflicting
nature of the two particular objectives (Chelladurai, 1985; Chelladurai & Haggerty,
1991), the Greek government (represented by the General Secretariat of Sports) seems
to give greater rewards to those sports organisations which aim to ensure that talented
Greek athletes are supported and motivated by high standards of technical and
administrative assistance in order to improve the nations competitive level in
international competition. This, in combination with a lack of resources, has
contributed to a shift in the strategic focus of the NSOs towards the high performance
sector, relying heavily on voluntary local sports clubs to promote and develop the
sport at the grassroots level. The activity of NSOs in the developmental sector, though
vital for the growth of the sport that each governs, is limited to fragmented funding
and educational programs for voluntary local clubs, depending on the resources
available. Nevertheless, given the instrumental role of the NSOs in the Hellenic sport
delivery system, the concept of organisational effectiveness is of particular interest
to them. From another perspective, a large number of voluntary board members,
technical staff (i.e., officials, coaches, medical and scientific staff) and paid
administrative employees are all contributing to the operation of these NSOs. However,
to what extent this effort results in effective operation, both for internal groups and
the elite athletes has not been investigated by either academics or practitioners.

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Effectiveness of Hellenic NSOs

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Sample of NSOs
The sample of organisations for this study consisted of 20 Hellenic NSOs which
have a permanent office location and employ at least two paid administrative staff.
All the organisations sampled are controlled and managed by powerful boards of
directors and most of their financial resources are generated from the General
Secretariat of Sports (GSS), the Greek government agency responsible for sports
policies and legislation. The size and age of these NSOs varies from long-established
operations with up to 50 full-time administrative staff, to small, recently formed
organisations, which employ fewer than 10 paid administrative staff. Many of the
organisations sampled operate with the assistance of at least one full-time national
coach and one scientific consultant. The latter constitutes the link between the coaching
staff and the administrative personnel, and provides sports science advice which helps
the NSOs advance the competitive level of elite Greek athletes internationally.

Constituency Identification
In order to obtain data for the first objective of the study, which was to identify the
relevant constituencies of NSOs, the general manager of each NSO was interviewed
to report groups that he/she had interacted with previously in connection with matters
related to the organisation. The question asked was formulated as follows: The NSOs
are operating with the assistance of a distinct number of groups. Below is a list of
such interest groups. Based on your experience, circle the groups that you have dealt
with previously to carry out organisational activities. General managers were
encouraged to mention all the different groups that they had associated with on a
regular basis.
Data obtained from the general managers of the NSOs were compiled into a
list of organisational constituencies, along with the frequency number indicating how
many managers reported them. Eleven different constituent groups were reported as
having associated with the operation of the Greek NSOs. These comprise board
members, paid administrative staff, national coaches, officials (international and
national), scientific staff, high performance athletes, the GSS, the Greek Olympic
Committee, the National Centre for Sports Research (NCSR), the IFs, and private
sponsors. Six of the eleven reported constituent groups were further investigated in
this study for effectiveness-related perspectives with respect to the operation of the
NSOs. These were: board members, national coaches, scientific staff, elite athletes,
international officials, and paid administrative staff.
The boards of directors were included in the sample because of their critical
and direct role in the leadership and management of these organisations (i.e., policy
development, decision-making, staffing). The paid administrative staff were examined
because they exert influence on the performance of these organisations by sustaining

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their day-to-day operation and implementing board decisions. The national coaches,
scientific staff and elite athletes were considered because they serve a particularly
distinctive function in terms of these organisations delivery of high performance
national teams. High performance results at the national and especially international
level influence the ability of sporting organisations to attract more media exposure,
participants, resources and legitimacy. Finally, officials were examined for
effectiveness-related perspectives because of their indispensable role in the
implementation of the NSOs competition programs. However, due to difficulties
obtaining accurate sampling frames for national officials, only internationally qualified
officials were surveyed for this study.
It is important to note that two constituent groups, although influential for the
operation of the Greek NSOs, were excluded from the sample of this study. These
were the GSS and the IFs . The General Secretariat of Sports denied provision of data
on the effectiveness of the NSOs, while the IFs were excluded because in the case of
smaller Hellenic NSOs they represented a constituency with which the NSO only
collaborated on an ad hoc basis. Furthermore, the remaining three constituent groups
(i.e., the Greek Olympic Committee, the NCSR, and private sponsors) were not
explored further in this study because only occasionally do they influence the operation
of the sports organisations. Specifically, the NSOs are required to cooperate with the
Greek Olympic Committee for only a short period of time in advance of the Olympic
Games. The NCSR appeared to be an external constituent group that has established
some working relations with only eight NSOs. Private sponsors were reported by
only seven NSOs. The exclusion of these three constituent groups was based on the
general mangers assertion that each has only infrequent interaction with the NSOs,
and weak impact on their functioning.

