Engineering Hydrology

SURFACE RUNOFF
Runoff is the portion of the precipitation that makes its way towards rivers or oceans etc as surface or
subsurface flow. Discharge at point q, Q is the draining of the precipitation of the catchment at point. Other
terms are streamflow, discharge and runoff
FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF
As precipitation is the reason behind runoff, it is the most important factor for runoff.
A light rainfall infiltrates more than sharp intense rainfall which hence produces less runoff. Another is the
area where water falls on, its size, orientation, topography, geology and surface vegetation i.e. catchment
area is also taken as one of the important factors for runoff.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRECIPITATION
a. Form of precipitation: If the precipitation occurs in the form of rain, it will immediately produce a
runoff, while if the precipitation is in the form of snow, it will produce runoff at a slow and steady
rate.
b. Rainfall Intensity: If the rainfall intensity increases, the runoff increases rapidly. An intense rain
will definitely produce much more runoff than a uniform rainfall provided the infiltration capacity
remains the same throughout the storm period. ( index)
c. Duration of Rainfall: However, the above point can be contradicted since, the infiltration capacity
goes on reducing till it attains a minimum constant value. Thus if the infiltration is less, the surface
runoff will be more. Thus, in some cases, a longer duration rain may produce considerable runoff
even when its intensity is mild.
d. Areal Rainfall Distribution: The rain does not fall with uniform intensity uniformly over the
catchment. This is the fact that, larger intensity in small area results in peak runoff in smaller basin
but smaller intensity covering larger area, rainfall causes peak runoff.
e. Soil Moisture Deficiency: The runoff depends upon the soil moisture present at the time of the
rainfall. If a rain occurs after a long dry spell of time, the soil is dry and can absorb huge amounts
of water, and thus even intense rain may fail to produce an appreciable runoff however this
condition could be a reverse one after the rainy season.
f. Direction of the prevailing storm: If the rainfall occurs to the direction of the surface runoff, the
water stays for lesser period and hence causes peak flow.
g. Various other climatic factors, such as temperature, wind, humidity, etc affect the losses from the
drainage basin, and, therefore, affect the runoff. If the losses are more, runoff will be less and viceversa.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DRAINAGE BASIN:
a. Size of the basin: For larger basin, takes time to get collected at the stream thus producing less
peak flow.
b. Shape of the basin: It governs the arate at which the water enter the stream:
Form Factor=

Average widthof the Basin

Axial length of the basin

=B/L

L=Length between outlet to the most remote point on the basin

A=Area
A=B x L
F=A/L2

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Engineering Hydrology

Circumference of a equivalentsthe
area of the catchment area

Higher the form factor and

Perimeter of the catchment
compactness coefficient=

CC higher will be drainage.

These coefficient governs
the draining capacity and
drainage discharge. More
the circular area attained,
collection of the rainfall
from the tributaries will
take equal time and thus
yielding higher discharge
and
thus
providing
effective drainage rather
than
long
narrow
catchment.
c. Elevation of Watershed:
The elevation of the
drainage basin governs the rainfall, its amount, and its type and hence produces enough effect on
the runoff?
d. The Drainage Network:
a. Order of streams: All non branching tributaries are termed as first order streams. While
streams which receive only non branching tributaries are of
the
second order. Streams of the third order are formed by the
junction of two streams of the second order. A third order
channel receives flow not only form two second order
channel but also may receive from first order channel or
from another second order channel too. The ordering is
continued in this fashion. It is the direct indication of the
size and extent of the drainage net.
b. Length of Tributaries: The length of the tributaries is an
indication of the steepness of the drainage basin and degree of the
drainage. Steep well drained areas generally have numerous small
tributaries thus having higher length of tributaries but whereas, in
plains, where soils are deep and permeable, only relatively long
tributaries will be in existence.
c. Stream Density: The stream density of a drainage basin may be expressed by relating the
number of streams to the area of the catchment?
D s=

Ns
A

i.e. the number of streams per sq. Km

However, this factor fails to provide a true measure of drainage efficiency, because a basin
having two smaller streams has same value of stream density than the basin of same size
having two larger streams which is capable of draining of the major part of the basin.
d. Drainage Density: The drainage density is defined as the total length of the streams
(tributaries) in that catchment area per unit area. This unit provides the effectiveness of
drainage of the basin. Larger this coefficient better is the drainage capacity of the
catchment.

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Engineering Hydrology

D d=

L
A

e. Other factors: Like vegetation in the catchment area reduces the runoff due to higher infiltration
and absorption, the type of soil the catchment is formed of, the slope and the orientation of the
catchment area.

