APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY: Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of
energy. Although everybody has a feeling of what energy is, it is difficult to give a precise
definition for it.
SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES: A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a
region in space chosen for study. The mass or region outside the system is called the
surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is
called the boundary.

A closed system (also known as

a control mass) consists of a

fixed amount of mass, and no

mass can cross its boundary

(only energy can transfer).

If, as a special case, both

cross the boundary, that system is called an isolated system.

An open system, or a control volume, is a system in which both mass and energy can

energy & mass is not allowed to

cross the boundary of a control volume.

PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM:
Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of a system, such as
temperature, pressure, and density.
Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size or extent of the system. Ex:
Total mass, total volume and total momentum are some examples of extensive properties.
Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties.
Some examples of specific properties are specific volume (v =V/m) & specific total energy (e
= E/m).

Specific gravity, or Relative density, and is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance
to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4C, for
which density of H2O =1000 kg/m3).

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM: Set of properties that completely describe the condition, or the
state, of the system.
The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system.
PROCESSES AND CYCLES: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state
to another is called a process, and the series of states through which a system passes during a
process is called the path of the process.

THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium
with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
However, it cannot be concluded from the other laws of thermodynamics, and it serves
as a basis for the validity of temperature measurement.
PRESSURE

Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.

The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, Most pressuremeasuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere and so they
indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure.
This difference is called the gage pressure.
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures.

PASCALS LAW : Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape or cross section of the
container. It changes with the vertical distance, but remains constant in other directions.
Pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same
amount. This is called Pascals law (i.e. the force applied by a fluid is proportional to the
surface area).
THE MANOMETER: It is based on the principle that, elevation change of in a fluid at rest
corresponds to pressure change, which suggests that a fluid column can be used to measure
pressure differences.

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the

atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.

ENERGY TRANSFER
Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in two distinct forms:
heat and work
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a
system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
Work: Energy interaction that is not caused by a temperature difference between a
system and its surroundings is work. More specifically, work is the energy transfer
associated with a force acting through a distance.
A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic process.

THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the conservation of energy principle,
states: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can only
change forms.
Consider a system undergoing a series of adiabatic processes from a specified state 1
to another specified state 2. It indicates that For all adiabatic processes between two
specified states of a closed system, the net work done is the same regardless of the
nature of the closed system and the details of the process.

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
PURE SUBSTANCE
A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure substance.
Water, nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide, for example, are all pure substances.
Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure:
At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase is called
the saturation temperature Tsat. At a pressure of 101.325 kPa, Tsat is 99.97C.
Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes
phase is called the saturation pressure Psat. Conversely, at a temperature of 99.97C, Psat is
101.325 kPa.

Critical point: The

point at which

the saturated liquid

and saturated

vapor states are

identical. The

critical-point

properties of

water

are

Pcr

=22.06 MPa,

Tcr=373.95C,

and

Vcr

this

point,

Three phases of

pure

substance

coexist

=0.003106 m3/kg.
Triple

Point:

At

equilibrium.
For

water,

the

triple-point

temperature and pressure are 0.01C and 0.6117 kPa, respectively.

in

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

Passing from the solid phase directly into the vapor phase is called sublimation.

THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Why 2nd law?
The first law places no restriction on the direction of a process, but satisfying the first
law does not ensure that the process can actually occur.
The first law is concerned with only the quantity of energy and the transformations of
energy from one form to another with no regard to its quality.The second law asserts that energy
has quality as well as quantity.
THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS
A hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal energy capacity that can supply or
absorb finite amounts of heat without undergoing any change in temperature is called a thermal
energy reservoir.
SOURCE:
A reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat is called a source.
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
SINK:
One that absorbs energy in the form of heat is called a sink.
HEAT ENGINE:
Work can be converted to heat directly and completely, but converting heat to work
requires the use of some special devices. These devices are called heat engines.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics:

KelvinPlanck Statement:
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.
Clausius Statement:
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no
effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a highertemperature body.
REFRIGERATORS:

The transfer of heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature one requires

special devices called refrigerators.

