Abstract

Pesticides are widely used in agricultural production to prevent or control pests, diseases, weeds,
and other plant pathogens in an effort to reduce or eliminate yield losses and maintain high
product quality. Although pesticides are developed through very strict regulation processes to
function with reasonable certainty and minimal impact on human health and the environment,
serious concerns have been raised about health risks resulting from occupational exposure and
from residues in food and drinking water. Occupational exposure to pesticides often occurs in the
case of agricultural workers in open fields and greenhouses, workers in the pesticide industry,
and exterminators of house pests. Exposure of the general population to pesticides occurs
primarily through eating food and drinking water contaminated with pesticide residues, whereas
substantial exposure can also occur in or around the home. Regarding the adverse effects on the
environment (water, soil and air contamination from leaching, runoff, and spray drift, as well as
the detrimental effects on wildlife, fish, plants, and other non-target organisms), many of these
effects depend on the toxicity of the pesticide, the measures taken during its application, the
dosage applied, the adsorption on soil colloids, the weather conditions prevailing after
application, and how long the pesticide persists in the environment. Therefore, the risk
assessment of the impact of pesticides either on human health or on the environment is not an
easy and particularly accurate process because of differences in the periods and levels of
exposure, the types of pesticides used (regarding toxicity and persistence), and the environmental
characteristics of the areas where pesticides are usually applied. Also, the number of the criteria
used and the method of their implementation to assess the adverse effects of pesticides on human
health could affect risk assessment and would possibly affect the characterization of the already
approved pesticides and the approval of the new compounds in the near future. Thus, new tools
or techniques with greater reliability than those already existing are needed to predict the
potential hazards of pesticides and thus contribute to reduction of the adverse effects on human
health and the environment. On the other hand, the implementation of alternative cropping
systems that are less dependent on pesticides, the development of new pesticides with novel
modes of action and improved safety profiles, and the improvement of the already used pesticide
formulations towards safer formulations (e.g., microcapsule suspensions) could reduce the
adverse effects of farming and particularly the toxic effects of pesticides. In addition, the use of
appropriate and well-maintained spraying equipment along with taking all precautions that are
required in all stages of pesticide handling could minimize human exposure to pesticides and
their potential adverse effects on the environment.
Keywords: pesticide toxicity, pesticide safety, risk assessment

Introduction
Pesticides are designed to kill and because their mode of action is not specific to one species,
they often kill or harm organisms other than pests, including humans. The World Health
Organization estimates that there are 3 million cases of pesticide poisoning each year and up to
220,000 deaths, primarily in developing countries. The application of pesticides is often not very
precise, and unintended exposures occur to other organisms in the general area where pesticides

are applied. Children, and indeed any young and developing organisms, are particularly
vulnerable to the harmful effects of pesticides. Even very low levels of exposure during
development may have adverse health effects.
Pesticide exposure can cause a range of neurological health effects such as memory loss, loss of
coordination, reduced speed of response to stimuli, reduced visual ability, altered or
uncontrollable mood and general behavior, and reduced motor skills. These symptoms are often
very subtle and may not be recognized by the medical community as a clinical effect. Other
possible health effects include asthma, allergies, and hypersensitivity, and pesticide exposure is
also linked with cancer, hormone disruption, and problems with reproduction and fetal
development.
Pesticide formulations contain both "active" and "inert" ingredients. Active ingredients are what
kill the pest, and inert ingredients help the active ingredients to work more effectively. These
"inert" ingredients may not be tested as thoroughly as active ingredients and are seldom
disclosed on product labels. Solvents, which are inert ingredients in many pesticide formulations,
may be toxic if inhaled or absorbed by the skin.
Children are at greater risk from exposure to pesticides because of their small size: relative to
their size, children eat, drink, and breathe more than adults. Their bodies and organs are growing
rapidly, which also makes them more susceptible; in fact, children may be exposed to pesticides
even while in the womb.