STREAM FLOW MEASUREMENT:

As already discussed stream flow or discharge or runoff is the measure.
Stream flow is the function of time and hence varies with time and hence its measurement is a tough
procedure.
a. Direct Measurement:
a. Area Velocity Method
b. Salt Dilution Technique
b. Indirect Determination of Streamflow
a. Hydraulic structures such as weirs , flumes and gated structures and
b. Slope Area Method
Direct measurement involves direct involvement of measurement of its discharge whose continuous
measurement is not easy, time consuming and costly. Thus, a stage term is introduced which is the measure
of the elevation of the water surface with respect to the standard which is later used for the estimation of
discharge using previously determined stage discharge relationship curve(Rating Curve) (Q=C r(G-a) )
where G=Stage.
The observation of stage can be done continuously and is universally recognized and accepted process/
MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
Manual Gauges:
a. Staff Gauges: Measurement of elevation fo the water surface in contact with a fixed graduated
staff is involved in
this
method.
Accurate
measurement is not
possible from only a
gauge point and
hence has to be
taken along the
section at different
places.
b. Wire Gauge- A reel mechanism of rolling is made to the water surface from bridge or similar
structure and thus a measure of rotation being noted gives the elevation of water surface below the
structure.
Automatic Stage Recorder:

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Engineering Hydrology
In this method a float arrangement instrument is
managed in a permanently installed stilling well with
extra arrangement of flushing mechanisms and
intakes as well in it. In floating arrangement, a float
is attached by a rope in one side, where else in other
side with a counter weight provided about a
frictionless pulley. This float floats over the water
surface with time and with the arrangement, the
small rotation is recorded as an angular displacement
and thus depth (in terms of angular displacement) is
measured with time.
Stilling well is provided to take reading in still water
condition taken through intakes arrangements which
is timely flushed as for removing blockage due to silt deposit (clay) in intake.
Bubbe Gauge:
This is a method where at uniform rate air or gas is bleed out through the outlet which in turn escapes out a
sin form of bubbles to the water surface from the bottom of the river (where its outlet remains). The
pressure at the outlet of the bubble equals the water column over the outlet up to the current water surface
stage. The small change in water surface, if
considered as increase, causes addition of
pressure for the uniform rate of bubble up to the
water surface which is in fact a function of
depth.(P= H)
-

It measures up to a 30m depth change

Doesnt need stilling well installation
The recorder is installed far away from
the sensing point
No blockage at the outlet because of
continuous bleeding

This measured data is plotted in graph against time in a chronological order known as stage hydrograph.
With these data during peak flood, corresponding peak stages are used for analytical statistical data for the
estimation of peak river stages for the design of hydraulic structures.
MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY:
It is the part of direct measurement of the stream flow of area velocity method. A mechanical device
essentially consisting of a rotating element and current application is used for the measurement of velocity
which is current meter where as for the preliminary determination of velocity floats are used.
Current Meters:
It works in principle that stream flow is directly proportional to the angular velocity of the rotating element
of the current meter:
Two types of current meters:

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Engineering Hydrology
a. Vertical Axis Current Meters: These
instruments consists of a series of conical cups
mounted around a vertical axis. The cups
rotates in a horizontal plane and a cam attached
to the vertical axial spindle records generated
signal proportional to the revolutions of the
cup assembly.
Normal Velocity range=0.15 to 4m/s
[error range of 1.5% and improves by 0.3% for
velocity >1m/s]
It cannot be used where vertical
component of velocity is appreciably
higher.
b. Horizontal Axis Meters:It consists of a
propeller mounted at the end of
horizontal shaft. It can register velocities
of the range 0.15 m/s to 4m/s It is not
effected by oblique flow of about 15.
[1% error and upto 0.25% above a range
of 0.3 m/s]
V=aNs+ b (linearly related)
a,b- constants of the current meters, N s= No. of revs per sec.
For a standard 12.5 cm. diameter price-meter, a=0.65, b=0.03,
V= velocity at a depth of that section
Calibration of the current meter is performed in a towing tank where current meter is given a known
velocity in the still water inside the towing tank. A set of number of revolutions is observed for a set of
known velocities and then a linear relationship is established between number of revolutions per second
and the velocity thus giving an equation of the v=aNs+b form.
Field use:
Measurement of velocity varies from depth to depth. It varies logarithmically through the depth of water.
Hence, for average velocity at the depth, the depth at which velocity has to be taken are
-

For shallow depth upto about 3m , velocity has to measured at 0.6 d, this velocity vv is the average
velocity for that section
o vv =v0.6d
In moderately deep streams
o vv =(v0.2d + v0.8d)/2
For Flood flows surface velocities are measured and multiplied with certain constants. For these
different floats are used.

