Introduction to Process Computer

Applications
Learning Outcome
When you complete this module you will be able to:
Describe the major components of process computers, their basic functions and
the types of tasks performed by the computer systems.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:
1. Define the types of computer systems, components, and peripherals used in
process control.
2. Describe basic computer working principles.
3. Describe the application of computers to process control.

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INTRODUCTION
The application of computers to all aspects of our lives is increasing rapidly both
at home and at work. The purpose of this lecture is to provide the student with a
basic knowledge of computer systems and their use in plants to help operators run
the equipment in their care more effectively.
A computer is a tool that requires practice to learn to use properly. An example
from our everyday lives is the Instant Teller banking machine. Many people are
reluctant to use this machine the first time, but once comfortable with using the
input keys, the convenience of ready access to instant cash and account
information is appreciated.
Similarly, in a plant, operators are reluctant at first to use the computer keyboard,
but once the keyboard commands are learned, the ability to check on remote parts
of the plant and take command from a central control room makes the job easier.
The application of computers in power plants includes:
1. Control of fuel, air, and feedwater.
2. Safe start-up and shutdown of boilers, turbines, and generators.
3. Storage of operating information for graphic display.
4. Printing operating logs on time period or operator demand.
5. Indicating alarm conditions and printing alarm summary.
6. Inventory control of parts and supplies.
7. Maintenance management.

TYPES OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Mainframe Systems
Modern mainframe computers have evolved from the first and second generation
computers. This class of computers includes medium and large scale mainframes
and the supercomputer. They are installed in a temperature and humidity
controlled data center and are used by universities, airlines, hospitals,
governments, large businesses, and manufacturing companies. Their main
function is to rapidly process large amounts of data, referred to as number
crunching.
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Many user terminals can be connected to the mainframe computer, and though
only one terminal can communicate at any given instant, the computer is so fast
that it can process all this information without noticeable delay to the users.
Their use in plant operation includes supervisory control, which is the fine tuning
of the normal operating controls, information gathering to calculate plant
efficiencies, management of plant inventory, and keeping track of plant
maintenance.
Minicomputers
The minicomputer was developed for scientific and industrial processes, and is
much more compact than the mainframe system, and can operate satisfactorily
over a wider range of temperature and humidity conditions. Although less
powerful than the mainframe, several users can connect or logon to the system
at the same time.
Because they are less powerful than the mainframe, minicomputers are usually
dedicated to a special function, such as maintenance management. A common
application in plant control is that of the host computer, which coordinates the
function of smaller computers performing dedicated tasks.
Microcomputers
The development of the microcomputer made possible the personal desk top,
portable lap top, and hand held computers. Their low cost has led to widespread
use in homes, offices, and schools. Applications include word processing, data
presentation by spreadsheets and graphics, and of course computer games. Fig. 1
is a basic microcomputer setup.
Because they can operate over a wide variety of environmental conditions, they
can be applied on the plant floor to control boilers and other plant equipment. The
ability to communicate allows microcomputers to communicate to each other and
to a central host computer.

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Figure 1
Typical Microcomputer
Notes:

Keyboard:

Monitor:

Printer:

Your means of talking to the computer and entering

data.
The computers means of talking to you and displaying
data.
The computers means of leaving hardcopy
information for you.

Microcomputer:

The computers working memory and other hardware

used for executing instructions in your program.

Disk storage:

A mass storage device for storing large amounts of data

when not in use.

Networking
In mainframe and minicomputers, many users share the same stored information
and computing power. If the computer fails all work will stop. This would be
unacceptable for plant control, as this would place all eggs in one basket.
With the acceptance of the personal computer by business, the capability to link
computers together in a network has been developed, allowed information to be
shared and transferred freely between computers. The loss of one computer in the
network is less serious, because computing power is distributed.