NSO Effectiveness Inventory

After identifying the six major constituent groups, semi-structured interviews were
conducted with individuals associated with each group. The purpose of these
interviews was to identify factors that influence perceptions of effectiveness of
Hellenic NSOs. The semi-structured interviews lasted from one to two hours,
discussing various sources of effectiveness or ineffectiveness in the operation of
NSOs, as well as organisational characteristics that reflect the overall effectiveness
of a sports organisation. Based on this set of qualitative data, an initial inventory of
72 statements of effectiveness was developed for a survey research instrument to be
used to assess organisational effectiveness. The items in this preliminary inventory
represented effectiveness determinants mentioned by more than one constituent group.
The 72-item inventory was improved through the procedure of validity testing.
A panel of 13 experts was invited to screen the instrument for its content validity.
These individuals were selected based on their academic, research or administrative

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experience. As a result of the experts comments, it was determined that some

statements should be deleted from the scale either because they were vague or because
they overlapped substantially with other items in the questionnaire. In addition, all
negatively worded items were found to create difficulties for some experts. As a
result they were rephrased. The final effectiveness inventory consisted of 40 items.
A seven-point rating scale (1-Strongly Disagree, 4-Neutral, 7-Strongly Agree)
was used in the survey research instrument to assess the effectiveness items. The
items in the questionnaire were introduced with relevant instructions and the following
statement: Please read carefully one by one the following sentences, which describe
various aspects of the NSO functioning, and based on your experience, express with
a number below the extent to which these attributes characterise the operation of
your NSO.

Respondents
Stratified random sampling was employed to identify the respondents to be used in
this study. This approach was suitable because it ensured that the different constituent
groups and sport organisations were sufficiently represented in the total selected
sample. Therefore, two stratification factors were used in conjunction: organisational
position and sport. A uniform fraction was maintained across all 20 NSOs. As regards
stratification by position, large numbers of elite athletes, paid administrative staff
and board members, necessitated the selection of one in two. The remaining constituent
groups (i.e., international officials, coaches, scientific consultants) were included as
populations.
As a result, 748 postal questionnaires were addressed to 140 board members,
150 paid administrative staff, 128 national coaches, 26 scientific consultants, 144
international officials, and 160 national team athletes. A total of 423 completed
questionnaires were returned and considered appropriate for analysis a response
rate of 56.5%. The representation of the six constituent groups in the final sample
was: board members 19.4% (n=82), paid administrative staff 22.5% (n=95), national
coaches 14.2% (n=60), scientific consultants 3.3% (n=14), international officials
10.2% (n=43), and national team athletes 30.4% (n=129). For the analysis, the coaches
were combined with the scientific consultants because of the noticeably small number
of scientific consultants. The combination was supported by conceptual analysis and
by statistical analysis, which found that the two group and comparable mean scores
on the effectiveness items.

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Results
Factor Analysis
Exploratory factor analysis was employed to delineate the underlying dimensional
structure of the 40-item inventory of effectiveness. A combined factor solution based
on the data of all groups pooled together was necessary in order to enable betweengroup comparisons. However, in an initial stage of determining the number of factors
to be extracted, principal components analysis with varimax rotation was performed
on two subsets of the total data, and the results (though not reported in this paper)
were also considered for screening items. The first subset of respondents consisted
of the technically oriented groups of athletes, and coaches including scientific
consultants (n=203), while the remaining constituent groups provided the
administrative-related subset of data (n=220). International officials joined the second
subset because they demonstrated similar variance to the administrative group in the
majority of effectiveness items. These preliminary factor analyses of the scale
suggested a five-factor solution, which was interpretable and identifiable in both
subsets. However, seven original variables showed either loading complexity or low
communalities and had to be discarded.
Following the preparatory analysis, the final factor analysis resulted in
identifying five effectiveness factors, which were based on 33 effectiveness variables
and the entire set of data. Principal components extraction and varimax rotation were
used. All extracted factors were interpretable, and together accounted for 66% of the
original variance in the data. Table 1 presents the factor structure and loadings of the
33-item inventory, as well as the internal consistency estimates (Cronbachs alpha)
for each factor. The naming of the new factors, or composite effectiveness variables,
is based on the content of the statements included in the respective factors.