In this float method, measurements are taken of distances and time to float through the fixed distance.
AREA VELOCITY METHOD
This method is essential for developing a stage discharge relationship which would be useful for flow
years result. In this method, discharge is measured at selected sections called gauging site. These are
selected where

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Engineering Hydrology
-

The stream have well defined and regular cross-section which doesnot vary in various season
It should be located where the fluctuations in the stage could be observed
It should be at the upstream
Should be easily accessible
The sited should be in stable channel bed
Velocity in a range of 0.1 m/s-5 m/s neither too high nor too low.
No excessive turbulence and eddies
No backwater effect
No excessive vegetal or excessive aquatic growth.

At this site, section line is marked by permanent survey marking and at the section depth are measured by
sounding rods or weights or by ultrasound method. Thus, cross section properly defined.
Cross-sections are divided into numbers of subsections and velocity at sections are measured with current
meters or floats. The subsections selected are
-

Not greater than 1/15 to 1/20 times the width of the stream
Discharge in each subsection has to be less than 10% of total discharge
Velocity of adjacent section should not vary by 20%

Here N no. sections divided. Then there will be (N-1) nos of depth of the section measured.
For discharges, area calculation of (N-1) section shown by dotted line have to be calculated
For triangular area, First Triangular Area

Last Triangular Area:

w
(w1 + 2 )
2
Area=
y 1
2 w1

Area=

w n1 2
)
2
y n1
2 wn

( wn +

w2
( w1 + )
2
Average width=
2 w1

w n1 2
( wn +
)
2
Average width
2 wn

For Trapezoidal Area.

Area=

w i+ wi +1
yi
2

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Engineering Hydrology

Average width=

w i+wi+1
2

Thus, calculated area are multiplied with their respective velocity Ai x vi = Qi = total discharge of the
river.
SALT DILUTION TECHNIQUE OF STREAM-FLOW MEASUREMENT:
Its based on the continuity equation followed by the tracer (special kind of salt) on the two section
between which discharge is considered for the measurement. This method is mostly used where turbulence
is usually high but not more than 5m3/s, usually in the mountainous streams
In this method, sudden injection of the small volume of
(VO) salt at certain higher concentration at the 1 st section
i.e at upstream is done. The concentration of the slat is
measured with reference to its conductivity (higher the
concentration higher the conductivity). Now, the
concentration of the salt is measured at the downstream
section where downstream section is selected such that
complete proper missing of the salt is obtained.
The concentration profile is observed between t1 and t2 is
as shown in fig. Now,
C1 is the initial concentration, V1 is the volume of tracer
(salt)
C Initial concentration without tracer
C2 =Concentration at any time.
Now,
Mass of tracer at upstream=Mass of tracer at d/s at section 2,
So,
t2

V 1C 1= Q ( C2C o ) dt
t1

t2

V 1C 1=Q ( C2C o ) dt
t1

Q= t

V 1C 1
2

( C 2Co ) dt
t1

t2

( C 2C o ) dt= Areabetween the straight linecurve formed d /s by Concentration Curve

t1

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Engineering Hydrology
Constant Rate of Injection Method
If Qt is the rate of the constant injection of
concentration C1 and Q be the discharge between
section (i) and section (ii) and C 2 is the constant
concentration observed in the d/s after certain time
interval than

QtC1 +QCo =(Qt + Q)C2

Q=

Q t (C 1C 2)
(C2C o )

Conditions of Applicability
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Stream discharge must be constant during measurement process

The salt mixed should be passed along the d/s section without getting absorbed or lost
The ponding effect in the flow may cause non uniform dispersion upon the stream
Bathing and urinating may cause the variation of the conductivity we measure for the
concentration curve

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Engineering Hydrology
SLOPE AREA METHOD
Mannings formula is used to relate the
depths at either ends of a reach to the
discharge. Figure shows the longitudinal
section of the flow in a river between two
sections, namely 1 and 2/ knowing the
water surface elevations at the two sections,
we will apply energy equation to calculate
the discharge as.

v 12
v 22
z 1+ y 1 + =z 2 + y 2 + +he +h f
2g
2g
z
( 1+ y 1)( z 2+ y 2 ) +

v 12 v 22
h
2g 2 g e

h f =
v 12 v 2 2
h f =R . Lof ( 1 )R . L of ( 2 ) + h e
2g 2 g
If the L= Length of the reach, by Mannings formula