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COMPONENTS AND PERIPHERALS

Central Processing Unit
The main part of any computer system is the Central Processing Unit, commonly
referred to as the CPU. This component contains complex circuits which accept
input numbers, perform calculations in accordance with a program, and output the
results. To make the computer into a useful tool, additional devices, called
peripherals, are required to connect the world outside to the CPU.
Keyboards and Keypads
The most often used method for an operator or programmer to enter information
into the computer is by way of a full keyboard, similar to a typewriter, or by a
keypad with fewer keys labelled with the functions that they perform. The keys
may be full stroke typewriter style, or membrane type, where the key switches are
mounted under a flexible plastic cover. The membrane type is sealed from dust
and dirt making it suitable for an industrial environment. Spilled coffee on a
standard keyboard could be disastrous, but would not damage a membrane
keypad. See Fig. 2.
Mouse and Joystick
The computer mouse is a device slightly smaller than the hand with a roller ball
on the bottom. When the mouse is moved on the desk, a pointer moves in the
same fashion on the screen. This allows the operator to point to a menu or picture
(icon) representing the desired action. By clicking a button on the mouse, the
computer will take the selected action. A joystick works in a similar fashion
except that the direction of joystick movement controls the screen pointer.
Visual Displays
The computer normally communicates with an operator through a color Cathode
Ray Tube or CRT as it is usually called. This will display or echo keyboard
input, and show inputs and outputs of the computer in various ways. These can be
in the form of lists printed on the screen, graphical indications similar to chart
recordings, representation of a controller automatic/manual faceplate, and
pictorial layouts of the controlled process.
Other visual devices are the Light Emitting Diode LED, and Liquid Crystal
Display LCD, similar to those used in watches and calculators. These can be
arranged to give graphical and alphanumerical (letters and numbers) readouts.

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Figure 2
Microcomputer Keyboard
Notes: Function keys:

Special keys programmed by each different software

program. Although their functions vary, they are
designed to save typing.

Touch-typing
keypad:

Similar to a standard typewriter keyboard. A few

special keys such as CTRL and ALT are used in
combination with other keys to perform special
functions.

Numeric
keypad:

A calculator-style keypad for numeric data entry.

Cursor
control:

Special keys used for moving around your

document.

Audible Devices
Most systems can alert the operator by activating a buzzer or bell. More advanced
computers can give messages by simulated speech. For operator input,
development is advancing in speech recognition of common commands by the
computer, and in the future we can expect to talk to the computer.

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Printers
Whenever a permanent hardcopy of information from the computer system is
needed, a printer is used. The daisy wheel printer produces letter quality print, but
cannot produce graphic characters. For this reason it was formerly used in office
settings for letters requiring high quality print. In the last few years the cost of
Laser printers has decreased to the point where they, along with bubble-jet type
printers, are most commonly found in offices. The dot matrix printer forms
letters and graphic characters by printing a large number of dots. With this
method the combination of high speed, low cost, good quality print, and the
ability to make a duplicate of graphical and schematic drawings, makes the dot
matrix printer a standard choice for general purpose use in plants and at home.
Color printers are also available, but are slower and more expensive to operate.
They are used where special applications benefit from the advantages of color
presentation.
Plotters
The plotter features a drawing surface on which suitable paper is attached. The
computer actuates a pen carriage which writes on the paper to produce high
quality drawings. In the engineering field this is used in Computer Assisted
Drafting or CAD to produce engineering drawings and schematic diagrams.
Modems
The modem is a device to allow the computer to communicate over long distances
using a pair of wires. The connecting wires can be permanently connected
(dedicated) to the computer or can be through the telephone system. MODEM
is an abbreviation for MODulator/DEModulator. The computer or input/output
device is connected to a modem and the transmitted signal is converted to audio
tones (modulated) which are sent to a modem at the receiving end of the
connection. Here the audio tones are converted back to computer information
(demodulated).
Communication can be in one or two directions. Two way communication can
alternate in the same fashion as two people using walkie-talkies, or can be
simultaneous by using different tone frequencies. These are known as halfduplex and full-duplex modes. When two computer devices are in
communication, they are commonly said to be talking, to each other because of
the similarities to human communication.

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Multiplexers
The very high speed of operation allows the computer to complete hundreds or
thousands of operations per second. In a plant, this allows the computer to read
from many process points, perform control calculations, adjust valves and
dampers, start and stop pumps, print out log sheets, and display information on
the operators console.
These tasks are in a sequence which is repeated rapidly, and important tasks such
as regulating the boiler firing rate will be adjusted four times or more per second,
while less critical tasks such as routine log sheet printouts may be done once per
hour.
To read all the input points in sequence an input multiplexer is used to switch the
correct input to the computer at the time it is needed. Similarly, an output
multiplexer takes the computer output and connects it to the proper output device.
Timing is very critical to ensure proper operation. For example if the feedwater
control task is being done, the input multiplexer will connect the boiler level to
the computer, the computer compares this signal to the setpoint and calculates a
new feed water valve position, which is then directed to the feedwater valve by
the output multiplexer. Incorrect timing would bring in the wrong input and send
the output to the wrong place.

