31 2 , pp.

21-31

1.1.
: ?
? ,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, x y z u
, ,

,
, , ,
,
an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 = 0

(1.1.1)

,
,
, 1770 , J. Lagrange (17361813)
, 1824 , N. Abel (18021829) ,
, 1830 E.
Galois (18111832) : Galois
Abel Galois , :
21

22 31 2 96 7

, ,
(??) ; (??) , ,
, C.F. Gauss (17771855) ,
,
D. Hilbert (18621943) E. Steinitz(18711928) A. E. Noether (18821935)
E. Artin (18981962)

, , S
,
(),
: ,
: , ,
, ,
, , ;
, Abel , ,
, ,

() ( (linear) (bilinear) ) ,
, ,
,

, : ; ;
, , ,
; ,
, ,
,

1.2.

A. (group)
G, :

 23

1. () a, b G, a b G;
2. () a, b, c G, (a b) c = a (b c);
3. () G e, a G, a e = e a = a;
4. () G a, G a1 , a a1 = a1 a = e;
5. () a, b G, a b = b a, G Abel (Abelian group)
, + G 1 2, G
(semi-group)

B. (ring)
R, , (+) :
1. R Abel
2. R
3. () a, b, c R,
(a + b) c = ac + bc;

c (a + b) = ca + cb;
R
4. () a, b R, a b = b a; R
R e, a e = e a = a, R (identity) ,
1 ,
1 = 0 , R (characteristic) ,
R 0

C. (, integral domain)
R r, s R, r s = 0, r
(zero divisor) :
(cancellation law) : x, y, r R, r 6= 0,
rx = ry x = y

D. (division ring, , skew field)

,

24 31 2 96 7

E. (field)

F. (principal ideal domain)

R I R (ideal),
1. I R Abel ;
2. a I, r R, ar I ra I
1.
1 . I a, b, a b I; 1 2 1 2
1 2 (ideal)
R , S R ,


hs1 , . . . , sn i = r1 s1 + + rn sn : rj R, sj S, j = 1, . . . , n

R , S (generated) a


hai = ra : r R
a (principal ideal)

, Z ,
Z I I a F
, F F[x] p(x), q(x)
F[x], p(x)q(x) = 0, p(x) = 0 q(x) = 0, F[x] ,

1.2.1: F[x]
: I F[x] , m(x) I (monic polynomial),
1 , I ,
n(x), deg n(x) = deg m(x),
b(x) = m(x) n(x) I.
b(x) , b1 (x), b1 (x) I,
deg b1 (x) = deg b(x) < deg m(x), b1 (x) = 0, b(x) = 0, n(x) = m(x)
I m(x) I m(x) I, hm(x)i I
p(x) I, p(x) m(x) ,
p(x) = q(x)m(x) + r(x),

 25

r(x) = 0 0 deg r(x) < deg m(x) I ,

r(x) = p(x) q(x)m(x) I.
r(x) , r1 (x), r1 (x) I, 0
deg r1 (x) < deg m(x) m(x) , , r1 (x) = 0, r(x) = 0

p(x) = q(x)m(x) hm(x)i.

I hm(x)i , I = hm(x)i,

1.2.1: p1 (x), . . . , pn (x) F[x],

hp1 (x), . . . , pn (x)i = hgcd{p1 (x), . . . , pn (x)}i,
gcd{p1 (x), . . . , pn (x)} p1 (x), . . . , pn (x)
: I = hp1 (x), . . . , pn (x)i, 1.2.1 , I
m(x), I = hm(x)i pj (x) hm(x)i, aj (x) F[x],
j = 1, . . . , n,
pj (x) = aj (x)m(x)

j = 1, . . . , n.

, m(x) | pj (x), j = 1, . . . , n, m(x) p1 (x), . . . , pn (x) q(x) |

pj (x), j = 1, . . . , n, pj (x) hq(x)i, j = 1, . . . , n hp1 (x), . . . , pn (x)i
p1 (x), . . ., pn (x) ,
hm(x)i = hp1 (x), . . . , pn (x)i hq(x)i.
, m(x) hq(x)i, q(x) | m(x), m(x) p1 (x), . . . , pn (x)

: x y R = F[x, y]
,
R
1. r, s R, x R, s = xr, r (divide) s, r | s
2. u R, v R, uv = 1, u (unit)
3. a, b R, R u, a = ub, a, b
4. p R (prime), p | ab p | a p | b

26 31 2 96 7

5. p R (irreducible), p = ab a b
:
a. u R hui = R;
b. a, b R hai = hbi;
c. r s hsi hri;
d. r (properly divide)s ( s = xr, x ) hsi ( hri;
Z, () ,
, , :
1.2.2: R , R
: p , p = ab, p | ab, p | a p | b p | a, a = xp,
p = ab = xpb, R , , p xb = 1, b
, p , R , R
, R , !
: r R , hri (maximal ideal),
hri =
6 R, hai hri ( hai ( R hai hri hai R,
r = xa, x R r, ax a, a.
hai = R; x, b. hai = hxai = hri; hri
r , r | ab, r | a r | b, r c.
ab hri hri , : a hri b hri a
/ hri,
hri , ha, ri = R, x, y R, 1 = xa + yr
b, b = xab + yrb, r | ab, r | xab; , r | yrb,
r | b, b hri b
/ hri, a hri r
I1 , I2 , . . . R
Ij Ij+1 ,

j = 1, 2, . . .

{Ij } (ascending chain of ideals)

1.2.2: R , {haj i} ,
m,
ham i = ham+1 i = ham+2 i = .
: I = j haj i I b, c I, b, c
haj i hak i j k haj i hak i , b hak i, b c hak i,

 27

b c I d R, b haj i, bd haj i db haj i, , bd I db I

I R R , e R I = hei I ,
e ham i, I ham i; , ham i I, I = ham i
m n ham i han i I, ham i = I han i = I,
I = ham i = ham+1 i = ham+2 i = .

1.2.2 :
1.2.3: () R , r R, r 6= 0

r = u p 1 pn ,
u , p1 , . . . , pn u ,
: 1.2.2, R , , r R
r R, r , , r = r1 r2 ,
r1 r2 , r1 r2 , ; , r2
, r2 = r3 r4 , r3 r4 , , R
r = r1 r2 = r1 (r3 r4 ) = (r1 r3 )(r5 r6 ) = (r1 r3 r5 )(r7 r8 ) = .
r , ,
r2 | r, r4 | r2 , r6 | r4 , . . . ,
3,
hri hr2 i hr4 i hr6 i .

(1.2.1)

rj , 4, ,
, 1.2.2, , n
hr2n i hr2(n+1) i hr2(n+2) i .
(??)
r = r1 r3 r2n1 r2n ,

28 31 2 96 7

r2n r1 r3 r2n1 = s, r = sr2n s ,

, Z (
) , 1.2.3 ,

1.3.
1.1 , ,
,
, (linear space), (vector space);
,
, ,
1.3.1: F (scalar) F V,
, +, (~u, ~v ) V V, ~u + ~v V; F V
, , (, ~u) F V, ~u V, :
1. V + Abel ;
2. F V : , F ~u, ~v V
a. () (~u + ~v ) = ~u + ~v ;

( + )~u = ~u + ~u;

b. () ( )~u = ( ~u),
c. 1~u = ~u.
:
1. F F
2. (entries) F m n ,
, Mmn (F); m = n, Mn (F)
, ,

1.3.2: V W F , T : V W (linear
transform), , F ~u, ~v V,
T (~u + ~v ) = T (~u) + T (~v).
V W L(V, W) T : V V V
(linear operator); V L(V)

 29

, ,
1.3.3: F , F (algebra) A A,
: (+), () F A ()
:
A. F A , A ;
B. , A ;
C. F~u, ~v A,
(~u ~v ) = (~u)~v = ~u(~v).
, ,
,
V F , L(V), L(V) ,
L(V) L(V) , L(V) F
, , (Lie algebra) (Quaternion)
(Octonion) Clifford
, ,
, , ,
, , 1.1 ,

, L(V), , L(V)
T V, F[x]

1.4.
S1 S2 , f : S1 S2 S1 S2 f
(injective) (one to one),
x 6= y f (x) 6= f (y).
f (surjective) (onto), f (S1 ) = S2 ; f (bijective),
f f (S1 ) = {f (s) S2 : s S1 } f (image), Im(f )
V W F , T L(V, W), {~v V : T (~v ) = ~0} T
(kernel), Ker(T ) :

30 31 2 96 7

1. T Im(T ) = W;
2. T Ker(T ) = ~0
T L(V, W) , T V W (isomorphism), V
W , V W
, , ,
, ,
, ,
X , X X (equivalence
relation), :
a. (reflexivity) : x X, x x;
b. (symmetry) : x, y X, x y y x;
c. (transitivity): x, y, z X, x y y z y z
x X, [x] = {y X : y x} x (equivalent class) X
, X (partition) X {A1 , . . . , An , . . .}

i. Aj Ak = j 6= k ;
ii. X = A1 A2 An
Aj , j = 1, . . . , n, . . ., (block)
, X , X ;
, P X , x y x, y P , ,
P , X X
X , X C (canonical
form), x X, C c, x c , ,
, , ,
A, B Mn (F), A B (equivalent), P Q
A = P BQ;
A B (similar), P
A = P BP 1 ;
A B (congruent), P
A = P BP T ;

 31

P T P (transport)
,
( 3.1 )

( 3.2 )
,
( 3.1 )
A Mn (F), A :
1. A () F;
2. A ;
3. A () F, ()
A () A () : A
Mn (F),
Nk =

"

Ik 0
0

k n, Ik k k , , A Mn (F)
Nk , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n

College Park ,

: , , Jordan

; Georgetown University

 31 3 , pp. 26-49

2.1.
, : ,
,

A. S F V , V F V
S , S , S V
: S V
~u + ~v S,

~u, ~v S,

, F.