Constituent Group Differences

Factor scores for each factor were exported, and multivariate analysis of variance
(MANOVA) was performed to determine whether the perceptual effectiveness ratings
represented by the five factors differed on average across the constituent groups of
the NSOs. This test was complemented by all univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA)
and pairwise multivariate Hotellings T2-tests to determine which particular
effectiveness variables and which specific pair of groups contributed to the significant
multivariate findings. Further, each significant pairwise multivariate test was followed
by univariate t-tests to determine which of the dependent variables contributed
significantly to the pairwise difference. In keeping with Stevens (1992) suggestion,

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Effectiveness of Hellenic NSOs

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Table 1: Factor Structure of the Effectiveness Inventory

Items

F1

F2

F3

F4

F5

.216

.252

.229

.189

.190

.113

.298

.164

.287

.256

.214

.009

.422

.407

.368

.006

.406

.168

.242

.005

.348

.276

.263

.004

.246

.248

.345

.235

.169

.296

.206

.285

.219

.381

.223

.283

.147

.371

.182

.281

.115

.526

-.113

.218

.309

.226

.196

.202

.299

.242

.133

.253

.377

.507

.313

.240

.004

.421
.319

.694
.750

.221
.244

.182
.112

.147
.163

.196

.719

.113

.143

.244

.257

.711

.008

.260

.223

.460

.528

.293

.229

.163

FACTOR 1: Calibre of the Board and External Liaisons

The board members demonstrate keen working
.670
spirit for voluntary services
The board members share sports administrative
.686
experience and knowledge
The board members work for the benefit of the
.737
NSO without external influences
The NSO allocates its financial resources with
.441
great care
There is good collaboration between the technical
.687
staff and the board members
The board members make correct and
.664
workable decisions
Major problems in the NSO are thoroughly
.652
analysed for identifying realistic solutions
The NSO is well-informed on international admin.
.576
developments concerning the sport
The NSO responds promptly to the administrative
.600
changes of the sport
The NSO promotes consistently its public and
.603
international relations
The NSO retains efficient collaboration with the
.502
government
The NSO keeps open channels of constructive
.601
communication with the unions of different skill
groups (e.g. athletes, coaches, officials, paid staff)
The NSO advertises adequately the represented sport .628
FACTOR 2: Interest in Athletes
The formation and functioning of the national teams
of the NSO are ruled by fair and transparent
regulations and procedures
The NSO keeps the spirit of its elite athletes high
The national team athletes are adequately assisted
by the NSO in technical aspects (e.g. sports
competitions, training camps and sports equipment)
The NSO covers the basic needs of the national
team athletes (i.e. board, lodging, transportation)
The NSO presents attractive incentives to talented
athletes to pursue high performance attainments
A co-operative atmosphere exists between the
NSO and its athletes

Continued

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34

Papadimitriou and Taylor

Items
FACTOR 3: Internal Procedures
The administrative responsibilities of the NSO are
assigned appropriately
The NSO has the necessary technology to
operate properly
The staff of the NSO know how to perform
their task well
The routine problems of the NSO find quick and
efficient solutions
The NSO communicates promptly and adequately
with all external interested parties
The board members and the paid administrative staff
of the NSO collaborate harmoniously
FACTOR 4: Long-term Planning
The NSO has explicit long-term plans for the
development of the sport
The NSO has stated long-term objectives for the
high performance sector
The NSO has developed particular programs to
achieve its objectives
The NSO evaluates and improves the efficiency of
its programs periodically
FACTOR 5: Sports Science Support
The NSO provides medical cover for the national
teams
The national teams of the NSO enjoy a high
standard of training conditions
The NSO collaborates with the NCSR for the
sufficient scientific support of the national teams
The NSO shows interest in conducting or
participating in research projects which benefit the
represented sport
Cronbachs Alpha