The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated space at a low temperature by
removing heat from it. Discharging this heat to a higher-temperature medium is merely a

necessary part of the operation, not the purpose.

The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed in terms of the coefficient of performance

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

REFRIGERATOR

HEAT PUMP

HEAT PUMPS:
Another device that transfers heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature

one is the heat pump.

The objective of a heat pump, however, is to maintain a heated space at a high temperature.
This is accomplished by absorbing heat from a low-temperature source, such as well water
or cold outside air in winter, and supplying this heat to the high-temperature medium such as
a house.

PERPETUAL-MOTION MACHINE:
A device that violates the first law of thermodynamics (by creating energy) is called a
perpetual-motion machine of the first kind (PMM1), and a device that violates the second law of
thermodynamics is called a perpetual-motion machine of the second kind (PMM2).
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
A reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any
trace on the surroundings. That is, both the system and the surroundings are returned to their
initial states at the end of the reverse process.
Processes that are not reversible are called irreversible processes.
THE CARNOT CYCLE:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Reversible Isothermal Heat Addition

Reversible Adiabatic Expansion
Reversible Isothermal Heat Rejection
Reversible Adiabatic Compression

THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

THE CARNOT PRINCIPLES:

1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a
reversible one operating between the same two reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two
reservoirs are the same.

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE:

The hypothetical heat engine that operates on the reversible Carnot cycle is called the
Carnot heat engine.
THE CARNOT REFRIGERATOR AND HEAT PUMP:
A refrigerator or a heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a
Carnot refrigerator, or a Carnot heat pump.
The coefficients of performance of actual and reversible refrigerators
Operating between the same temperature limits can be compared as follows:

ENTROPY
Clausius Inequality:
On the basis of the KelvinPlanck statement of the second law, the cyclic integral of
dQ/T is always less than or equal to zero, we reason that WC cannot be a work output, and
thus it cannot be a positive quantity.

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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
WHAT IS ENTROPY?
Entropy can be viewed as a measure of molecular disorder, or molecular
randomness. As a system becomes more disordered, the positions of the molecules become
less predictable and the entropy increases.

ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
A process during which the entropy remains constant is called an isentropic process.

It should be recognized that a reversible adiabatic process is necessarily

isentropic (s2=s1), but an isentropic process is not necessarily a reversible adiabatic
process.
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

The entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero
since there is no uncertainty about the state of the molecules at that instant. This
statement is known as the third law of thermodynamics.
The third law of thermodynamics provides an absolute reference point for the
determination of entropy. The entropy determined relative to this point is called absolute
entropy.
GAS POWER CYCLES
AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS:
1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves as
an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that restores the working fluid to
its initial state.
OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE (FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES)
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant-volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection

where R is the Compression Ratio

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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

DIESEL CYCLE: THE

(COMPRESSION-

IDEAL CYCLE
IGNITION ENGINES)

1-2 Isentropic

compression

2-3 Constant-

pressure heat

addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection

where, cutoff ratio rc is the ratio of the cylinder volumes after and before the combustion
process
STIRLING AND ERICSSON CYCLES
1-2 T = constant expansion (heat addition from the external source)
2-3 v =constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to the
regenerator)
3-4 T = constant compression (heat rejection to the external sink)
4-1 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back to the
working fluid)

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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE (GAS-TURBINE ENGINES)

1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection

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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

where, rp = pressure ratio

VAPOR AND COMBINED POWER CYCLES
RANKINE CYCLE (THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES)
1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCYOF THE RANKINE CYCLE?

1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures before it enters the turbine. This would be
the desirable solution for increasing the cycle efficiency but, is not a viable solution, because it
requires raising the steam temperature to metallurgically unsafe levels.
2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between. Reheating is a
practical solution to the excessive moisture problem in turbines, and it is commonly used in
modern steam power plants.
THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE

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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE
A practical regeneration process in steam power plants is accomplished by extracting, or
bleeding, steam from the turbine at various points. This steam is used to heat the feedwater
& the device where the feedwater is heated by regeneration is called a regenerator, or a
feedwater heater (FWH).
Open Feedwater Heaters
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing chamber, where
the steam extracted from the turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting the pump. Ideally, the
mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure.
Closed Feedwater Heaters
Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is the closed
feedwater heater, in which heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the feedwater
without any mixing taking place.