(2.1.1)

, S , V S
, (2.1.1); , V,
, , S
(2.1.1) = = 0, ~0 S; = 1 = 0,
~u S, S
B. V1 , . . . Vn F n ,


V = (~v1 , . . . ~vn ) : ~vj Vj , j = 1, . . . , n ,

(~v1 , . . . ~vn ) + (~u1 , . . . , ~un ) = (~v1 + ~u1, . . . , ~vn + ~un ),

F V
(~v1 , . . . , ~vn ) = ( ~v1 , . . . , ~vn ),
26

 27

F, V , V1 , . . . , Vn (direct sum),
V = V1 Vn .
S1 V , S2 , V = S1 S2 , S2 S1
(complement) S1c V
C. V () S (linearly independent),

1~v1 + + n~vn = ~0
1 = = n = 0, ~vj Vj , j F, j = 1, . . . , n V
, (linearly dependent) ,
: V , S V, S
, S ; S
D. V S (span) V, V
S , ~v V,
~v = 1~v1 + + n~vn
~vj S, j F, j = 1, . . . , n
S V , A. , S V
; S hSi,


hSi = span(S) = 1~v1 + + k~vk : j F, ~vj S, k = 1, 2, .

hSi V S

E. V V , V V
(cardinality) V (dimension), dim(V) ,

? ?
2.1.1: {0} ,
: V , V A
~v V, S = {~v }, S V , A 6= A

28 31 3 96 9

(partially order), I1 I2 V
,
U = j Ij
V , , Zorn (Zorn:
P (partially ordered set), , P ),
A , V B, B ,
B , B V, , ~u V \ B,
B , B {~u} B ,

2.1.2: ,
: V , ~v1 . . . , ~vn ,
w
~1 . . . , w
~ m V, n m :


w
~ 1, . . . , w
~m ;

~vn ,



~vn , w
~1 . . . , w
~m ;



~v1 , . . . , ~vn .


~v1 , . . . , ~vn1 .

w
~ 1, . . . , w
~ m V, ~vn w
~ 1, . . . , w
~ m , w
~j, j =
1, . . . , m , w
~ 1 , , ~vn , w
~ 2, . . . , w
~ m V;
:


~vn , w
~2 . . . , w
~m ;



~v1 , . . . , ~vn1 .

~vn1 ,


~vn1 , ~vn , w
~2 . . . , w
~m ;



~v1 , . . . , ~vn2 .

, w
~ 2 , , ~vn1 , ~vn , w
~ 3, . . . , w
~m
V; :


~vn1 , ~vn , w
~ 3, . . . , w
~m ;



~v1 , . . . , ~vn2 .

, ~vj , j = 1, . . . , n, w
~ k , k = 1, . . . , m
, {w
~ 1, . . . , w
~ m } Steinitz w
~ k,

 29

k = 1, . . . m , m < n, {~v1 , . . . , ~vn }

, V, ~v1 , . . . , ~vn , m n
: V , V , ,
,
, , ,
; L2 ([0, 2]), [0, 2] ,
{1, cos(nx), sin(nx)}nN C([0, 2])
,
2.1.2, V n , {~v1 , . . . , ~vn } V
{~v1 , . . . , ~vn } {~v1 , . . . , ~vn } , ~u V,
{~v1 , . . . , ~vn , ~u} , dim(V) = n 1 , . . . , n , F

n
X

j ~vj + ~u = ~0

j=1

6= 0,
1, . . . , n

Pn

vj
j=1 j ~

= ~0; {~v1 , . . . , ~vn } , j = ~0, j =

1
1~v1 + + n~vn ,

h{~v1 , . . . , ~vn , ~u}i = V, {~v1 , . . . , ~vn } V

~u =

F. W F V , ~u, ~v V, ~u ~v W, ~u ~v
W (congruent modulo W),
~u
= ~v ,

mod W.

~v [~v ], , ~u [~v ] ~u
= ~v , mod W [~v ]
V W (coset) , V , [~v ]
e = {~v V ~v }
V
V/W



e .
V/W = ~v + W : ~v V

(~v + W) + (~u + W) = (~v + ~u) + W,

F V/W
(~v + W) = ~v + W,

30 31 3 96 9

V/W , V W (quotient space of V modulo W)

,
2.1.3: B F n V ,
1. B V ;
2. V ~v
~v = 1~b1 + + n~bn ,
~bj B, j F, j = 1, . . . , n;
3. B V ;
4. B V
2.1.4: W1 W2 V ,
dim(W1 ) + dim(W2 ) = dim(W1 + W2 ) + dim(W1 W2 )

(2.1.2)

V F n , B = {~b1 , . . . , ~bn } V , ~v V
(1 , . . . , n ) ~v
" #

 .1
.. .
~v = 1~b1 + + n~bn = ~b1 , , ~bn
n
B , ~v [1 , . . . , n ]T , [~v ]B , ~v
B C = {~c1 , . . . , ~cn } V , n n
~ 1, . . . , A
~ n ], A
~ j , j = 1, . . . , n n ,
MB,C = [A
[~v ]C = MB,C [~v ]B .
~ j = [~bj ]C , j = 1, . . . , n,
~v = ~bj , A


MB,C = [~b1 ]C , . . . , [~bn ]C .

V F n , B V ,
B : V Fn ,

B (~v) = [~v ]B ,

~v V.

: B V Fn , B , V Fn
! :

 31

2.1.1: F n V Fn F

, , n , Fn
F = R , n

2.2.
, , ,
(linear functional)
2.2.1: V F n ,
f : V F

f ( ~u, + ~v ) = f (~u) + f (~v ),

, F ~u, ~v V , f V
V V , f, g V , : ~u V,
(f + g) (~u) = f (~u) + g(~u),
F V : ~u V F,
( f ) (~u) = f (~u).
, V , V
(dual space)
V n , B = {~b1 , . . . , ~bn } V , ~bj , j =
1, . . . , n, ~bj V ,
~b (~bk ) = jk ,
j

j, k = 1, . . . , n,

(2.1.3)

jk Kronecker , jj = 1, jk = 0, j 6= k , B = {~b1 , . . . , ~bn }

V , B B (dual basis)
dim(V) = dim(V ).
V , V V = (V ) , V ,
dim(V ) = dim(V ) = dim(V).

32 31 3 96 9

2.1.1 : V, V V

T1 : ~x =

n
X

xj~bj ~v =

j=1

n
X

xj~bj V .

j=1

dim(V ) = dim(V) 2.1.1, T1 , V V

P
~y = nk=1 yk~bk V, (2.1.3),

~x (~y ) =

n
X

xj~bj (~y ) =

j=1

n
X

xj~bj

j=1

n
X
k=1

n
 X
~
yk bk =
xj yj .
j=1

~bj , j = 1, . . . , n, ~b
j V ,

~b (~b ) = jk ,
j
k

j, k = 1, . . . , n,

~
jk Kronecker , B = {~b
, B
1 , . . . , bn } V

T2 : ~x =

n
X

xj~bj ~v =

j=1

n
X

xj~b
j V ,

j=1

, T2 , V V ~z =
~z (~bk ) =

n
X

zl~bl (~bk ) = zk .

Pn

~ V , (2.1.3),

l=1 zl bl

l=1

~z =

z (~bk )~bk
k=1 ~

Pn

~x (~z) =
=

n
X

j=1
n
X

xj~b
z)
j (~
xj~b
j

j=1

=w
~

n
X
k=1

n
X
k=1

n
 X

~
~
~z(bk )bk =
xj ~z(~bj )
j=1

xk~bk = ~z(~x).

T = T2 T1 , T : V V , T (~x) = T2 (T1 (~x)) = T2 (~x ) = ~x

~x V ~x (~z ) = ~z(~x) ~z V , ~x V
T V
, ~x T (~x) = ~x V V
V V 2.2.4 3.2.2 3.2.3 (2) (3)

 33

2.2.2: M V , V


M = f V : f (M) = 0

M (annihilator), f (M) = {f (~v) : ~v M}

2.2.1: M V , M V
2.2.2: M n ,
dim(M) + dim(M ) = n.
: U = {~u1 , . . . , ~uk } M , U


B = ~u1 , . . . , ~uk , ~v1 , . . . , ~vnk ,

B V ,

B = ~u1 , . . . , ~uk , ~v1 , . . . , ~vnk

,

B {~v1 , . . . , ~vnk
} M ;

M f M , f V , f

f = 1~u1 + + k ~uk + 1~v1 + + nk~vnk

,

j F, j = 1, . . . , k, j F, j = 1, . . . , n k f M , f (~uj ) = 0,
f (~uj ) = j , j = 0, j = 1, . . . , k ,

f = 1~v1 + + nk~vnk
.

{~v1 , . . . , ~vnk
} M ;

2.2.3: M, N V , M N,
N M .
2.2.4: V , V V , V M,

M = span(M).

34 31 3 96 9

W V , W = W
2.2.5: W1 W2 V ,

= W1 + W2 ,

= W1 W2 .

W1 W2

W1 + W2

2.2.6: V W1 W2 , V = W1 W2 ,

(1) W1 W2 W2 W1 ;


(2) W1 W2 = W1 W2

: (1): f W2 V , f (W2 ) = 0


T : f f ,
W1



f W2 f W1 , , f  W1 , W2 W1 ,
W1


f  = 0, f (W2 ) = 0, f = 0 T
g W1 , f

W1

f (w
~1 + w
~ 2 ) = g(w
~ 1),

w
~ 1 W1 , w
~ 2 W2 , f V
f (~0 + w
~ 2 ) = g(~0) = 0,


w
~ 2 W2 , f W2 f  = g, g W1 , f W2 V ,
W1



f 
= g, T , W2 W1 , W2 W1 ; , W2 W1
W1

(2): f W1 W2 , f (W1 ) = 0 f (W2 ) = 0, f = 0,

W1 W2 = {0} W1 W2 = {0} V ,

f (W1 W2 ) ,

W1 W2 W1 W2 .

g(w
~1 + w
~ 2 ) = f (w
~ 2 ),

h(w
~1 + w
~ 2 ) = f (w
~ 1),

 35

w
~ 1 W1 , w
~ 2 W2 , g, h (W1 W2 ) g(W1 ) = 0 h(W2 ) = 0,
g W1 h W2
f (w
~1 + w
~ 2 ) = f (w
~ 1 ) + f (w
~ 2 ) = g(w
~1 + w
~ 2 ) + h(w
~1 + w
~ 2 ) = (g + h)(w
~1 + w
~ 2 ).
, f = g + h W1 W2 ) ,
W1 W2
(2),

W1 W2 .