F1

F2

F3

F4

F5

.433

.202

.582

.245

.004

.009

.001

.697

.267

.151

.241

.147

.673

.100

.191

.160

.271

.619

.203

.003

.326

.248

.650

.179

.152

.444

.107

.565

.172

.117

.309

.217

.242

.761

.184

.318

.312

.228

.684

.202

.270

.214

.232

.774

.152

.393

.247

.310

.614

.155

.007

.571

.005

.165

.518

.272

.333

.171

.148

.520

.228

.269

.138

.008

.775

.241

.114

.259

.274

.616

.94

.90

.87

.91

.78

NSO: National Sports Organisation

NCSR: National Centre for Sports Research

the set of univariate F-tests was controlled for inflated Type I error rate by the
Bonferroni inequality technique. Thus, the univariate F-tests were conducted for
significance at an alpha level of .01 (.05/5) and the univariate tests for each pairwise
test were performed at the .01(.05/5) level of significance.
The five strategic groups associated with the operation of the Hellenic NSOs
share effectiveness-related perspectives which reflect various organisational attributes.

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35

Effectiveness of Hellenic NSOs

Five effectiveness factors represent adequately the perspectives of the constituent

groups participating in this study (see Table 1). The first factor, calibre of board and
external liaisons, demonstrates the important role of the voluntary boards in
determining the effectiveness of the NSOs in terms of policy formulation, decisionmaking, staff management and external liaisons. The second factor, interest in athletes,
emphasises the NSOs effectiveness in providing appropriate assistance to national
teams in order to achieve a high standard of sports performance. The third factor,
internal procedures, reflects the NSOs effectiveness regarding coordinated
administrative activities in their internal environment. The fourth factor, long-term
planning, mirrors the administrative activities of planning and programming, which
were differentiated, in statistical terms, from the other internal processes. The last
factor, sports science support, refers to the NSOs ability to support a sports science
approach to the technical domain of activity.
The means (which are factor scores, and are therefore scored in standard
deviation units from the grand mean) and standard deviations for each group on the
effectiveness dimensions are shown in Table 2. It should be pointed out that elite
athletes gave the lowest average ratings for all five effectiveness factors (mean values
ranged from -.606 to -.007). Furthermore, the ratings of technical staff disclosed
reservations about the ability of NSOs administration to utilise resources effectively
(means ranged from -.223 to -.002). The most favourable mean values were generated
by board members and international officials (means ranged from .113 to .639 and
.169 to .411, respectively) who rated NSOs comparably high on all effectiveness
factors. Paid administrative staff were consistent in manifesting mid-range ratings
(means ranged from -.251 to .504).
The MANOVA results supported the hypothesis of a significant overall
difference in effectiveness ratings between the five groups (p<.001). This shows that
perceptions on the effectiveness of the Hellenic NSOs, reflected by the five factors
used, are differentiated between constituent groups. The constituent groups examined
did not rate equally the various attributes of effectiveness of the Hellenic NSOs.
The univariate F-tests for the five factors also show consistent results, which
confirms the influence of the constituency affiliation on determining effectiveness
perceptions (see Table 2). The magnitude of the F-ratios indicates that the effectiveness
factors interest in athletes, and calibre of board and external liaisons differentiate
most of the constituent groups perceptions regarding the NSOs effectiveness, while
the variables internal procedures, sports science support and long-term planning
also contribute significantly.

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Table 2: Means and Standard Deviations for Each Group on the Five
Effectiveness Factors
Constituent Groups
Variables
Calibre of Board & M
SD
External Liaisons
Interest in Athletes M
SD
Internal Procedures M
SD
Long-term Planning M
SD
Sports Science
M
SD
Support
n

Total

F (4, 414)

.639
.845
.305
.673
.359
.870
.344
.845
.113
1.04
82

-.005
1.03
.504
.780
-.004
1.11
-.251
.938
.010
1.03
95

-.223
.966
-.002
1.09
-.165
.933
-.003
1.11
-.177
1.03
74

.169
.909
.228
.922
.316
.806
.181
.911
.411
.876
43

-.281
.934
-.606
.975
-.195
.938
-.007
.986
-.162
.914
129

-.008
1.00
1.25
1.00
-.001
1.00
-.002
1.00
-.005
1.00
423

13.37**
25.49**
5.69**
4.69**
3.70*

(1) Board Members; (2) Paid Administrative Staff; (3) Technical Staff; (4) International
Officials; (5) National Team Athletes.
*p<.05
** p<.001

The follow-up pairwise univariate T2-tests are in general terms supportive of

the above findings (see Table 3 for these results). These tests reveal that there are
significant differences between board members and elite athletes on all factors except
the one concerning sports science support; between board members and technical
staff on two factors concerning the calibre of board and internal procedures; and
between board members and paid administrative staff on the calibre of the board and
long-term planning. Comparisons between the effectiveness ratings of international
officials and board members and between paid administrative staff the international
officials produced no significant difference in any extracted factor. Furthermore,
significant differences were detected between some groups on the factor concerning
interest in athletes. Therefore, it appears that board members perceptions are different
to those of elite athletes and the perceptions of a few groups are differentiated
significantly in issues related to interest in athletes.