Pesticides and Human Health

Pesticides have been linked to a wide range of human health hazards, ranging from short-term
impacts such as headaches and nausea to chronic impacts like cancer, reproductive harm, and
endocrine disruption.
Acute dangers - such as nerve, skin, and eye irritation and damage, headaches, dizziness, nausea,
fatigue, and systemic poisoning - can sometimes be dramatic, and even occasionally fatal.
Chronic health effects may occur years after even minimal exposure to pesticides in the
environment, or result from the pesticide residues which we ingest through our food and water. A
July 2007 study conducted by researchers at the Public Health Institute, the California
Department of Health Services, and the UC Berkeley School of Public Health found a sixfold
increase in risk factor for autism spectrum disorders (ASD) for children of women who were
exposed to organochlorine pesticides.
Pesticides can cause many types of cancer in humans. Some of the most prevalent forms include
leukemia, non-Hodgkins lymphoma, brain, bone, breast, ovarian, prostate, testicular and liver

cancers. In February 2009, the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry published a
study that found that children who live in homes where their parents use pesticides are twice as
likely to develop brain cancer versus those that live in residences in which no pesticides are used.

Human Exposure to Pesticides and Factors Affecting Exposure

Human exposure to pesticides may occur through occupational exposure in the case of
agricultural workers in open fields and greenhouses, workers in the pesticide industry, and
exterminators of house pests [610,3335]. However, irrespective of whether the occupation
involves the use of pesticides, the presence of such chemicals in the working environment
constitutes potential occupational exposure. Evidently, workers who mix, load, transport and
apply formulated pesticides are normally considered to be the group that will receive the greatest
exposure because of the nature of their work and are therefore at highest risk for possible acute
intoxications [36]. In some situations, exposure to pesticides can occur from accidental spills of
chemicals, leakages, or faulty spraying equipment. The exposure of workers increases in the case
of not paying attention to the instructions on how to use the pesticides and particularly when they
ignore basic safety guidelines on the use of personal protective equipment and fundamental
sanitation practices such as washing hands after pesticide handling or before eating.

Pesticide Registration and Safety

Pesticide registration is a scientifically-based, legal, and also administrative
process, where a wide variety of effects associated with the use of a
pesticide product and its potential effect on human health and the
environment is assessed [2729]. The registration is an important step in the
management of pesticides as it enables authorities primarily to determine
which pesticide products are permitted to be used and for what purposes,
and also to exercise control over quality, usage rates, claims, labelling,
packaging and advertising of pesticides, thus ensuring that the best interest
of end-users as well as the environment are well protected [30]. In addition,
the registration process is restricted to the assumption that pesticides are
only used for their intended function and envisages proving that such use
does not promote unreasonable effects either on human health or on the
environment. Therefore, before any pesticide can be used commercially,
several tests are conducted that determine whether a pesticide has any
potential to cause adverse effects on humans and wildlife, including
endangered species and other non-target organisms, or potential to
contaminate surface waters and groundwater from leaching, runoff, and
spray drift. Effects in any non-target species may translate into ecosystem

unbalance and food-web disruption that ultimately may affect human health
and edible species.

Insecticides
Organochlorines
Acute ingestion of organochlorine insecticides can cause a loss of sensation around the mouth,
hypersensitivity to light, sound, and touch, dizziness, tremors, nausea, vomiting, nervousness,
and confusion.
In 1975, over 70 workers manufacturing Kepone, an organochlorine insecticide, in Hopewell,
Virginia, developed a variety of neurological symptoms, the most prominent of which became
known as the "Kepone shakes." The workers' symptoms started about 30 days after their first
exposure to Kepone. Subsequent testing also revealed decreases in sperm count and motility. In
1976, Kepone was discontinued and substituted with organophosphates.

Organophosphates and Carbamates

Acute organophosphate and carbamate exposure causes signs and symptoms of excess
acetylcholine, such as increased salivation and perspiration, narrowing of the pupils, nausea,
diarrhea, decrease in blood pressure, muscle weakness, and fatigue. These symptoms usually
decline within days after exposure ends as acetylcholine levels return to normal.
Some organophosphates also have a delayed neurological reaction characterized by muscle
weakness in the legs and arms. During Prohibition, people consumed a homemade alcoholic
drink made out of Jamaican ginger that was contaminated with the organophosphate
triorthocresyl phosphate (TOCP). More than 20,000 people were affected by a condition called
"Ginger Jake paralysis." Later research found that these effects could be reproduced in animals,
and the US government required that organophosphates be tested for delayed effects during the
registration process. The human toxicity of organophosphates caused a decline in their use and
spurred the search for new alternatives.