2.3.
, , , ,
,
,
a. , ,

2.3.1: V F ,
h, i : V V F
(bilinear form), , ~x, ~y , ~z V
, F,
h~x + ~y , ~zi = h~x, ~zi + h~y , ~z i

h~z, ~x + ~y i = h~z , ~xi + h~z, ~y i.

h~x, ~xi, ~x V V (quadratic form)
~x, ~y V,
h~x, ~y i = h~y , ~xi,
h, i (symmetric) ~x, ~y V,
h~x, ~y i = h~y , ~xi,
h, i (skew-symmetric)

36 31 3 96 9

2.3.1: F 2, h, i :
~z V, h~z, ~zi = 0
: ~z V, h~z , ~zi = 0, ~x, ~y V,
0 = h~x + ~y , ~x + ~y i
= h~x, ~xi + h~x, ~y i + h~y , ~xi + h~y , ~y i
= h~x, ~y i + h~y , ~xi,
h~x, ~yi = h~y , ~xi, h, i h, i ,
~x V, h~x, ~xi = h~x, ~xi, 2h~x, ~xi = 0, F 2, h~x, ~xi = 0;

b. V , h, i, (V, h, i) (metric
vector space), V h, i
(non-singular), ~v V, h~x, ~v i = 0 ~x = ~0
(V, h, i) , h, i , (V, h, i) F
, V F (orthogonal geometry) (V, h, i) F
, V F (sympletic geometry)

V, W , L(V, W) V W
T L(V, W), ker(T ) = {~v V : T (~v) = ~0} Im(T ) = {T (~v), ~v V}
, dim(ker(T )) T (nullity), null(T ); dim(Im(T )) T
(rank), rank(T )
2.3.1 (): T L(V, W),
rank(T ) + null(T ) = dim(V).
: T L(V, W), ker(T ) V , ker(T )c ,
ker(T ) ker(T )c = V.
K ker(T ) , C ker(T )c K C = K C V ,
dim(ker(T )) + dim(ker(T )c ) = dim(V).
T ker(T )c , T c ,
T c : ker(T )c Im(T )

 37

T c ~v ker(T )c , T c (~v ) = ~0, T c T ker(T )c

, T (~v) = ~0 ~v ker(T )c ker(T ), ~v = ~0 T c
T (~v) Im(T ), ~v = ~u + w,
~ ~u ker(T ), w
~ ker(T )c
T (~v) = T (~u) + T (w)
~ = T (w)
~ = T c (w),
~
T (~v) Im(T c ), Im(T ) Im(T c ); Im(T c ) Im(T ) ,
Im(T c ) = Im(T ) T c ker(T )c Im(T ) , T c ,
T c ker(T )c Im(T ) ,
ker(T )c Im(T ).

2.3.1
2.3.1: T L(V, W), dim(V) = dim(W) < , T T

2.3.2 (): T L(V, W), V/ker(T ) V ker(T ) ,

V/ker(T ) Im(T ).
: T : V/ker(T ) W
T (~v + ker(T )) = T (~v).
T , : ~u, ~v V, ~u + ker(T ) = ~v + ker(T ),
T (~u + ker(T )) = T (~v + ker(T )) : ~u + ker(T ) = ~v + ker(T ),
T (~u) = T (~v ) , : ~v ~u ker(T ), T (~v ~u) = ~0 ,
T , T T : V/ker(T ) W ,
2.3.1 T ,

dim(Im(T )) = dim V/ker(T ) ,


Im(T )) = T (~v + ker(T )) : ~v + ker(T ) V/ker(T )


= T (~v) : ~v V = Im(T ),

38 31 3 96 9

T ,
V/ker(T ) Im(T ).

2.3.3: W V , W c W ,
V/W W c ,

dim(W) + dim(W c ) = dim(V).

: V ~v ~v = w
~ +w
~ c , w
~ W w
~ c W c
T : V V
T (w
~ +w
~ c) = w
~ c,
T , Im(T ) = W c


ker(T ) = w
~ +w
~c V : w
~ c = ~0 = W.

, V/W W c 2.3.1,

dim(W) + dim(W c ) = dim(V).

2.3.4 (): V , W1 W2 V ,
W1 + W2
W1

.
W2
W1 W2
2.3.5: (): V , W1 W2 V V ,
V / W1
V

.
W2 / W1
W2
2.3.4 2.3.5
, ,
2.3.2 (Riesz ): (V, h, i) , f V ,
~v V,
f (~u) = h~u, ~vi,

 39

~u V
: ~v V, ~v : V F
~v (~u) = h~u, ~vi.
~v V , T : V V
T (~v ) = ~v .
, , V ,



~v V : ~v = ~0 = ~v V : ~u V, h~u, ~vi = 0

V , T T V , ,
dim(V) = dim(V ), 2.3.1, T V , T , V
V , V ~v , ~v V,
Riesz , , ,

c. (V, h, i) n , B = {~b1 , . . . , ~bn } V , , h, i

n n
  

MB = ajk = h~bj , ~bk i

, MB B
~x, ~y V,
~x =

n
X

xj~bj ,

j=1

h~x, ~y i =

n X
n
X
j=1 k=1

~y =

n
X

yj~bj ,

j=1

 T
 
xj yk h~bj , ~bk i = ~x B MB ~y B .

 T  
~x B , ~y B B ,
 T 
T
~x B = x1 , . . . , xn ,

h, i MB ,
ajk = akj ,

 T 
T
~y B = y1 , . . . , yn .
j, k = 1, . . . , n.

40 31 3 96 9

h, i MB ,
ajj = 0,

ajk = akj ,

j, k = 1, . . . , n, j 6= k.

C = {~c1 , . . . , ~cn } V , 2.1 , ~v V,

 
 
~v C = MC,B ~v B
 
 
~v B = MB,C ~v C

 
 T
 
 T
 T  T T
MB MC,B ~y C = ~x C MC ~y C .
h~x, ~yi = ~x B MBT ~y B = ~x C MC,B
T
MC = MC,B
MB MC,B .

MC MB
d. ,
, ,
~x ~y (orthogonal), ~x ~y , h~x, ~y i = 0
, ~x ~y ~y ~x
X Y (V, h, i) , , X Y,
~x X ~y Y, h~x, ~y i = 0
{~v V : ~v S} S (orthogonal complement), S
(V, h, i) , X Y ,
V = X Y,

X Y,

V X Y (orthogonal direct sum), X Y

2.3.3: (V, h, i) , W V ,
V = W W
W
2.3.3,
2.3.1: W (V, h, i) ,
dim(W) + dim(W ) = dim(V).

(2.3.1)

 41

: ~v V, W ~v : W F :
~v (w)
~ = hw,
~ ~vi,
w
~ W, ~v W , T : V W
T (~v ) = ~v (w),
~
,



ker(T ) = ~v V : ~v = 0 = ~v V : w
~ W, hw,
~ ~v i = 0 = W .

(2.3.2)

, 2.3.2, W W ,

T W : W W

, Im(T ) = W . 2.3.1

dim(ker(T )) + dim(Im(T )) = dim(V).

dim(Im(T )) = dim(W ) = dim(W), (2.3.2) ker(T ) = W ,
2.3.1 2.3.3 (2.1.2) 2.3.1
dim(W + W ) = dim(W) + dim(W ) dim(W W )
= dim(V) dim(W W ).
W , W W = {~0}, V = W W , V = W W
, W , V = W W
e. , ,
,
(V, h, i) , h, i , ~x V h~x, ~xi = 0
~x V, V , ~y V h~x, ~y i =
6 0 {~x, ~y }
H,
h~x, ~xi = h~y , ~y i = 0.
h~x, ~y i = 6= 0, 1~y ~y ,
h~x, ~yi = 1,

h~y , ~xi = 1.

42 31 3 96 9

H {~x, ~y } , h, i
"
N2 =

1 0

V , 2.3.3, V :
V = H H
H , H
, V , V
V = H1 H2 Hk .
, :
2.3.4: (V, h, i) , k N, V

V = H1 H2 Hk .
Hj , j = 1, . . . , k , h, i
#
"
0 1
.
N2 =
1 0
, V , h, i

M =
0

...

...

...

1 0

...

0
0

...

...

0 0

0 0
.

0 1

1 0
0

,
: P n , P M,

 43

n Q,

T
P =Q

N2 O2

...

O2

O2 N2
..
..
.
.

...
..
.

O2
..
.

O2 O2

...

N2

Q.

O2 2 , , n
f .
(V, h, i) , ~u V h~u, ~ui =
6 0,
~u , h, i ~u S1 = span{~u}
V , 2.3.3 V = S1 S1 , S1
, S1
V = S1 S2 S2 ,
S1 , S2 , ,
V = S1 S2 Sn ,
Sj ~uj , h~uj , ~uj i =
6 0, j = 1, . . . , n, {~u1 , . . . , ~un } V
() h~uj , ~uj i = aj , j = 1, . . . , n,
(V, h, i) n , V B = {~u1, . . . , ~un },
B ,

MB =

a1

0
..
.

a2
..
.

..
.

0
..
.

...

an

0 6= rj F, j = 1, . . . , n, C = {r1~u1 , . . . , rn~un } , C, h, i

MC =

r12 a1

0
..
.

r22 a2
..
.

..
.

0
..
.

rn2 an

44 31 3 96 9

F (algebraically closed field), F[x] F

, ,
1
rj = ,
aj

j = 1, . . . , n,

aj x2 aj = 0 ,

MC =

1 0

0
..
.

1
..
.

..
.

0
..
.

0 0

In n

= In ,

2.3.5: (V, h, i) F n , V
U = {~v1 , . . . , ~vn }, V
V = S1 S2 Sn ,
Sj ~vj , j = 1, . . . , n, h~uj , ~uj i = aj , h, i U

MU =

a1

0
..
.

a2
..
.

... 0

.
..
..
. .

an

F , V (orthonormal basis)( U =
{~v1 , . . . , ~vn }, h~vj , ~vk i = jk , j, k = 1, . . . , n), h, i U MU = In ,
In n
: P n , P

a1 0 0

0 a 0
2

,
.
.. . .
..

..
.
.
.

0 0 an

 45

aj 6= 0, j = 1, . . . , n; n Q,

a1 0 . . . 0

0 a2 . . . 0

P = QT .
Q.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.