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Table 3: Pairwise Tests for Differences Between Constituent Groups

GROUP PAIRS
1vs2 1vs3

1vs4

Hotellings T2
= .01
.000** .000** .030

1vs5

2vs3

2vs4

2vs5

3vs4

3vs5

4vs5

.000** .010*

.003*

.000** .001*

.013

.000**

1.00

-.708

1.00

.090

Calibre of
Board

.000** .000** .109

.000** 1.00

Interest in
Athlete

1.00

.261

.000** .002** 1.00

.000** 1.00

.000** .000**

Internal
Procedures

.079

.008** 1.00

.001** 1.00

.600

1.00

.125

1.00

.043*

Long-term
Planning

.001** .196

1.00

.027*

1.00

.212

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

Sports
Science
Support

1.00

1.00

.472

.718

.957

.498

.027*

1.00

.015

1.00

.664

.358

(1) Board Members; (2) Paid Administrative Staff; (3) Technical Staff; (4) International
Officials; (5) National Team Athletes.
* p< .05
** p< .01

Discussion
The findings from the factor analysis substantiate the general premise that
organisational effectiveness is a multi-dimensional construct. However, the five
effectiveness factors extracted in the context of the Hellenic NSOs are only partially
consistent with previous measures suggested by Chelladurai et al. (1987), Chelladurai
and Haggerty (1991), Morrow and Chelladurai (1992) and Vail (1985) in reference
to Canadian NSOs. For example, previous studies have described process
characteristics (e.g., work flow, personnel relations, resources, programming, planning,
etc.) of NSOs as contributing to effectiveness. This was also found in the present
study. However, the investigation of the Hellenic NSOs reveals two additional factors
that have not been noted in the Canadian work. These reflect the critical role of the

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voluntary boards and the satisfaction of national team athletes expectations and
requirements while participating in the preparation of national teams. The preliminary
interviews also showed that these two broad effectiveness factors reflect strongly the
contemporary preferences of the NSOs constituent groups, thus influencing
effectiveness ratings.
From a theoretical perspective, the five-factor effectiveness model proposed
for the NSOs provides some substance for the conclusions of Kanter and Summers
(1987). They suggest that organisational performance measures for a non-profit
organisation, which are based on the principle of multiple interests, serve three main
functions: institutional, managerial, and technical. The first factor of the presented
model, calibre of the board and external liaisons, supports the notion of effectiveness
characterised by measures reflecting renewal of legitimacy. The leadership of NSOs
ensures institutional support by engaging in activities, which link the organisations
to their strategic environment (i.e., public relations, promotion, collaboration, external
communication). These measures embody primarily the interests and expectations
of the board members who hold most responsibility for these activities in NSOs.
The third and fourth factors of the model, internal procedures and long-term
planning, facilitate managerial functions (i.e., structure, expertise, resource allocation,
planning and programming) and represent the immediate interests of paid
administrative staff and technical staff who work within the internal environment of
the NSOs. Finally, the second and last factors, interest in athletes and sports science
support, depict performance measures which provide information on how well sports
organisations deliver their services and programs in relation to national teams. These
measures serve the interests of athletes who participate in these teams as well as the
technical staff who engage in the supervision and technical support of these teams.
The acknowledgement of numerous interests and perspectives in the definition
of organisational effectiveness may result in contradictions between effectiveness
measures (Quinn & Cameron, 1983; Cameron, 1986b). In the present model competing
expectations are apparent between the effectiveness items of the first and the third
factors (calibre of board and internal procedures). A few items in the first factor
encourage emphasis on external relationships (e.g., awareness of developments and
collaboration with the government and other external parties), whereas effectiveness
measures in the third factor reflect internal relationships (e.g., internal efficiency,
responsiveness to problems and developments, and prompt decision-making). In other
words, the effectiveness achievement, in the terms described by these two factors
together, is contingent on the extent to which Hellenic NSOs raise standards of internal
management and, at the same time, comply with external institutional rules.
Similarly, organisations operating in a scarce resource and uncertain
environment, like that of Hellenic NSOs, may encounter serious difficulties in
balancing expectations in the second factor, interest in athletes, with interests in the