Analog to Digital and Digital to Analog Converters

Computers are electrical devices and work with electrical input and output
signals. A computer works with digital signals, or whole numbers. An example of
a digital input (DI) is a fuel valve limit switch. If the switch is closed, this
represents minimum fire position, if open it represents not at minimum position.
The computer would recognize this and start ignition sequence or not start
ignition based on this input. Switching on the ignitor circuit by the computer
would be a digital output (DO).
However once the burner is lit, the fuel flow will be some value between no flow
and maximum flow, while the normal fuel control valve opening when operating
is at some intermediate position between closed and full open. These are analog
signals which vary continuously over a range of values. For the computer to work
with these signals, a conversion from analog to digital is required at the input, and
from digital to analog at the output.

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For the input conversion, the digital equivalent is found by adjusting an internal
voltage in a number of digital steps until it matches as close as possible to the
input. This number is then passed to the CPU for calculation. For output
conversion the process is reversed. The digital number from the CPU switches a
number of precision resistors from a regulated power supply, and the switch
combination determines the output voltage or current signal.
Program and Data Storage Devices
To perform useful work, a computer requires a program to instruct it in the steps
to measure, calculate, and output results. The program must be stored
permanently so that it can be loaded into the computer when the power is turned
on. In plant applications this would happen when power is restored following a
power failure. Data (information) that is to be kept for future reference must also
be stored, this function replacing chart storage.
The Floppy Disk is commonly used which stores information as magnetic
pulses on a flexible disk which is coated with magnetic oxide similar to that used
on cassette recording tape. For larger storage capacity, a Hard Disk is used.
This works on the same principle, but uses one or more rigid disks with a larger
surface area. Hard disks are more reliable as they are normally fixed in place and
sealed from dust and cigarette smoke which shortens the life of floppy disks.

BASIC WORKING PRINCIPLES

Computer Memory
The working memory of a computer consists of silicon integrated circuit chips
which store information by turning miniature circuits on or off. This memory may
be permanent or temporary depending on the type of chip and its purpose.
The amount of memory is stated as the number of circuits that can store
information. Each gate, which is a silicon switch can be on or off, and will
maintain its state until instructed to switch to the opposite state. The state of each
bit (switch) is either 1 (on) or O (off). These bits are collected in groups
of eight called Bytes. A computers memory is stated in KiloBytes; for example
the old Commodore 64 contained 64 kilobytes, usually abbreviated to 64K, of
user memory or RAM.
RAM is the abbreviation for Random Access Memory. This type of circuit can be
used to store (write) and retrieve (read) information. Large programs require large
amounts of RAM, and insufficient memory will cause the computer to slow down
or stop functioning.

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ROM is the abbreviation for Read Only Memory. This is used where the
information is permanently stored burned into the chip. This is used for
programs which should not be changed such as the computer start-up sequence
when power is switched on. To change these programs it is necessary to replace
the ROM chip. There are also several types of ROM which can be reprogrammed,
which allow the computer to be customized (configured) to suit a particular
application.

Programs
A computer program is a series of instructions which causes the computer to do a
useful task. Without a program, a computer is a useless collection of silicon chips,
power supplies, and wires. Once programmed, a computer will repeat the
instructions exactly each time it is requested.
Programs are written at three levels, known as Machine Language, Assembler
Language, and High Level Language.
Machine language consists of instructions in the form of ones and zeroes at
the memory chip level. This requires special training to write and read programs
and is used by manufacturers to program microcomputers used for dedicated
functions, such as a microwave oven control.
Assembler Language uses a set of standard commands which the computer can
interpret and convert to machine language. Programming in assembler requires
detailed knowledge of the computer internal operation and is used only by
experienced programmer specialists.
High Level Language uses English-like commands which can be used by the
programmer to program the computer to perform any desired function within its
capacity. The most universal high level language is BASIC which is included
with all home computers, and is available for use on most industrial and business
computers. BASIC stands for Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code. Other high level languages for specialized programs include C,
FORTRAN, COBOL and PASCAL. The high level language acts as an
interpreter to tell the computer in machine language what the programmer wants
to happen.
Many computer users do not write their own programs, but make use of programs
known as software packages which have been developed by programming
specialists. These include games, word processing, drafting, and accounting. In an
industrial plant the control and monitoring computers have software packages to
allow the plant operator to use the computer effectively without requiring a
knowledge of programming.
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Inputting and Outputting