0 0 . . . an

F , P In , P P = QT Q, Q n

F R, R ,
1
rj = p
,
|aj |

1
.
..

0
MU =

j = 1, . . . , n,

0
. . ..
. .

0
..
.

..
.

0
..
.

... 1

... 0 1

... 0

, +1, 1, V {~u1 , . . .,
~uk , ~v1 , . . . , ~vnk }, h~uj , ~uj i = 1, j = 1, . . . , k, h~vj , ~vj i = 1, j = 1, . . . , n k
k h, i , V
W = span{~u1 , . . . , ~uk },
w
~=

Pk

ul
l=1 wl ~

hw,
~ wi
~ =

W,

X
l=1

P = span{~v1 , . . . , ~vnk }.

k
X

wl~ul ,

k
X

m=1

wm~um =

k X
k
X

wl wm h~ul , ~um i =

l=1 m=1

k
X

wl wm lm

l,m=1

wl2 0.

l=1

: p~ P, h~p, ~pi 0 V , {~u1 , . . . , ~u , ~v1 , . . . , ~vn

},

h~uj , ~uj i = 1, j = 1, . . . , , h~vj , ~vj i = 1, j = 1, . . . , n ,

f = span{~u1 , . . . , ~u },
W

e = span{~v1 , . . . , ~vn
P
}.

46 31 3 96 9

e = {~0}.
W P

e w
e
: w
~ W P,
~ W, hw,
~ wi
~ 0; w
~ P,
e ,
hw,
~ wi
~ 0, , hw,
~ wi
~ = 0, w
~ = ~0 W P
{~0}, 2.1.4,
e dim(V),
dim(W) + dim(P)

k + (n ) n, k k, = k ,
:

2.3.6 (Sylvester ): (V, h, i) n R

, V B = {~u1 , . . . , ~uk , ~v1 , . . . , ~vnk }, h~uj , ~uj i = 1, j = 1, . . . , k,
h~vj , ~vj i = 1, j = 1, . . . , n k; B , h, i
"
#
Ik
0
MB =
,
0 Ink
k h, i , V
:
P R , P
"
#
Ik
0
,
0 Ink
k P , n Q,
"
#
I
0
k
Q.
P = QT
0 Ink
, e f
(V, h, i) F n ,
(i). h, i , V B, ~x, ~y V,
h~x, ~y i = x1 y2 x2 y1 + + xn1 yn xn yn1 ,
[x1 , . . . , xn ]T [y1 , . . . , yn ]T ~x, ~y B
(ii). h, i , V B = {~u1 , . . . , ~un },
~x, ~y V,
h~x, ~y i =

n
X
j=1

aj xj yj ,

 47

[x1 , . . . , xn ]T [y1 , . . . , yn ]T ~x, ~y B , aj = h~uj , ~uj i,

j = 1, . . . , n F , V B = {~v1 , . . . , ~vn },
~x, ~y V,
h~x, ~y i =

n
X

xj yj .

j=1

F R, V B = {~u1 , . . . , ~uk , ~v1 , . . . , ~vnk },

~x, ~y V,
h~x, ~yi =

k
X

xj yj

j=1

n
X

xj yj ,

j=k+1

[x1 , . . . , xn ]T [y1 , . . . , yn ]T ~x, ~y B , k h, i ,

V h~x, ~xi
h~x, ~xi =

n
X

aj x2j .

j=1

F ,
h~x, ~xi =

n
X

x2j .

j=1

F R ,
h~x, ~xi =

k
X
j=1

x2j

n
X

x2j .

j=k+1

2.4
F R C , V ,

2.4.1: V F , F R C,
h, i : V V F

(a) (positive definiteness) : ~v V,

h~v , ~vi 0.
h~v , ~vi = 0 ~v = ~0

48 31 3 96 9

(b) F C , ( Hermite )
h~u, ~v i = h~v, ~ui.
F R ,
h~u, ~v i = h~v, ~ui.
(c) (linearity in the first coordinate) : ~u, ~v, w
~ V
, F,
h~u + ~v, wi
~ = h~u, wi
~ + h~v , wi.
~
h, i V (inner product), (inner product space) F R , ,

F C , , (unitary space) (b)

(c) :
~u, ~v , w
~ V , F,
hw,
~ ~u + ~v i =
hw,
~ ~ui + hw,
~ ~v i,
(conjugate linearity) , h, i , (V, h, i)

~v V,
k~v k =

p
h~v , ~vi

V (length) (norm) ~u, ~v V, k~u ~v k ~u, ~v

(distance) d(~u, ~v) , V ,
(open) (closed) (neighborhood) (compact) (connectedness)
(completeness) (continuity)
1. (Cauchy ) ~u, ~v V,


h~v, ~v i k~uk k~vk;
2. () ~u, ~v V,

k~u + ~vk k~uk + k~vk;

3. () ~u, ~v V,
k~u + ~vk2 + k~u ~v k2 = 2k~uk2 + 2k~vk2 ;

 49

4. () ~u, ~v , w
~ V,
d(~u, ~v ) d(~u, w)
~ + d(w,
~ ~v );

V , V
k k : V R,

a. k~v k 0, k~v k = 0 ~v = ~0;

b. F ~v V, k ~v k = || k~vk;
c. ~u, ~v V,
k~u + ~vk k~uk + k~vk.
k k V , (V, k k) (normed linear space)
, ,
, Riesz
Riesz
V , f V , ~x V, ~v V,

f (~v ) = h~v, ~xi.

, 3.3 3.5
; Georgetown University

 31 4 , pp. 43-56

3.1.

, (),
,
, ,

V W F n m T
L(V, W) Mm,n (F) T Mm,n (F) ,
L(V, W), Mm,n (F) , L(V, W) Mm,n (F)
T L(V, W), B = {~b1 , . . . , ~bn } C = {~c1 , . . . , ~cm } V W ,
~v V, ~v B
[~v ]B = [v1 , . . . , vn ]T ,
T (~v) C
[T (~v)]C = [s1 , . . . , sm ]T .
T , Fn Fm
TA : [~v ]B [T (~v)]C ,

TA L(Fn , Fm ),

T , m n A,
[T (~v )]C = A [~v]B .
A A = [A1 , . . . , An ], Aj , j = 1, . . . , n ~v = ~bj , j =
1, . . . , n, Aj = [T (~bj )]C ,


A = [T (~b1 )]C , . . . , [T (~bn )]C .
43

44 31 4 96 12

A [T ]B,C ,
[T (~v)]C = [T ]B,C [~v ]B .
[T ]B,C V B, W C , T
: L(V, W) Mm,n (F)
(T ) = [T ]B,C : , F,
T, S L(V, W), j = 1, . . . , n,









(T + S)(~bj ) C = (T )(~bj ) + (S)(~bj ) C = T (~bj ) C + S(~bj ) C .


 
 
(T +S) = T +S B,C = T B,C + S B,C = (T ) + (S)



~ 1, . . . , A
~ n , A
~j ,
: A n n , A


~ j , j = 1, . . . , n,
j = 1, . . . , n , T : V W, T (~bj ) C = A

 


: T B,C = 0, T (~bj ) C = 0, j = 1, . . . , n,
T (~bj ) = ~0, j = 1, . . . , n, = 0 , :
3.1.1: L(V, W) Mm,n (F)
T : S : U V T : V W, B, C D
U V W ,


T S

B,D

   
= T C,D S B,C .

, T S T S
: ~u U, ~v V ,

   
= S B,C ~u B ,

   
= T C,D ~v C ,

S(~u)

T (~v)

     
  



   
T C,D S B,C ~v C = T C,D S(~u) C = T (S(~u)) D = T S B,D ~u B .

 45

T L(V, W) V W , T
B C V W , B C V W , T B
 
 
C B C T B,C T B ,C , : ~v V, :


T (~v)

   
= T B,C ~v B ,

, ~v V, :
 
 
~v B = MB,B ~v B ,

(3.1.1),


T (~v)

T (~v)

T (~v)

 
 
= T B ,C ~v B .

(3.1.1)



= MC,C T (~v ) C .



   
= MC,C T (~v) C = MC,C T B,C ~v B .



 
 
 


T (~v ) C = T B ,C ~v B = T B ,C MB,B T (~v ) B .

~v V ,

 
 
T B ,C MB,B = MC,C T B,C ,
 
 
1
T B ,C = MC,C T B,C MB,B
.

 
 
, T B ,C T B,C V = W T L(V), B = C B = C
 
   
 
, T B,B = T B , T B ,B = T B ,
 
 
1
T B = MB,B T B MB,B
,

 
 
T B T B T

3.2.
T L(V, W),

T L(V, W), W W V V T :
W V
T (f ) = f T = f T,

f W .

46 31 4 96 12

, T : V W, f : W F, f T : V F, V ,
~v V, :
T (f ) (~v) = f (T (~v)).
T T
3.2.1: (1). T, S L(V, W),
(T + S) = T + S .
(2). F T L(V, W),
( T ) = T .
(3). T L(V, W) S L(W, U),
(S T ) = T S .
(4). T L(V),
(T 1 ) = (T )1 .
:(1) (2) f U ,
(S T ) (f ) = f S T = T (f S) = T (S (f )) = (T S )(f ),
(3) (3),
T (T 1 ) = (T 1 T ) = I = I,
I (T 1 ) T = I, (3)
3.2.2: V , T L(V, W), V V , W W
, T = T
: , T : V W f W ,
T (~v )(f ) = ~v T (f ) = ~v (f T ) = f T (~v) = T (~v) (f ),
~v 2.2 : ~v ~v , ~v V , ~v (g) = g(~v), g V

T (~v ) = T (~v) .

 47

V V , W W ,
T (~v) = T (~v )
~v V , T = T ,
, 2.2
3.2.3: T L(V, W),
(1) ker(T ) = Im(T ) ;
(2) Im(T ) = ker(T );
(3) V W , Im(T ) = ker(T )
: , T : V W, T : W V ,
f ker(T ) T (f ) = 0 = f T
f (T (~v)) = 0,

~v V

f (Im(T )) = 0
f Im(T ) .
(1)
~v ker(T ) T (~v) = ~0
f (T (~v)) = 0,

f W

T (f )(~v) = 0
~v (T (f )) = 0,

f W

~v Im(T ) .
V V , (2)
(3) ~v ker(T ), f W ,
T (f )(~v) = f (T (~v )) = 0.
T (f )(ker(T )) = 0, T (f ) ker(T ) , f W ,
Im(T ) ker(T ) .
, 2.2.4 (2), :
Im(T ) Im(T ) ker(T ) .