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39

third and fourth factors, internal procedures and long-term planning. This is contrary
to the assertion that the interests of athletes are served better by a well co-ordinated
internal environment. However, it is not uncommon for Hellenic NSOs to operate
without the necessary technology or to delay training of administrative staff in order
to generate resources for training camps and travel of national teams. Equally, activity
evaluation and proper planning are constantly neglected to generate resources for
rewarding outstanding sports performance. This implies that in order to obtain positive
ratings of the effectiveness model from more than one constituency, Hellenic NSOs
need to be able to balance competing expectations in their strategies and programs.
Since competing expectations derive from the different perspectives of different
constituencies, this is a feature of NSO administration that is likely to be found in
NSOs of other nations.
Another interesting finding from this study is the relationship among the
effectiveness ratings of the different constituent groups. Previous findings have been
equivocal in this respect. On the one hand, Friedlander and Pickle (1968) and Tsui
(1990) provided evidence of significant differences across job categories in
effectiveness perceptions. On the other hand, Cameron (1978), Chelladurai et al.,
(1987) and Morrow and Chelladurai (1992) reported similar effectiveness ratings
across job categories. The findings of the present study are in contrast to the latter
group because they clearly demonstrate lack of consensus in the effectiveness
perceptions of different interest groups associated with Hellenic NSOs. This implies
that little agreement can be reached between the groups about what constitutes a
desirable level of effectiveness for the specific organisations. In this case, the multiple
constituent model in studying and measuring the effectiveness is particularly
advantageous because it enables a focus on the perceptions of varied constituent
groups. This may be useful insomuch as it assists attainment of a minimal level of
satisfaction for each constituent group, and the continuity of its transaction with the
organisation.
Different groups affiliated with the Hellenic NSOs have very different views
on how well the organisations manage their processes and services at the present
time and what should be the desired outcomes in both administrative and technical
activities. One reason for the relative dissatisfaction by some constituencies may be
that Hellenic NSOs have operated for years in a scarce resource environment (due to
falling public financial assistance). This has imposed tight limits on the ability of the
organisations to meet expectations by introducing modern managerial procedures,
and expanding activities. Hellenic NSOs are also restricted by a legislative framework
that legitimises a direct, though inconsistent, government involvement in their
administration and programs.
The finding that voluntary board members and paid administrative staff may
have different perceptions regarding the effectiveness of NSOs has been supported

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by the work of Chelladurai and Haggerty (1991). As they explain, these perceptual
differences are a direct result of the nature and degree of involvement by the two
groups of administrators (p. 132). The fact that board members introduce policies
and processes in NSOs but are less frequently involved in the implementation of
decisions and programs no doubt causes more favourable views compared to those
of paid administrative staff who are obligated to make these policy decisions work.
Another interpretation could be that the different perceptions of effectiveness reflect
conflicting views on the way Hellenic NSOs should be structured and operated. The
long involvement of paid administrative staff in the Hellenic NSOs functioning may
have strengthened the perception that their effectiveness hinges on the extent to which
the efforts of both groups are harmoniously coordinated, in a structure which balances
their contribution.
The results reveal also that there were some significant differences in the
effectiveness-related ratings given by the technical staff and voluntary board members.
Table 2 shows that coaches and scientific consultants (i.e., technical staff) perceive
the NSOs to be less effective in all the effectiveness variables extracted, compared to
the more favourable perceptions expressed by the board members. These perceptions
may signify another set of different expectations regarding the priority concerns of
the Hellenic NSOs and the best practices to support results in the technical and
administrative sector. The fact that coaches and scientific staff are involved primarily
in the technical activity of the NSOs predisposes these groups to be more interested
in an NSO, which responds effectively to administrative aspects affecting the technical
domain. However, the comparably low ratings by the technical group for all five
effectiveness factors indicate a more general disagreement between the two groups
in a number of organisational attributes: decision-making processes, programming,
evaluation, internal procedures, athlete assistance, and scientific support.
Furthermore, the differences in the effectiveness perceptions observed between
the board members and the elite athletes have managerial implications. They also
suggest an important theoretical dilemma. On the one hand, the relatively favourable
ratings of the voluntary NSO boards show that the organisations, based on the power
perspective (Pfeffer & Salancik, 1978), manage well to secure continued support
from the most powerful constituency. On the other hand, the less favourable ratings
by the elite athletes, if the prime beneficiary approach is used (Chelladurai, 1987),
indicates the difficulties of the same organisations in meeting the needs of the very
constituency group whose continuity in participation legitimises the existence and
public support of the NSOs.
Realistically, it is reasonable that the expectations of the athletes and board
members diverge. Elite athletes care about programs, expertise and assistance in
order to be able to improve their performance; whereas board members struggle to
maintain power by responding to expectations from various external and internal