Pyrethroids
Among the most promising alternatives to organophosphates were synthetic pyrethroids.
However, pyrethroids can cause hyper-excitation, aggressiveness, uncoordination, whole-body
tremors, and seizures. Acute exposure in humans, usually resulting from skin exposure due to
poor handling procedures, usually resolve within 24 hours. Pyrethroids can cause an allergic skin
response, and some pyrethroids may cause cancer, reproductive or developmental effects, or
endocrine system effects.

Herbicides
Herbicides are generally less toxic to mammals than insecticides. Most herbicides interfere with
plant hormones or enzymes
that do not have any direct counterpart in animals. The most serious human health concerns have
been related to chemical contaminants in the active ingredient. Military personnel and others
exposed to Agent Orange, a mixture of the herbicides 2,4-Dand 2,4,5-T that was contaminated
with dioxin (TCDD), reported birth defects, cancers, liver disease, and other illness. These
concerns lead to improvement in the manufacturing process of 2,4,5-T to reduce TCDD
contamination and ultimately lead to cancellation of 2,4,5-T and reduction in use of 2,4-D.
However, some herbicides may cause cancer, reproductive or developmental effects, or
endocrine system effects.

Minimizing the Negative Impact of Pesticides

Despite continuing disagreements over the degree of risk posed by pesticides, it appears that
people have become increasingly concerned about pesticide use and particularly about their
impacts on human health and environmental quality [5]. These increased concerns resulted
mainly from reduced trust in the agricultural and industrial methods of production as well as on
the authoritys regulations aimed at protecting both the environment and human health.
Therefore, considering the existence of several uncertainties in the evaluation of pesticide safety,
scientific data, policy guidelines, and professional judgment must be incorporated when
estimating whether a pesticide can be used beneficially within the limits of an acceptable risk.
Pesticides and Children
Children are particularly susceptible to the hazards associated with pesticide use. There is now
considerable scientific evidence that the human brain is not fully formed until the age of 12, and
childhood exposure to some of the most common pesticides on the market may greatly impact
the development of the central nervous system. Children have more skin surface for their size
than adults, absorb proportionally greater amounts of many substances through their lungs and
intestinal tracts, and take in more air, food and water per pound than adults. Children have not
developed their immune systems, nervous systems, or detoxifying mechanisms completely,
leaving them less capable of fighting the introduction of toxic pesticides into their systems.
Many of the activities that children engage in - playing in the grass, putting objects into their
mouth and even playing on carpet - increase their exposure to toxic pesticides. The combination
of likely increased exposure to pesticides and lack of bodily development to combat the toxic
effects of pesticides means that children are suffering disproportionately from their impacts.

Pesticides and the Environment

Since the publication of Rachel Carsons landmark 1962 book Silent Spring, the impacts of
pesticides on the environment have been well known. Pesticides are toxic to living organisms.
Some can accumulate in water systems, pollute the air, and in some cases have other dramatic
environmental effects. Scientists are discovering new threats to the environment that are equally
disturbing.
Pesticide use can damage agricultural land by harming beneficial insect species, soil
microorganisms, and worms which naturally limit pest populations and maintain soil health;
Weakening plant root systems and immune systems;
Reducing concentrations of essential plant nutrients in the soil such nitrogen and phosphorous.

The Myth of Safety: A Failed Regulatory System

Despite what government agencies and corporations tell you, pesticide products currently on the
market are not safe, even when they are used legally. There are many flaws in the way that
pesticides are registered and in our political process that allows corporations to influence
pesticide policy to allow the continued use of their poisonous products.
Even if we know that a pesticide causes severe health and environmental impacts, including
cancer and genetic damage, it may still be allowed for use. The EPA may determine that a
cancer-causing chemical may be used despite its public health hazard if its "economic, social or
environmental" benefits are deemed greater than its risk. According to the US EPA, more than 70
active ingredients known to cause cancer in animal tests are allowed for use.
Although industry tests for a wide range of environmental and health impacts, the vast majority
of pesticides currently on the market have not been fully tested.