48 31 4 96 12

, Im(T ) = ker(T )

3.2.4: T L(V, W), V W , T T

rank(T ) = rank(T )
: 2.2.6 (1)


ker(T ) ker(T )c ,

ker(T )c ker(T ) V , 3.2.3 (3), Im(T ) =

ker(T ) ,





dim(Im(T )) = dim ker(T ) = dim ker(T )c




= dim ker(T )c = dim Im(T ) ,

ker(T )c Im(T ) rank(T ) = rank(T ),

V W , T L(V, W), T L(W , V ), B = {~b1 , . . . , ~bn }
C = {~c1 , . . . , ~cn } V W , B = {~b1 , . . . , ~bn } C = {~c1 , . . . , ~cn }
 
 
, T T B,C , T T C ,B ,
?

 


T B,C = [T (~b1 )]C , . . . , [T (~bn )]C ,

C ,B



= [T (~c1 )]B , . . . , [T (~cn )]B ,

T (~bj ) W, C ,

(j)
(j)
T (~bj ) = 1 ~c1 + 2 ~c2 + + n(j)~cn ,

 (j)
(j) T
[T (~bj )]C = 1 n
, j = 1, . . . , n,

(1)

1(1)

 

2
T B,C = .
..
..
.

(1)
n

(n)

(n)

2
..
.

(n)

 49

T (~cj ) V , B ,
(j)
(j)
T (~cj ) = 1 ~b1 + 2 ~b2 + + n(j)~bn ,

 (j)
(j) T
[T (~cj )]B = 1 n , j = 1, . . . , n,

(1)

1(1)

 
2
T C ,B = .
..

(1)
n

(n)

..
.

2
..
.

(n)

(n)

T (~cj )(~bk ) = cj T (~bk ) ,

(j)

j, k = 1, . . . , n,
(k)

k = j .
:
 
 
3.2.1: T C ,B = ( T B,C )T , T T T

3.3.
,
, , ,
, Riesz ( 2.4 ),
V , f V , ~x V,
f (~v) = h~v , ~xi,

~v V.

: V V (f ) = ~x, (f )
f (~v) = h~v, (f )i.
~v V, f, g V , , F,
h~v, (f + g)i = (f + g)(~v) = f (~v) + g(~v)
= h~v, (f )i + h~v , (g)i = h~v , (f ) + (g)i,

50 31 4 96 12

(f + g) = (f ) + (g),
, (f ) = 0 f = 0,
, : V V F = C , V W
, T L(V, W), w
~ W, w~ : V F
w~ (~v ) = hT (~v), wi.
~
: w~ V Riesz , ~x V,
w~ (~v ) = hT (~v), wi
~ = h~v, ~xi,

~v V.

T (w)
~ = ~x,
hT (~v), wi
~ = h~v , T (w)i,
~

~v V.

T T : ~v V, w,
~ w
~ W,
h~v, T (w
~ + w
~ )i = hT (~v), w
~ +w
~ i =
hT (~v ), wi
~ + hT (~v), w
~ i
=
h~v, T (w)i
~ + h~v, T (w
~ )i
= h~v, T (w)i
~ + h~v, T (w
~ )i
= h~v, T (w)
~ + T (w
~ )i,

T (w
~ + w
~ ) = T (w)
~ + T (w
~ ).
, T L(W, V), T T (adjoint transformation)
T T V W , T L(V, W),

T : W V ,

T : W V.

1 : V V, 2 : W W, :
V o

Vo

S : W V
S = (1 )1 T 2 ,

 51

~x V, 1
x) = g, 1 (g) = ~x,
1 (~
1
x)(~v ) = g(~v) = h~v , 1(g)i = h~v, ~xi.
1 (~
f W , ~v V,






S(f ) (~v ) = (1 )1 T 2 (f ) (~v ) = (1 )1 T 2 (f ) (~v)
= h~v, T 2 (f )i = hT (~v), 2 (f )i
= f (T (~v)) = T (f )(~v),
S = T
T = (1 )1 T 2 ,

B = {~b1 , ~b2 , . . . , ~bn } V , C = {~c1 , ~c2 , . . . , ~cm } W

,

(k)

(1)

(2)

(1)
(2)

 

2
2
~
~
T B,C = [T (b1 )]C , . . . , [T (bn )]C = .
..
..
.

(1)
(2)
m m

..
.

2
..
.

(n)
(n)

(n)

= hT (~bk ), ~cj i

C,B

= [T (~c1 )]B , . . . , [T (~cm )]B

k = hT (~cj ), ~bk i
(j)

(1)

(2)

(1) (2)

2
2
= .
..
..
.

(1)
(2)
n n

..
.

2
..
.

(m)
(m)

(m)

(k)
hT (~cj ), ~bk i = h~bk , T (~cj )i = hT (~bk ), ~cj i = j ,

:
 
 
 
3.3.1: T C,B = T B,C = [ T B,C ] , T T T
,

T ,
3.3.1: V W , T, S L(V, W),

52 31 4 96 12

(1) hT (w),
~ ~v i = hw,
~ T (~v)i;

(2) T + S = T + S ;


(3) T = T , F;
(4) T = T ;

(5) V = W, S T = T S ;



1
(6) T , T 1 = T
:

3.3.1: V , T L(V),
(1) T (self-adjoint) Hermitian, T = T ;
(2) T (unitary), T , T = T 1 ;
(3) T (normal), T T = T T
3.3.2: A n n ,
(1) A = A , A Hermitian;
(2) A = A , A skew-Hermitian;
(3) A A = A1 , A ;
(4) A A = A A, A
A n n ,
(a) AT = A, A (symmetric);
(b) AT = A, A (skew-symmetric);
(c) A AT = A1 , A (orthogonal)
T T
Hermitian

A. (self-adjoint operators)
T L(V) , ~v , w
~ V,
hT (~v), wi
~ = h~v, T (w)i,
~
T = T :
3.3.2: V , S, T L(V),
(1) S, T , S + T ;

 53

(2) T , , T ;
(3) S, T , S T S T = T S;
(4) T , T 1 ;
(5) T , ~v V, hT (~v), ~v i ;
(6) V , ~v V, hT (~v), ~v i , T ;
(7) T , ~v V, hT (~v), ~v i = 0, T = 0;
(8) T , k > 0, T k (~v ) = ~0 T = 0
: T ,
hT (~v), ~v i = h~v, T (~v)i = hT (~v), ~v i,
hT (~v ), ~vi , (5) (6) (7), : V ,
~v V, hT (~v), ~vi = 0, T = 0
~v = ~x + ~y , ~x, ~y V, C,
0 = hT ( ~x + ~y ), ~x + ~y i
= ||2hT (~x), ~xi + hT (~y), ~y i + hT (~x), ~y i +
hT (~y ), ~xi
= hT (~x), ~yi +
hT (~y), ~xi.
= 1,
hT (~x), ~y i + hT (~y ), ~xi = 0.
=

1,
hT (~x), ~y i

1hT (~y), ~xi = 0.

~x, ~y V, hT (~x), ~y i = 0 , T = 0 (6),

h(T T )(~v), ~v i = hT (~v), ~vi hT (~v ), ~vi
= hT (~v), ~vi h~v, T (~v )i
= hT (~v), ~vi hT (~v), ~vi = 0.
T T = 0, T
(7) F = C, (7) F = R

54 31 4 96 12

,
0 = hT (~x + ~y ), ~x + ~y i
= hT (~x), ~xi + hT (~y), ~y i + hT (~x), ~y i + hT (~y), ~xi
= hT (~x), ~y i + hT (~y), ~xi = hT (~x), ~y i + h~x, T (~y)i
= hT (~x), ~y i + hT (~x), ~y i = 2hT (~x), ~y i,
T = 0 (8) T k (~v ) = ~0 ~v V , m, 2m k
m
, T 2 (~v ) = ~0
0 = hT 2 (~v ), ~vi = hT 2
m

T2

m1

m1

T2

m1

(~v ), ~vi = hT 2

m1

(~v ), T 2

m1

(~v)i.

(~v ) = ~0 , T = 0,

T L(V, W),
T = T1 +

1 T2 ,

T1 T2 ,
T1 =

T + T
,
2

T2 =

T T

2 1

z x + i y, x, y R ,
,

B. (unitary operators)
, T L(V) , ~v, w
~ V,
hT (~v), wi
~ = h~v, T 1 (w)i.
~
:
3.3.3: V , S, T L(V),
(1) T , T 1 ;
(2) S, T , S T ;
(3) T T , T L(V)
(isometry), ~v , w
~ V,
hT (~v), T (w)i
~ = h~v , wi;
~

 55

(4) V , T T
: (1) (2) (3)
T , T ~v, w
~ V,
hT (~v), T (w)i
~ = h~v, wi,
~
w
~ V,
T T (w)
~ = w,
~
T T = I, I T = T 1 , T
(4) T , O = {~u1 , . . . , ~un } V ,

hT (~uj ), T (~uk )i = h~uj , ~uk i = jk .