Sf =

hf
Q2
=energy slope= 2
L
K
2

1
Where K=Conveyance= A R 3
n
R=hydraulic Radius=

Area of the water at the section

Wetted Perimeter

A= Area of the Section

n=Mannin g' sroughness coefficient

For the estimate through two section has two conveyance,
2

1
K 1= A1R 13
n1

1
K 2= A2R 23 K =Effective Conveyance= K 1 K 2 has be taken
n2

v 12 v 2 2
he =K e

where Ke=0.3 [ Expansion ] , 0.1[Contraction]

2g 2g

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Engineering Hydrology
Solving:
a. At first head loss,

h
h f =R . Lof ( 1 )R . L of ( 2 ) has to be taken, S f = f
L

b. With effective conveyance known, Q has to be calculated,

c. After that. At section 1,

v 1=

Q
A1

v 2=

Q=K S f

Q
A2

v 12 v 2 2
d. Now, h f =R . Lof ( 1 )R . L of ( 2 ) + 2 g 2 g h e is calculated which now would be different
from first assumed trial value of hf and the process is repeated b to d unless hf value repeats.
e. And thus observed Q is the required discharge.

STAGE DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIP

In direct measurement, subsequent measurement of stage and discharge is carried out. The second part of
this procedure involves preparation of relationship between stage and discharge i.e also called stage
discharge relationship for the section. This relationship as a curve is known as rating curve.
If G-Q relationship does not change with time and gauging section remains constant is said to be
permanent control but if it changes and different G-Q or rating curve has to be produced in different
seasons.
For rivers of Nepal. Generally, stage and discharge varies two times in a year like for monsoon months and
non-monsoon months/
The stage v/s discharge relationship is expressed as

Q=Cr (Ga )

where ,Q=streamdischarge

G=Gauge height ( Stage )

a=a constant which represent the gauge reading for 0 discharge

Cr andare rating curve constants

The rating curve equation if expressed in logarithmic,

log Q=log Cr + log ( Ga )

A plot between logQ and log (G-a) gives a straight line,

log Q= log ( Ga )+ log Cr

Y =mX +C

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Engineering Hydrology

So , for m==

N ( XY ) X . Y
2
2
N X ( X )

And for good rating curve equation, there should be good co-relation between data, for that

r=

N ( XY ) X . Y

N X ( X ) N Y
2

( Y )

If r is between 0.6 and 1.0, it is generally taken as a good

correlation.
Stage of Zero Discharge
-Method I- Extrapolating G-Q diagram and extrapolating
with eye judgement to zero discharge. Again plotting, log
Q vs log (G-a), if is a straight line verifies the zero
discharge stage.
-Method II- Plot G vs Q as shown and take points in the
corresponding graph of corresponding discharges as.

Q A QB
=
Q B QC
Now produce vertical and horizontal lines such that it bisects at D and E points as shown. Join and back
produce the lines from D and E and similarly join and back produce AB line. They intersect at F which is
the corresponding point for zero discharge.
-Method III- A plot of G-Q is again taken. Three corresponding gauges are taken such that,

Q 1 Q2
= where G1 , G2G3 are corresponding gauges for Q1 ,Q 2Q 3 discharges
Q 2 Q3
G1 a G2a
=
G2 a G3a
G

1+G
(
3 )G 2
2
G1 G3G2
So ,a=

SHIFTING CONTROLS
-

Vegetative growth, dredging or channel encroachment: no unique rating curve

Aggradation or degradation in alluvial channel (Non-cohesive soil): no unique rating curve
Variable back water effect: same stage indicating different discharges
For same stage, low discharge during rising and high discharge during falling.

BACKWATER EFFECT

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Engineering Hydrology
An extra auxiliary gauging stations are generally provided at the downstream at some distance. Sometimes
due to back water effect at same stage of the main gauge station shows two different discharge. The
discharge now is calculated on the basis of the fall of the head between two gauging stations.
Formula given is

Q
F
=
Q o Fo

( ) where F=Fall of head between mainauxiliary gauge

RAINFALL AND RUNOFF COR-RELATION

For adequate estimation of rainfall, one of the most common methods in to correlate seasonal or annual
measured runoff values (R) with corresponding rainfall (P) values is rainfall- runoff correlation. In this
method rainfall and runoff are correlated with linear relationship as in the form of

R=aP+b
And the values of the coefficient a and b are given by,

a=

N ( PR ) P . R
N P2( P ) 2

b=

Ra P
N

In which N- number of observation sets R and P. The coefficient of correlation r can be calculated as:

r=

N ( PR ) P. R

N P ( P ) N R ( R )
2

The value of 0.6<r<1indicates good correlation.

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