The condensed steam is then either pumped to the feedwater line or routed to another
heater or to the condenser through a device called a trap. A trap allows the liquid to be throttled
to a lower pressure region but traps the vapor.

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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
GAS MIXTURES
The ratio of the mass of a component to the mass of the mixture is called the mass
fraction mf,
The ratio of the mole number of a component to the mole number of the mixture is called
the mole fraction y,

IDEAL GAS & REAL GAS

A perfect gas is or an ideal gas is defined as a gas having no intermolecular forces.
A gas which follows the gas laws at all ranges of pressures and temperatures can be
considered as an ideal gas but no such gas exists in nature.
However, Real Gases tend to follow these laws at low pressures or high temperatures.
This is because the molecules are far apart at reduced pressures & elevated temperatures and
the force of attraction is small.
The P-v-T behavior of an ideal gas is expressed by the simple relation, which is called
the ideal-gas equation of state. Pv =RT
BOYLES LAW: For a gas in closed system,
Pv =constant, when T is constant
CHARLES LAW:
a) v/T=constant, when P is constant
b) p/T=constant, when v is constant
The prediction of the P-v-T behavior of gas mixtures is usually based on two models:
Daltons law of additive pressures: The pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of
the pressures each gas would exert if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and
volume.
Amagats law of additive volumes: The volume of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the
volumes each gas would occupy if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and
pressure.

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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
GAS VAPOUR MIXTURES
ATMOSPHERIC AIR:
Air in the atmosphere normally contains some water vapor (or moisture) and is referred
to as atmospheric air.
DRY AIR: Air that contains no water vapor is called dry air.
VAPOUR PRESSURE:
Vapor pressure is usually considered to be the partial pressure of water vapor in
atmospheric air.
SPECIFIC HUMIDITY OF AIR:
The mass of water vapor present in a unit mass of dry air. This is called absolute or
specific humidity (also called humidity ratio).

RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF AIR:

The amount of moisture the air holds (mv) relative to the maximum amount of moisture
the air can hold at the same temperature (mg). The ratio of these two quantities is called the
relative humidity.
Relative Humidity
SATURATED AIR:
When water vapor is added to the dry air. The specific humidity will increase. As more
vapor or moisture is added, the specific humidity will keep increasing until the air can hold no
more moisture. At this point, the air is said to be saturated with moisture, and it is called
saturated air.
DEW-POINT TEMPERATURE:
The dew-point temperature Tdp is defined as the temperature at which condensation
begins when the air is cooled at constant pressure. In other words, Tdp is the saturation
temperature of water corresponding to the vapor pressure.
WET-BULB TEMPERATURE:
Wet-bulb temperature is temperature measured by using a thermometer whose bulb is
covered with a cotton wick saturated with water and blowing air over the wick.
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE:
Dry-bulb temperature is the ordinary temperature of atmospheric air.
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
EVAPORATION:
Evaporation is the phase change from liquid to vapor and occurs at the liquidvapor
interface when the vapor pressure is less than the saturation pressure of the liquid at a given
temperature.
HUMIDIFYING:
Humidifying is the process of adding moisture to atmospheric air.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART:
Psychrometric chart presents the properties of atmospheric air at a specified pressure
and two independent intensive properties.
The psychrometric chart is a plot of absolute humidity versus dry-bulb temperature and
shows lines of constant relative humidity, wet-bulb temperature, specific volume, and enthalpy
for the atmospheric air.

Schematic for a psychrometric chart.

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
MACH NUMBER:
Mach number is the ratio of the actual velocity of the fluid (or an object in still air) to the
speed of sound in the same fluid at the same state.

Fluid flow regimes are often described in terms of the flow Mach number. The flow is
called sonic when Ma = 1, subsonic when Ma<1, supersonic when Ma>1, hypersonic when
Ma>>1, and transonic when Ma~1.
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

BY
K.KARTHICK
M.RAVI SHANKAR
P.SIVA RAMA PANDIYAN

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