T (O) V , O T (O) V ,
hT (~uj ), T (~uk )i = jk = h~uj , ~uk i.
~v =

Pn

uj
j=1 j ~

w
~=

hT (~v), T (w)i
~ =

Pn

j=1

j ~uj ,

j T (~uj ),

j=1

n
X

n
X

k T (~uk ) =

k=1

j k h~uj , ~uk i =

j,k=1

= h~v, wi,
~

j ~uj ,

j=1

n
X

j k hT (~uj ), T (~uk )i

j,k=1
n
X

k ~uk

k=1

T ,
,
3.3.4: A n n ,
(1) A A Cn ;
(2) A A Cn ;


(3) A , det(A) = 1, det(A) = 1

C. (regular operators)

, T L(V) , T T = T T
3.3.5: V , T V ,

56 31 4 96 12

(1) p(x) C[x] , p(T ) V ;

(2) T (~v ) = ~0, T (~v) = ~0;
(3) k > 0, T k (~v) = ~0, T (~v ) = ~0;
(4) C, (T )k (~v ) = ~0, (T ) (~v) = ~0;
~v
(5) T (~v ) = ~v, T (~v ) =
: (1) (2) (3): S = T T
, T ,
S k (~v ) = (T )k (T )k (~v ) = ~0.
3.3.2 (8), S(~v ) = ~0, (T T )(~v) = ~0,
0 = h(T T )(~v), ~vi = hT (~v), T (~v)i.
T (~v) = ~0
(1) (3), (4) (5) T (~v ) = ~v, ~v 6= ~0,
(5),
(T ) (~v) = ~0 (2), (T ) (~v ) = ~0, (T ) = T ,

, ,
; Georgetown University

 32 1 , pp. 25-47

4.1.
A. , ,
, , , ,

V F , T L(V) F[x] p(x), ~v V,

p(x) ~v = p(T )(~v),

V r(x), s(x) F[x], ~u, ~v V
r(x) (~u + ~v ) = r(x) ~u + r(x) ~v,
(r(x) + s(x)) ~u = r(x) ~u + s(x) ~u,
(r(x) s(x)) ~u = r(x) (s(x) ~u),
1 ~u = ~u,
F[x] , F[x] V , V
:
4.1.1: R , (scalar) R (R
module), R (a module over R) M, , +,
(~u, ~v ) M M, ~u + ~v M; R M , ,
(r, ~v) R M, r ~v M,
1. M Abel ;
2. r, s R, ~u, ~v M
25

26 32 1 97 3

a. () : r (~u + ~v ) = r ~u + r ~v ,

(r + s) ~u = r ~u + s ~v;

b. () : (r s) ~u = r (s ~u), c. 1 ~u = ~u.
R , , R = Z (), Z
Abel , Abel
R = F[x], F , 1.2.1, F[x]
, F[x] ,
R , m n Mm,n (R) R ,
R = F[x] , Mm,n (F[x]) ,
F[x]
R R R ,
, R ,
T L(V) V , V F
, F[x]
B. R M :
S R M , R , S M , S
M S
R M S r, s R, ~u, ~v
S r ~u + s ~v S
S1 , S2 M , S1 S2


S1 + S2 = w
~1 + w
~2 : w
~ 1 S1 , w
~ 2 S2

c. R R , R R R
, : M R , M S1 , . . . , Sn
(direct sum), ~v M () Sj
~v M, ~vj Sj , j = 1, . . . , n
~v = ~v1 + + ~vn =

n
X

~vj .

j=1

w
~ j Sj , j = 1, . . . , n ~v =
j = 1, . . . , n

Pn

j=1

w
~ j , w
~ j = ~vj ,

M S1 , . . . , Sn ,
M = S1 S2 . . . Sn .

 27

M = S S c , S c S M (complement) , M S1 , . . . , Sn
M = S1 + S2 + + Sn j = 1, . . . , n,
X 
Sj
Sk = {~0}.
k6=j

(spanning set) : M R , S , S
(spanned or generated) S R ,


hSi = span(S) = r1~v1 + + rn~vn : rj R, ~vj S, j = 1, . . . , n .

M S (spanned or generated) M, M = hSi,

~v M,
~v =

n
X

rj ~vj ,

j=1

r1 , . . . , rn R, ~v1 , . . . , ~vn S , h~v i = R ~v = {r ~v :

r R}, ~v M, ~v (cyclic submodule)
, R M , M (finitely
generated)
C. R R R S
M , S (linearly independent), r1 , . . . , rk R,
~v1 , . . . , ~vk S,
r1 ~v1 + r1 ~v1 + + rk ~vk = ~0
r1 = = rk = 0 S ,
M R , M B M (basis), B M

a. M B ~v M {~v1 , . . .,
~vn } 1 , . . . , n R,
~v =

n
X

j ~vj .

j=1

b. B M , B M ,
, ;

28 32 1 97 3

4.1.2: M, N R , T : M N R (homomorphism),
r, s R, ~u, ~v M,
T (r ~u + s ~v) = r T (~u) + s T (~v).
M N R HomR (M, N)
R M M R (endomorphism); (monomorphism); (epimorphism);
(isomorphism)
T HomR (M, N), T
ker(T ) = {~v M : T (~v ) = ~0},

Im(T ) = {w
~ N : ~v M, such that T (~v) = w},
~

M N
R , :
4.1.3: R M (free), M R B M ,
M B M (cardinality) M (rank), rank(M)

D. M R , S ,
~v + S = {~v + ~s : ~s S},

~v M

S M , S M M/S R ,

(~v + S) + (~u + S) = ~v + ~u + S,

r (~v + S) = r ~v + S,

M/S ~s + S = ~0 + S = S R M S (quotient
module)
: M , M ,
M ,
R , Q R , Q R R/Q
, R Q (quotient ring),
(a + Q) + (b + Q) = a + b + Q,

(a + Q) (b + Q) = ab + Q,

a, b R

 29

,
b + Q = b + Q ab + Q = ab + Q,

b b Q a (b b ) Q,
Q , ,
4.1.1: R , R/Q Q
( R I, Q ( I ( R)
: R/Q , Q , I Q ( I ( R
i I Q, i Q :
K = hi, Qi I.
i 6 Q, i + Q =
6 0 R/Q , i + Q , i + Q,
(i + Q) (i + Q) = i i + Q = 1 + Q.
1 i i Q K i i K, 1 K, K = R K I, I R
, Q
, Q , 0 6= r + Q, r 6 Q, I = hr, Qi Q
Q , I = R 1 I, s R 1 = sr + i i Q

(s + Q) (r + Q) = sr + Q = (1 i) + Q = 1 + Q.
(r + Q)1 = s + Q R/Q
4.1.2: R
: R , , {0} I R , I
,
Q1 Q1 . . .
R , I = j Qj 1 6 I, I I I
, Zorn , I ( 2.1 1)
R ,
4.1.1: M R , M

30 32 1 97 3

: 4.1.2, R Q, 4.1.1 R/Q



Q M = a1~v1 + + an~vn : aj Q, ~vj M, j = 1, . . . , n ,

Q M M , M/Q M M/Q M R/Q

,
(r + Q)(~u + Q M) = r ~u + Q M,
r R ~u M , ,
r r R, ~u ~u M,
r + Q = r + Q,

~u + Q M = ~u + Q M

r ~u + Q M = r ~u + Q M.
r r Q, ~u ~u Q M, r ~u r ~u Q M
r r Q, ~u ~u Q M, (r r ) ~u Q M r (~u ~u ) Q M
(r r ) ~u + r (~u ~u ) = r ~u r ~u Q M.
, : 1.3.1(
) , M/Q M Abel M/Q M
R/Q
B R M , ~bj , ~bk B, j 6= k, ~bj +Q M ~bk +Q M
:
~bj + Q M = ~bk + Q M,

j 6= k

, ~bj ~bk Q M,
~bj ~bk = a1 ~v1 + + an ~vn ,
ak Q, ~vk M, k = 1, . . . , n ~vk B ~vk
~bj k , ~bj ,
1 = a1 1 + + an n ,

 31

k + Q, k = 1, . . . , n, Q, 1 Q, Q
, j 6= k, ~bj + Q M ~bk + Q M

M B



B = ~b + Q M : ~b B

B R/Q M/Q M B M,
B M/Q M B
n
X

(j + Q) (~bj + Q M) = ~0,

j=1

Pn

~ + Q M) = ~0, Pn j ~bj Q M,
j=1

j=1 (j bj

n
X
j=1

j ~bj =

n
X

aj ~bj ,

j=1

aj Q, j = 1, . . . , n j Q, j = 1, . . . , n j + Q = 0,
R/Q , j = 1, . . . , n B , B M/Q M
B = dim (M/Q M), B
2.1.1, F ,

4.1.2: R
: M N R M N M N

T M N T , rank(M) = rank(N)
, rank(M) = rank(N) B M , C N , B
C , T : B C, M N
, , M N
R M n , M Rn
E. R M , ,

R M

4.1.4: R M (ascending chain condition),

M
S1 S2 S3

32 32 1 97 3

k, Sk = Sk+1 = Sk+2 = a.c.c.

4.1.3: R M M
Noether (Noetherian module)
: M , M
S1 S2 S3
S = j Sj M , S S = h~u1 , . . . , ~un i, ~uj M,
j = 1, . . . , n ~uj S, kj , ~uj Skj k = max{k1 , . . . , kn },
~uj Sk ,

j = 1, . . . , n.

S = h~u1, . . . , ~un i Sk Sk+1 Sk+2 S.

S1 S2 S3 . . . Sk
, M S M ~u1 S, S1 = h~u1 i
S, S1 = S, S S1 6= S, ~u2 S \ S1 S2 = h~u1 , ~u2 i
S2 = S, S S2 6= S, ~u3 S \ S2 S3 = h~u1 , ~u2 ~u3 i
,
h~u1i h~u1 , ~u2 i h~u1 , ~u2 ~u3 i S.
S, , ,
M n, S = h~u1 , . . . ~un i, , S

R , R R , 4.1.4 4.1.3
:
4.1.5: R , R
Q1 Q2 Q3
k, Qk = Qk+1 = Qk+2 =
1.2
4.1.4: R R

 33

Noether (Noetherian ring)

4.1.5: R Noether , R Noether
, R Noether , , R

: M R , M = h~u1 , . . . ~un i T : Rn M

T (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) =

n
X

j ~uj ,

j R, j = 1, . . . , n.

j=1

S M ,



T 1 (S) =
~ = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) Rn : T (~
) S

Rn , T (T 1 (S)) = S Rn , T 1 (S)
~
, T 1 (S) = h~1 , ~2 , . . . , ~k i w
~ S, ~ T 1 (S), w
~ = T ()
~ = 1 ~1 + 2 ~2 + + k ~k ,

j R, j = 1, . . . , k,

~ = 1 T (~1 ) + 2 T (~2 ) + + k T (~k ).

w
~ = T ()
S {T (~1 ), T (~2 ), . . . , T (~k )} Rn

n = 1 , R Noether 1 k < n, Rk
; S Rn ,



S1 =
~ S :
~ = (s1 , s2 , . . . , sn1, 0), sj R


S2 = (0, 0, . . . , 0, sn ), (s1 , s2 , . . . , sn1 , sn ) S, s1 , . . . , sn R

S1 Rn1 ( S1 )
, S1 S1 = hBi, B = {~1 , . . . , ~k }, 0 k n 1 ( S1
, B k = 0)
S2 R (), S2 , S
0, S = S1 S2 , (0, 0, . . . , 0,
bn ), bn 6= 0 ; S ~b = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn1 , bn ) S, B = {~b} B