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41

constituencies. Furthermore, in a scarce resource environment the different demands

of the above groups may well counteract each other. However, the diversity observed
in the ratings of effectiveness between the board members and athletes raises the
issue of whose preferences those of athletes or of board members hold primacy in
the operation of the Hellenic NSOs. The same dilemma, power versus social justice,
represents a major theoretical concern in the multiple constituency approach to
organisational effectiveness.
In regard to this, Cameron (1986b) suggests that failing to balance opposite
expectations implies an organisational situation vulnerable to an undesirable
phenomenon which he calls schismogenesis or system disintegration. Schismogenesis
is a process of self-reinforcement where an action or attribute in the organisation
perpetuates itself until it becomes extreme and therefore dysfunctional (p. 546).
Similarly, Chelladurai (1987) argues, To keep the prime beneficiary in perspective
is to keep the ultimate purpose of the organisation in perspective (p. 45). Accordingly,
the managerial implication for improving effectiveness in the Hellenic NSOs is not
only to admit the presence of simultaneous conflicting expectations, but also to follow
measures which facilitate the concurrent pursuit of these opposites.
From another perspective, the fact that board members expressed high
effectiveness ratings for all composite variables seems to indicate that perceptions of
effectiveness are connected with control of resources and power in Hellenic NSOs.
Board members, as mentioned before, have significant control and responsibility
over formulating rules and policies, setting goals, allocating resources, and staffing.
Their favourable ratings indicate that NSOs seek first to satisfy the demands of this
powerful constituency. Although it may seem unusual that a voluntary group seeks
deliberately to satisfy its own expectations within a non-profit sport setting, it is
important not to overlook the fact that elected board members represent external
political views of effectiveness of NSOs (i.e., local clubs, political parties, and their
own interests) which they may endeavour to satisfy in order to maintain power. Another
possible explanation for the consistently favourable ratings by the board members is
that they are prone to favourable bias in assessment, even if the NSOs are ineffective
in many aspects. The favourable views of the officials in regard to the effectiveness
of the NSOs operation could be explained by both their amateur status and their
tight links with the boards of NSOs. It is the case, particularly for most individual
sports, that international officials are themselves members of the board or are appointed
and called to officiate by it. It is also important to note that the results may differ
considerably if all officials had been surveyed instead of only the internationally
qualified ones.
The less favourable effectiveness ratings by the technical staff (i.e., coaches
and scientific consultants) and athletes might demonstrate a more bias-free picture
of current Hellenic NSOs. The relatively low scores by them on all effectiveness

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factors indicate that these two constituent groups did not view their sports organisations
as being particularly effective in exploring needs and accomplishing outputs. This
means that the expectations of these groups seem not to have been met in terms of
board functionality, planning, attention to elite athletes problems, quality
programming, and a scientific approach to technical activities. It is important to note,
as the interviews reveal, that the technical staff and elite athletes contribute
considerably to the effectiveness outcomes of NSOs. The competitive performance
of elite athletes, which is supervised by the technical staff, enhances the sports image,
and the boards prestige, which can lead to higher resources for the NSO. Therefore,
if an NSO does not address these constituencies expectations successfully, it will be
decreasingly effective which, in essence, reduces the legitimacy of its claim to public
subsidy.
The paid administrative staff gave moderate effectiveness ratings in terms of
the composite variables. These can be interpreted as indicating that this group is
generally caught between and has sympathy with both extremes. However, for the
factor interest in athletes the ratings by paid administrative staff are significantly
more favourable and approach the ratings of the board, which reinforces the concerns
expressed earlier regarding the relative dissatisfaction of technical staff and athletes.
In this important dimension of effectiveness, paid administrative staff may not be
acting as mediators between board members and athletes. For the remaining
effectiveness factors, paid administrative staff exhibit lower scores than board
members, implying different priorities and expectations and more of a mediator
position.