1. Operator Input

The most common method of computer input by an operator is through a

typewriter style keyboard with a CRT screen which shows the letters, numbers,
and special characters as the keys are pressed. The point on the screen where the
next character will appear is shown by a cursor. This is a distinctive character
such as a blinking line or rectangle. This can be moved around the screen by
means of arrow keys to select actions from a list which is referred to as a menu.
More advanced user friendly systems use a mouse or joystick to point at a
picture or list of choices and clicking a button to select the desired action.
For plant control, special keys are labelled with functions such as MANUAL,
AUTO, SETPOINT, RAISE, LOWER.
Another approach used to make the control system easier to use is the soft key.
In this case the operator has a number of keys (typically 6 or 8) which are
numbered or lettered. The screen displays a menu of actions which are selected by
pressing the key with the corresponding number or letter.
2. Process Input

The computer receives information about the process by electrical signals in a

digital form. A switch which indicates a change of state in the process, for
example a boiler low level alarm or fan failure can be input to the computer by a
Digital Input, abbreviated DI. The computer is protected from harmful
voltages by means of isolating circuits.
Transmitters which measure variables including pressure, flow, temperature, and
level, are connected as 4 to 20 milliamp signals to the computer input terminals
known as Analog Inputs, abbreviated AI. Before the computer can work with
these signals they must be converted to digital code by an analog to digital
converter.
Recently transmitters have been introduced which can be connected directly to the
computer because they transmit information in digital code. These are referred to
as smart transmitters. A computer can collect information from other
computerized devices, provided the proper communication language or protocol
is used so that the computers can understand each other. This lecture written in
English would be no help to someone who could only read Russian, and the same
situation applies when a computer transmits information in a protocol different
from that of the receiving computer.

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3. Information Output

One of the main functions of a computer is to gather information and present it to

operations and management staff. The chief method used is a CRT screen. The
simplest display is by text, where the information is printed directly to the screen
in English or the language of the operator in other countries. The digital output
from the computer is converted to voltages which strike the screen phosphors and
cause visible light to be emitted which forms the messages to be read by the
operator.
Some systems use single color monochrome monitors, but most modern
systems take advantage of the additional dimension provided by color. A list of
measured points can be displayed on the monitor with color used to indicate
status. A typical system may use green for normal, red for alarm, yellow for
deviation from normal and blue for a bad reading. A change of state can be shown
by flashing the line of text for that point.
Because computers have powerful picture graphic capabilities, it is easy to
display control information by means of graphs, similar to chart recorders.
Other types of graphs include bar charts, and pie charts. It is also common to
display schematic layouts of a process plant with important measurements
displayed. Another common screen display is a representation of a one or more
controller faceplates which simulate the actions of a pneumatic or electronic
controller hand/auto station.
When a permanent record or hard copy is required, the computer can output text
to a printer. This may be a log of operating information printed automatically on a
periodic basis which may be hourly, daily, or only when requested from a
computer input device. An alarm or event recorder will print automatically when
important changes take place. For graphic output, a printer with graphic capability
or a plotter can make a picture of any screen display. These may be in black and
white, shades of gray, or full color depending on the output device.

4. Control Output

A computer can be programmed to start or stop equipment, turn lights on or off,

ring alarms and perform any function that can be operated by a switch. Voltage
outputs, known as a digital outputs or DO energize relays which act as switches
to turn the equipment on or off.

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Control valves, dampers, and variable speed drives can be positioned over their
operating range by taking the computer digital output and converting it to an
analog signal, commonly 4 to 20 milliamps, with a digital to analog converter.
The equipment to be controlled is wired to terminal points known as analog
outputs or AO. Output devices which include a microcomputer can accept the
digital code directly. These devices will be more common in the future.

Memory
1. Temporary Memory

A computer performs a rapid sequence of numerical calculations to complete the

program instructions. This requires temporary storage of the results of each step
using the read/write function of random access memory (RAM) in the computer
central processing unit (CPU). In some cases the hard disk drive is used for
temporary storage where the computer uses it as an extension of the CPU
memory, and this is called virtual memory. The time required to store and
retrieve data in virtual memory is much longer than for RAM, but this is
commonly used in minicomputers with many user terminals, or on systems where
there is insufficient RAM for the program to run.
2. Permanent Storage

Much of the operating information that is collected is used for performance

analysis and must be stored for periods ranging from days to years. To store this
data, a file is opened on a permanent storage medium, usually a hard or floppy
disk. The computer writes information to this file on a periodic timed basis, or on
an event basis, such as an alarm condition.
3. Program Information

The software programs required to operate the computer are stored on the hard
disk because of the large storage capacity and the fact that the program
information is not lost if a power failure occurs. The programs are then loaded
into the computer random access memory (RAM) as required. Some programs,
such as control loops, are operating continuously and remain resident in RAM,
while other programs, such as a daily report, will be loaded once a day, then
deleted from RAM as soon as the program is completed.
Programs which are always required, and do not need occasional modification
may be stored in read only memory (ROM) chips.