34 32 1 97 3

S :
~ = (s1 , . . . , sn ) S, (0, . . . , 0, sn ) S2 , R,
(0, . . . , 0, sn ) = (0, . . . , 0, bn ), sn = bn ,
~ ~b S1 ,
~ ~b + S1 ,
B S
4.1.5 , Noether
: R {0} R,
, 4.1.4, Noether , R ,
; , Noether Hilbert

4.1.6 (Hilbert ): R Noether , R[x] Noether

: R[x] Q Lj Q j
R , j = 0, 1, . . . Lj R ,
a, b Lj , a 6= 0, b 6= 0, j
f (x) = a xj + Q,

g(x) = b xj + Q.

f (x) g(x) = (a b) xj +
Q a b 6= 0, a b Lj ; a b = 0, 0 Lj , a b Lj
c R, c f (x) = c a xj + Q c a 6= 0, c a Lj ; c a = 0,
0 Lj , c a Lj ; Lj R f (x) = a xj + Q, Q
R[x] ,
x f (x) = a xj+1 + Q.
, a Lj , a Lj+1 ,
L0 L1 L2 .
R Noether , d
Ld = Ld+1 = Ld+2 = = L.
L = j0 Lj R Noether , Lj , j = 0, 1, . . . , d
(kj )

(1)

Lj = haj , . . . , aj
(1)
fj ,

...,

(k )
fj j ,

()
fj

i, j = 0, 1, . . . , d Lj , Q
()

aj , = 1, . . . , kj

 35
(1)

(k0 )

: S = {f0 , . . . , f0

(1)

(k1 )

, f1 , . . . , f1

(1)

(kd )

, . . . , fd , . . . , fd

} Q

, f Q, deg(f ) = n n n < d, an =
ri R
h=f

1ikn

(i)

ri an ,

ri fn(i)

1ikn

n, h S , f S

P
(i)
n d, an Ln = Ld , an = 1ikd ri ad , ri R
X
(i)
h=f
ri xnd fd
1ikd

n, h S , f S

4.2.
A. R R
, , ,
,
,
, , ,
,
1. ,

2. ,
3. , Noether
4. , S S

5. , ,
6. , ,
7. V F , F, ~v V, 6= 0 ~v 6= ~0, ~v 6= ~0 ,

36 32 1 97 3

8. , ,
R ,
,
, (6) ,
, ,
,
B. :
4.2.1: R M S , rank(S)
rank(M)
: , 4.1.2 ,
rank(M) = n, M Rn , Rn n
n = 1 , M = R, R S R R ,
S = hai S 6= {0} R , r 6= 0, ra 6= 0 ,
: R S,

(r) = ra

R S , S
k < n , Rk S Rk
S1 = { S : s1 , . . . , sn1 R, = (s1 , . . . , sn1 , 0)}

S2 = {(0, . . . , 0, sn ) : s1 , . . . , sn1 R, = (s1 , . . . , sn1 , sn ) S}.

S1 Rn1 , , B = {1 , . . .,
k } S1 , k n 1 ( S1 , B )
, S2 R () S2 , S
0, S = S1 S2 , 1, {(0, . . . , 0, tn ), tn 6= 0},
= (t1 , . . . , tn1 , tn ) S B = {} B S B
b, a1 , . . . , ak R
b + a1 1 + + ak k = 0,

b = a1 1 + + ak k .

 37

, b tn = 0, b = 0 1 , . . . , k aj =
0, j = 1, . . . , k, B , = (s1 , . . . , sn ) S, (0, . . . , 0, sn ) S2 ,
(0, . . . , 0, sn ) = b (0, . . . , 0, tn ), b R, sn = b tn b S1 ,
= b + S1 , B S; S
A 7 , F V, a 6= 0, a F, ~v 6= ~0, ~v V,
a ~v 6= ~0, , :
4.2.1: R , M R v M, a R
a v = 0, v M (torsion element)
(torsion free) , M (torsion module)
M , Mtor , M ,
M/Mtor : a, b Mtor , , R, 6= 0
6= 0 a = 0 b = 0 r, s R, (r a + s b) = 0,
r a + s b Mtor 4.1 2 (1) , Mtor M/Mtor
a + Mtor M/Mtor , r R, r 6= 0,
r(a + Mtor ) = 0, ra Mtor s R, s 6= 0, s(r a) = (s r) a = 0,
s r 6= 0, a Mtor , M/Mtor , M/Mtor
, , ;
4.2.2: M , ,
: M , ~0 6= ~vj M, j = 1, . . . , n, M = h~v1 , . . . , ~vn i
S = {~u1 , . . . , ~uk }, M
M = h~u1, . . . , ~uk , ~v1 , . . . , ~vnk i.
~vi , i = 1, . . . , n k, {~u1 , . . . , ~uk , ~vj } ~vi ,
(i)

(i)

0 6= i 1 , . . . , k
(i)

(i)

i ~vi + 1 ~u1 + + k ~uk = ~0.

= 1 nk , ~vi span(S), i = 1, . . . , n k
M = { ~v : ~v M}
span(S) span(S) , S, 4.2.1, M

(~v ) = ~v

38 32 1 97 3

, M , , M M, M
,

4.3.
, ,

1. ,
4.3.1: M R ,
M = Mtor Mf ree ,
Mf ree R , M = T N,
T M , N M , T Mtor , N Mf ree
: M/Mtor M , M/Mtor ,
4.2.2 M/Mtor
4.3.1 ,

2. , 2.2 ,

4.3.1: M R , v M



ann(v) = r R : rv = 0 ,



ann(M) = r R : rM = {0} ,


rM = rv : v M .
ann(v) ann(M) R

M , ann(v) v (order), ann(M)

M , , M ( v M) , (associate),
u R
ann(M) = hi = hi = u.

 39

M , , , , 1.2.3
(prime element)
4.3.2: M (prime module), ann(M) = hpe i
p , e N , M , M
, M M

M
4.3.2 (): M ,
= pe11 penn ,
pj , j = 1, . . . , n, , M
M = Mp1 Mpn ,


e
Mpj = v M : pj j v = 0

, pj j , j = 1, . . . , n , , ,
M = N1 Nm ,
Nk qkfk , m = n, j Nj = Mpj , qj pj
, ej = fj , j = 1, . . . , n
: = pq, p, q gcd(p, q) = 1



Mp = v M : pv = 0 ,


Mq = v M : qv = 0 .

M = Mp Mq Mp Mq hpi hqi
p q , hp, qi gcd(p, q) = 1 ( 1.2.1
), 1 hp, qi a, b R
ap + bq = 1.

40 32 1 97 3

v Mp Mq , pv = qv = 0
v = 1 v = (ap + bq) v = 0.
, Mp Mq = {0}
v M,
v = 1 v = apv + bqv,
q(apv) = a(pq)v = av = 0, apv Mq ; bqv Mp , M = Mp Mq
rMp = 0, v = v1 + v2 Mp Mq = M,
rqv = rq (v1 + v2 ) = rqv1 + rqv2 = 0,


, rq ann(M); = pq rq, pr ann(Mp ) = hpi
ann(Mq ) = hqi

= pe11 penn ,
M = Mpe11 N, N h/pe11 i ;
, Mpej Mpj , j = 1, . . . , n,
j

, M = N1 N2 Nm ann(M) = hq1f1 , . . . , qnfn i,

q1f1 qnfn pe11 penn 1.2.3, R , n = m,
j Nj = Mpj , qj pj , ej = fj , j = 1, . . . , n,



f
e
Nj = v M : qj j v = 0 = v M : pj j v = 0 = Mpj ,

j = 1, . . . , n,

3. 4.3.2, 4.3.2 Mpj , j = 1, . . . , n,

4.3.3 (): M R ,
e

p , M :
M = C1 Cn .
Cj pej , j = 1, . . . , n,
e = e1 e2 . . . en 1,

(4.3.1)

 41


p  pe n ,



pen  pen1 , . . . , pe2  pe1 .

(4.3.2)

: M v1 ,

ann(v1 ) = ann(M) = hpe i.

v M , ann(v) = hpk i, k < e pe1 ann(M),

pe  pe 1 ,
hv1 i M ,
M = hv1 i S1 ,

(4.3.3)

S1 M , S1 R ,
,
M = hv1 i hv2 i S2 .
ann(v2 ) = hpe2 i, e2 e1 ,
hv1 i hv1 i hv2 i . . . .
R , R Noether M , 4.1.5, M
Noether , 4.1.4, M ,
M hvj i, j = 1, . . . , n , pej , j = 1, . . . , n,
e = ej e2 en 1 M M = hv1 i S1 M
, M = hv1 , u1 , . . . , uk i k k = 0, S1 = {0}
; k ,
M = hv1 , u1 , . . . , uk , ui.

hv1 , u1, . . . , uk i = hv1 i S0 .