Concluding Comments
The findings of this study provide substantial support for the application of the multiple
constituency approach to measuring organisational effectiveness. The results provide
a framework to assess the effectiveness of Hellenic NSOs. Furthermore, they
strengthen the theoretical assumption which dominates the more recent literature
that organisational effectiveness is a multi-dimensional and multi-perceptual construct.
The general managers of NSOs reported a number of constituent groups in
which it had interacted to carry out NSO-related matters. Some of these constituent
groups (i.e., board members, paid admininistrative staff, coaches, scientific
consultants, and officials) are linked with the NSOs by task dependence. Other groups,
such as athletes, government agency and international governing bodies, are linked
by resource and service dependence.
The multi-dimensional nature of the effectiveness construct is demonstrated
by the five-factor model, which was extracted from measures presented by the five

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Effectiveness of Hellenic NSOs

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constituencies. The content of these measures reflects various organisational aspects

specific to the Hellenic NSOs at a specific time. In agreement with previous work
(e.g., Cameron, 1986b; Chelladurai, 1987) the outcomes from a factor analysis support
two important observations. The first is that the management of NSOs needs to adopt
multiple strategies in order to enhance effectiveness. As Cameron (1986b) put it,
Managers must implement a variety of strategies with a variety of targets in order to
ensure effectiveness in a variety of areas over time (p. 108). This study showed that
these different strategies are associated with satisfactory results in different
organisational aspects of the NSOs (i.e., decision-making, liaisons with the
environment, athletes needs and expectations, internal processes, and planning).
The second important observation of the five-factor model reflecting the
effectiveness of the Hellenic NSOs is the presence of conflict. Consistent with the
findings of Cameron (1986b) and Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983), the extracted results
suggest a need for managerial strategies which aim to attain balance between opposite
expectations. The multiple constituency approach to effectiveness sheds light on a
few organisational characteristics (i.e., client satisfaction versus internal efficiency;
responsiveness and fast execution versus collaboration with the environment) which
may create conflict in the management of NSOs. However, as Cameron (1986b)
observes, improvements in organisational effectiveness in a multiple constituency
situation invite contradictory strategies in order to satisfy conflicting preferences
and expectations. In other words, NSOs which identify and reconcile the multiple
demands of their interest groups would be in the best position to construct an effective
environment and produce results.
Finally, a clear observation to emerge is that different constituent groups hold
different perceptions. This suggests that a rethink is needed about the assessment of
NSOs effectiveness, on both conceptual and practical grounds. Conceptually, the
evidence supports the principle that a multi-perceptual approach leads to more
complete information for assessing performance. Practically, the utilisation of multiple
sources and criteria may be more accurate because it identifies various types of
appraisal bias, but it raises questions of feasibility how can a balanced appraisal by
all relevant constituencies be implemented in NSOs? The feasibility is prejudiced
by the different power positions of the different constituencies.
Hellenic NSOs need to pay more continuous attention to exploring the role of
multiple constituencies in their organisations. More specifically, they need to identify
the most important constituencies and determine their relationship with the outputs
of their organisations. They need to analyse how each of these groups influences the
activities of the sports organisations and what measures to employ to assess
effectiveness. As the satisfaction of strategic interest groups plays a significant role
to the proper functioning of a non-profit organisational setting, Hellenic NSOs need
to use the appropriate information in order to develop strategies and programs which
meet relevant expectations.

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Finally, it is important to note that this studys findings share two important
limitations. The first is that the five-factor model of effectiveness reflects the
perceptions of the five constituencies included in the study. Besides these five interest
groups, it may be useful to increase understanding about the demands and
effectiveness-related perceptions of additional constituencies (i.e., the GSS, the Greek
Olympic Committee, and the IFs) in the internal and external task environment of
the NSOs. This will enable the sampled organisations to maintain good working
conditions with these groups, and to face uncertainty emanating from their interests.
The second limitation relates to the comparative approach of selecting criteria
and measuring effectiveness, followed in this research endeavour. Sampling many
NSOs for comparative purposes limits the value of these findings for identifying
ways to improve the effectiveness perceptions of a specific sport organisation. It is
understandable that a case study approach to a single NSO may lead to a different
picture of effectiveness in terms of its technical environment and strategic activity.
Such a research endeavour may provide further insights into the different sets of
effectiveness perceptions influencing a sport organisation. This can enhance our
understanding about the strategies followed to satisfy these sometimes-competing
demands.

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