The Solution to Pesticides

We need to make our food, our air, our water, and our soil free from toxic chemicals.
The real solution to our pest and weed problems lies in non-toxic and cultural methods of
agriculture, not in pulling the pesticide trigger. Organically grown foods and sustainable methods
of pest control are key to our families health and the health of the environment.
Better testing. State and federal agencies should require stricter independent testing, including
testing of synergistic effects of pesticides. Pesticides known or suspected of causing human
health problems should be phased out.

Protect our children. Because our children are the most vulnerable population to pesticides,
pesticide use should be prohibited in places where our children live and play, including schools,
parks, and playgrounds. Require strict non-toxic pest management programs for such places.
Pesticide Use Reduction. Provide technical assistance to farmers, local governments,
businesses, and homeowners on non-toxic alternatives to pesticide use. This includes alternatives
to nuisance spraying for mosquitoes and controlling West Nile virus and other pest problems.
Prohibit pollution of our water and poisoning of our communities. Ensure that aerial
pesticide use does not pollute our waterways through strict rules governing spraying and buffer
zones that prevent the harmful effects of drift. Prohibit the use of pesticides for purely aesthetic
reasons. Prevent pesticide applications to water bodies, instead using non-chemical methods of
managing aquatic invasive weeds.
Right to know. Provide free and universal notification to residents about pesticide use, including
who is using chemicals, where, when, how, what pesticides are being used, and why.
Protect workers. Provide protection to workers and farmers to prevent acute and chronic
pesticide poisoning.
For more information about pesticides, see our reports Clear As A Lake: A Resource Guide to
Invasive Aquatic Plants and Non-Toxic Treatment Alternatives, Refuse to Use Chemlawn, and
Catching the Toxic Drift.
Pesticides have a specific purpose in society. Pesticides are intended to:

kill organisms that cause disease and threaten public health

control insects, fungus, and weeds that damage crops

control pests that damage homes and structures vital to public safety

Because people use pesticides to kill, prevent, repel, or in some way adversely affect some living
organism (the pest), pesticides by their nature are toxic to some degree. Even the least-toxic
products, and those that are natural or organic, can cause health problems if someone is exposed
to enough of it.
People come into contact with pesticides in many ways, including:

When pesticides are used in and around our homes and gardens

When pesticides are used on our pets

When we work with pesticides

When pesticides are used in our communities or in our environment

When pesticides are used on the food we eat

The risk of health problems depends not only on how toxic the ingredients are (Pesticide
Ingredients), but also on the amount of exposure to the product. In addition, certain people like
children, pregnant women and sick or aging populations may be more sensitive to the effects of
pesticides than others.
To reduce the risk of health problems from pesticides there are several things you can do:

Identify the least-toxic way to control your pest; learn about Integrated Pest Management
(IPM).

Always read the pesticide label first! Select the appropriate product for your site, method
and goals.

Read all precautions and warnings on the label prior to use. These are intended to help
you prevent harmful exposures.

Take steps to minimize your exposure, even when using low toxicity pesticides.

Conclusions
Pesticides have played a key role in providing reliable supplies of agricultural produce at prices
affordable to consumers, improving the quality of produce, and ensuring high profits to farmers.
Although pesticides are developed to function with reasonable certainty and minimal risk to
human health and the environment, many studies have raised concerns about health risks from
exposure of farmers (or other end-users of pesticides) and from non-occupational exposure of the
population to residues found on food and drinking water. Several indicators have been used to
assess the potential risk of pesticides to human health and the environment. However, their use
indicated reduced certainty, suggesting the need for development of alternative indicators that
should increase the accuracy and reliability of pesticide risk assessment and thus contribute to
reduction of the possible adverse effects of pesticides on human health and the environment.