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4. Backup Copies

It is important that additional backup copies be kept in case of a failure in the

storage equipment. The backup may be made on a duplicate disk or on tape. For
large systems storing important information, the backup copies are stored in a
separate building.

Cursors and Soft Keys

1. Cursor Movement

The display screen (CRT) is divided into a grid, typically 80 columns wide by 25
lines high, similar to a typewritten page, and each location can hold one letter,
number or other character. The cursor indicates the location on the screen for
operator input, and may be a box or underline, either flashing or of distinctive
color so that the operator can clearly see its location.
The cursor location can be changed by four arrow keys which move the cursor
right, left, up or down on the screen. See the numeric keypad in Fig. 2. If a key is
held down, then the cursor will keep moving in the selected direction to the edge
of the screen.
2. Soft Keys

A computer keyboard has a number of function keys labelled F1, F2, F3, up to
F10 or more (see Fig. 3). The screen displays what each key will do when pressed
by the operator, and the computer uses software to determine the function of the
key. As an example, function keys can be used to save, retrieve, list, or
edit data on a disk. Different screens can be called up with the key functions
changed for each screen by the program software, hence the name soft keys.
This method is faster and simpler to use which is a great advantage for plant
control.
User Friendly Systems
Early computer systems required the operator to use complicated commands and
sequences, which made mistakes common, especially for functions that were not
used frequently. For this reason it was difficult for people unfamiliar with
computers to learn and accept the computer as a useful tool. These systems were
not user friendly.
To prevent mistakes in plant operation, there was a need to improve the ease of
operation by making the input to the computer as user friendly as possible.
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The most common method is to use menus. The screen will display a list of
functions from which the operator can select by pointing to the desired function
using the cursor direction keys, and then pushing the RETURN or ENTER key.
Two of the selections commonly used are for next or previous menu screens. The
operator does not need to memorize any special commands, so this is easy to use,
although quite slow when there are several menu screens to page through to find
the desired function.
A further advancement in user friendly control was the introduction of the
mouse. By moving the mouse about 10 cm in any direction the cursor can be
moved to any part of the screen immediately and the menu selection entered by
pushing a button on the mouse. To take advantage of the mouse, software was
written to use pull down menus which appear at the top of the screen when a
second mouse button is pushed.

COMPUTER PROCESS CONTROL

Control by computer is accepted for most process applications. The majority of
new installations rely on distributed microprocessors for control of most
functions. A number of existing plants have recognized the economic benefits of
higher accuracy, flexibility, and reduced maintenance of computer systems and
are using these to replace older instrumentation. Fig. 3 shows the integration of
Power Plant Control.

Figure 3
Composite of Automation Components

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Analog Control
Analog control loops have inputs, normally 4 to 20 milliamps which come from
field mounted transmitters measuring pressure, level, flow, temperature, and other
process variables. An analog electronic controller would generate a 4 to 20 ma
output signal using one or more of the standard control modes of proportional,
integral and derivative (PID). This output would position a control valve to keep
the process on setpoint.
In a computer, the same standard PID control can be used, but the input must be
changed from 4 to 20 ma into a digital number by an analog to digital converter
(A/D). The computer would then calculate a digital output number which must be
converted back to 4 to 20 ma (D/A). While this may seem more complex, a single
computer can control several loops as well as performing other functions, while
an analog controller is a complex device which can only perform specific control
actions for a single control loop.
Most control loops require the operator to switch between manual and automatic
control and the ability to adjust the controller output on manual. This requires a
separate hand/auto station for each valve or damper operator in an electronic
analog control system. A single keyboard can be used to control many different
control outputs in a computer control system. This allows a much smaller control
console with one or two display screens, keyboards and printers, replacing the
large panel boards containing recorders, hand/auto stations, alarm panels,
indicators, lights, and switches.
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Logic and Supervisory Systems

The computer is well suited to making decisions based on logic and time. The
basic logic conditions are AND, OR, and NOT, which can be explained by an
example.
Before starting the prepurge timer for a boiler, the computer will not proceed until
the fan is running AND the fuel valve is NOT open. The computer will trip the
governor valve of a turbine generator if the lubricating oil pressure is too low OR
high vibration is detected.
A program can be written to check operating conditions and perform a safe
automatic start-up or shutdown of valuable equipment. In the event of a
potentially dangerous situation, the computer can take immediate corrective
action. The computer can also supervise manual operations and prevent or warn
the operator if attempting an action which could be hazardous. Normal operations
are continuously checked and the operator is alerted if an alarm condition
develops.
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Inputs for logic and supervisory computer functions are mainly by switch contacts
which open or close in response to an operating event.
Digital logic signals can also be generated when an analog value switches above
or below a set point value.
Outputs from the logic and supervisory program are normally switching
operations to operate motor starters and similar operations controlled by relays.
Within the computer, the program can alter setpoints for other control loops based
on the logic decision.

Data Storage and Graphics

1. Operating Information

Non-computerized plants use round chart and strip chart papers to keep a
permanent record of past plant performance. In addition handwritten log sheets
and manually calculated costs and efficiencies are recorded for future reference.
The computerized plant can replace most of the chart recorders by storing the
information in a table form in the computer random access memory (RAM), and
periodically sending it to the hard disk for permanent storage. Depending on the
importance, operating information for the last hour, day, month or year may be
kept, with the computer automatically erasing the oldest record when it stores the
current value. This occupies a large section of the computer memory, so it is
important to control the amount and frequency of data storage to suit the available
memory.
2. Graphic Displays

The operator can ask the computer to display operating trends in a graph format.
A typical display may show up to eight traces on a graph, although too many
traces on a graph can be confusing. The time period can be selected to show
anywhere from a few minutes up to days or months of information. The computer
retrieves this data from the operating information stored in the temporary or
permanent memory.

BE_7_0_2.jpg
P

Another method of displaying operating information is in the form of a schematic

layout of the plant on the display screen. The latest value of, for example, boiler
drum level would appear within a circle along with its numerical value. Color of
this display would indicate normal (green) or alarm (red).

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3. Digital Information Storage

The memory also records the sequence of events for normal startup, shutdown, alarms, and emergency actions. The length of time the information
is kept depends on its importance for future analysis.

Inventory and Plant Management

1. Inventory Control

The original business application for a computer was accounting and inventory
control, so it is natural to use the computer for inventory control in a process
plant.
Inventory measurements are taken of raw materials entering and stored at the
plant, and finished product storage and delivery to customers. The computer
program can take account of customer orders and production rates to make sure
that the adequate inventory is maintained, while avoiding the costs of storing
excess inventory.
Plant maintenance inventory is commonly included to keep track of parts and
supplies used in maintaining the plant. Purchase orders are automatically
generated when minimum inventory levels are reached.
2. Maintenance Management

To operate a plant efficiently, proper maintenance is essential. The main object is

to provide adequate preventive maintenance so that major breakdowns are
avoided. Maintenance is normally scheduled on a time basis for example once a
week, or on the amount of use that a machine receives.
A useful function of the computer data storage is to keep track of the operating
time for plant equipment. These Run Time Totals are useful in determining
when equipment should be lubricated or taken out of service for preventive
maintenance. This information would normally be presented as printout by the
computer.
The computer can take account of the maintenance staff available, the supply of
materials, and the run time totals to print out work orders for scheduled
maintenance, with allowance for the normal amount of unscheduled maintenance
work.

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Information on the time and materials for each work order is entered into the
computer, and maintenance cost reports are printed out for the plant management.

3. Plant Management

Process control computers are capable of very accurate control of the various
temperatures, pressures, and other process variables. Modern plants use the
distributed control method to control sections of the plant with several smaller
computers, linked together with a communication network. The control computer
network can be linked to the plant management computers, which calculate
overall plant costs and efficiencies.
The plant manager and administrative staff determine production goals for the
plant and these goals can be entered into the plant management computer. In
sophisticated plants it is possible for this computer to calculate the most efficient
operating set points and automatically adjust setpoints of the remote distributed
control computers through the communication network. Plant operators used to
seeing equipment operating at steady temperature or pressure will find this type of
operation disconcerting at first, but it is important to realize that with the aid of
the computer the plant efficiency, profitability, and competitiveness can be
improved.

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Notes:

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