S0
u v1 , R u, M,
hv1 , u1, . . . , uk , u v1 i = hv1 , u1, . . . , uk , ui = M.
R
hv1 i hu v1 , S0 i = {0},

42 32 1 97 3

M = hv1 i hu v1 , S0 i = hv1 i S1 .
S1 = hu v1 , S0 i hu v1 , S0 i r(u v1 ) + s0 ,
hv1 i hu v1 , S0 i = {0}, r R, s0 S0 ,
r(u v1 ) + s0 hv1 i r(u v1 ) + s0 = 0,

r(u v1 ) + s0 hv1 i S0 r(u v1 ) S0 .

ru hv1 i S1 r(u v1 ) S0 ,

(4.3.4)



I = r R : ru hv1 i S0

R , , , I = hai

pe u = 0 hv1 i S0 ,

pe hai, a pe , f e, a = pf q R :
ru hv1 i S0 r I r = qpf ,

r(u v1 ) = qpf (u v1 ).
R
pf (u v1 ) S0 ,

(4.3.5)

(4.3.4) pf I, pf u hv1 i S0
pf u = tv1 + s0 ,
t R, s0 S0 (4.3.5)
tv1 + s0 pf v1 S0 (t pf )v1 S0 .

t pf = 0, pf t

(4.3.6)

 43

(4.3.6),
0 = pef pf u = pef tv1 + pef s0 .


hv1 i S0 = {0}, pef tv1 = 0 v1 pe , pe pef t, pe t,

(4.3.3), (4.3.1)
(4.3.2) (4.3.1) ,
pe ann(M) ann(Cj ),

j = 1, . . . , n,


ann(Cj ) = hj i, j pe j = pej , ej e, j = 1, . . . , n ej ,

(4.3.2)

, , , pej
p M pe

4.3.4 (): M R ,
pe M
M = C1 C2 Cn ,
Cj pej , e1 e2 . . . en 1
M
M = D 1 D 2 Dm ,
Dj pfj , f1 f2 . . . fm 1, m = n
e1 = f1 , e2 = f2 , . . . , en = fn .
, R
(1) 2.3 R R
: R : M N R R ,
HomR (M, N),
M/ker( ) Im( ).
(2) hvi R , ann(v) = hai,
: R hvi,

(r) = rv,

rR

44 32 1 97 3

, hai, (1) ,
hvi R/hai.
a , hai R , 4.1.1, R/hai
(3) p R , M R , pM = {0}, M R/hpi
, : v M,
(r + hpi) v = rv.
(4) p R , R M S,


S (p) = v S : pv = 0

M M = S T , M (p) = S (p) T (p)

4.3.4 : m = n (4),
(p)

M (p) = C1 Cn(p)

(p)

(p)
M (p) = D1 Dm
.
(p)

pM (p) = {0}, (3), M (p) R/hpi Cj

(p)

1, . . . , n, k = 1, . . . , m M (p) , Cj

(p)

Dk , j =

(p)

Dk , j = 1, . . . , n, k = 1, . . . , m

M (p) , m = n
ej = fj , j = 1, . . . , n e1 e1 = 1, ej = 1,
j = 1, . . . , n, pM = {0} fj = 1, j = 1, . . . , n, fj > 1,
D1 = hwi, pw 6= 0, e1 k 1 , e1 = k

(e1 , . . . , en ) = (e1 , . . . , es , 1, . . . , 1),

es > 1

(f1 , . . . , fn ) = (f1 , . . . , ft , 1, . . . , 1),

ft > 1

pM = pC1 pCs

pM = pD1 pDt .

 45

pCj M ann(pCj ) = hpej 1 i , Cj = hvj i,





pCj = pc : c Cj = prvj : r R = r(pvj ) : c R = hpvj i,

pvj pej 1 pDj M ann(pDj ) = hpfj 1 i ann(pC1 ) =

hpe1 1 i,
s = t,

e1 = f1 , . . . , es = fs .

4. , :
(1) R ( 4.3.1),
M = Mtor Mf ree ,
Mf ree M , Mtor M
(2) Mtor
= pe11 . . . penn ,
pj , j = 1, . . . , n, , ( 4.3.2),
Mtor = Mp1 Mpn ,
Mpj , j = 1, . . . , n, , pej M
M = Mp1 Mpn Mf ree .
(3) 4.3.3, Mpj , j = 1, . . . , n,

4.3.5 (): M
R ,
M = Mtor Mf ree ,
Mtor M , Mtor M , M
Mtor
= pe11 . . . penn ,

46 32 1 97 3

pj , j = 1, . . . , n, ,
Mtor = Mp1 Mpn ,



Mpj = v M : pej v = 0

, pej Mpj
Mpj = Cj,1 Cj,kj ,
e

Cj, pj j, , = 1, . . . , kj ,
ej ej,1 ej,2 ej,kj 1,

j = 1, . . . , n.

M Cj, pj j, , = 1, . . . , kj , j = 1, . . . , n, M
(elementary divisors) , M M M

M = C1,1 C1,k1 Cn,1 Cn,kn Mf ree .

(4.3.7)

4.3.5 4.3.1
, Mf ree = {0},
Dj = Dj,1 Dj,k ,
fj,k

k = 1, . . . , m Dj,k qj

M = D1 Dm = Mp1 Mpn .
4.3.2 m = n, Dj = Mpj , j = 1, . . . , n, pj
qj 4.3.4 kj = j , fj, = ej, , j = 1, . . . , n, = 1, . . . , kj
, M M
S T M ann(S) = hai
ann(T ) = hbi, S T = {0}, S T ,
ann(S T ) = habi.
(4.3.7),
D1 = C1,1 Cn,1 ,

 47

D1 ,
q1 =

n
Y

pj,1
j .

j=1

D2 , . . . , Dm , m = max(kj )
j

4.3.6 (): M
,
M = D1 Dm Mf ree ,
Mf ree M , Dj M , qj , j = 1, . . . , m,



qm  qm1 , qm1  qm2 , . . . q2  q1 .

qj , j = 1, . . . , m, M (invariant factor) 4.3.5

, M , Mf ree M

; Georgetown University

: Riese Sobolev
:
:
:
() (Dimensional Analysis)
Riesz
, () ,
, ,

FourierLaplaceRiesz , Sobolev
Hardy-Littlewood , , ,
,
, ,
,

 32 2 , pp. 34-53

5.1.
1.
, V F
, F [x] ,
p(x)v = p(T )(v),
p(x) F [x], v V , T L(V ) ,
V F , T L(V ), V , T F
, V , T , 3.1 ,

: T L(V ), V , T
, T L(V ), ,
,
: V F , L(V )

, V F n , V F [x] - , L(V )
n n Mn (F ) Mn (F ) n2 , L(V )
T , n2 + 1
2

Id, T, T 2 , . . . , T n ,
34

 35

, F [x] p(x) p(T ) = 0 p(x)v = {0} V

, V F [x] B = {v1 , . . . , vn } V
, v V , r1 , . . . , rn F F [x] :
v = r1 v1 + r2 v2 + . . . + rn vn ,
B V
1.2 F [x] (Principal ideal integral domain), F
, V F [x]

2. V S, T L(V )
, T (S) S, S T , V F [x] ,
S S V T
T L(V ), V


ann(V ) = p(x) F [x] : p(x)T = {0} .

F [x] ( F [x] ) V , ann(V )

, , F [x] F , V (monic order), ann(V ) , T (minimal
polynomial), mT (x) m(T )
ann(V ) = hmT (x)i


p(x) V = {0} mT (x) p(x),

p(T ) = 0 mT (x) p(x).

, , T p(T ) =
0 A F , A
mA (x) p(A) = 0 p(x) F [x]

(1) A B , mA (x) = mB (x), ;

36 32 2 97 7

(2) T L(V ) T AT mAT (x) ;


(3) S V , S T S
3. T L(V ),



hvi = p(x)v : p(x) F [x] .


m(x) m(x) = T hvi ( (2))
m(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . + an1 xn1 + an xn ,

B = v, xv, . . . , xn1 v = v, (v), . . . , n1 (v)

hvi

B j , j = 0, 1, . . . , n 1
0 v + 1 (v) + . . . + n1 n1 (v) = 0,

0 + 1 x + . . . + n1 xn1 v = 0,

0 + 1 x + . . . + n1 xn1 hvi = {0},


m(x) 0 + 1 x + . . . + n1 xn1 = 0, j = 0 , j = 0, 1, . . . , n 1
B hvi hvi p(x)v, p(x) F [x] , p(x)
m(x),
p(x) = q(x)m(x) + r(x),
deg r(x) < deg m(x) = n m(x)v = 0, p(x)v = r(x)v, hvi
r(x)v


hvi = r(x)v : deg r(x) < deg m(x) = span(B).

, B hvi

B []B j = 0, 1, . . . , n 2,


j (v) = j+1 (v).

 37

m(x) ,




n1 (v) = n (v) = a0 + a1 + + an1 n1 (v)
= a0 v a1 (v) an1 n1 (v).

B C[m(x)],
B = BC[m(x)],

C[m(x)]

C[m(x)] =

0 0

a0

1 0

a1

0
..
.

1
..
.

..
.

an2

0 0

an1

m(x) = a0 + a1 x + + an1 xn1 + xn

(companion matrix)
L(V ), V S - ( -cyclic), v S


v , (v), , m1 (v)

S , m = dim(S)

(1) S V , S V V

(2) hvi V , hvi ( = hvi )
m (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an1 xn1 + xn ,


B = v, xv, . . . , xn1 v = v, (v), . . . , n1 (v)

hvi , B []B m (x) C m (x)

5.2.
, 4.3.5
:

38 32 2 97 7

5.2.1: () V ,
L(V )
m (x) = pe11 (x) . . . penn (x),
pj (x), j = 1, . . . , n , , V
V = Vp 1 Vp n ,



e
Vpj = v V : pj j (v) = 0

V (), Vp
j


min( 

Vpj

) = pj j (x),

j = 1, . . . , n.

, Vpj , j = 1, . . . , n - ()
Vpj = hvj,1 i . . . hvj,kj i,

Vp
j


min( hv

j, i

) = pj j, (x),

j = 1, . . . , n, = 1, . . . , kj ,

ej = ej,1 ej,2 ej,kj 1,

j = 1, . . . , n,

V pj j, (x), , , V
-




V = hv1,1 i . . . hv1,k1 i (hvn,1 i . . . hvn,kn i .

(5.2.1)

4.3.5 , = pe11 penn , pj , j = 1, . . . , n,

5.2.1 , pj (x), j = 1, . . . , n, F [x]
,
V = S T , S, T
L(V ) , (S, T ) (reduce) V = S T

S : S S,


T : T T

 39

S, T = , V S T , (S, T )
,

= S ,


= T .

C = (c1 , . . . , cs ) S , D = (d1 , . . . , dt ) T ,
B = (c1 , . . . , cs , d1 , . . . , dt ),

s+t=n

V [ ]B (block diagonal matrix):

"
#
[]C
0
[ ]B =
.
0 []D

(5.2.1) Bj, hvj, i ,
B = B1,1 , B1,2 , . . . , Bn,kn
V , 5.2.1,


j, = hv

[ ]B =

j, i

[1,1 ]B1,1

..

.
[n,kn ]Bn,kn

, j = 1, . . . , n = 1, . . . , kn

hvj, i pj j, (x), j, pj j, (x)



ej,
deg pj (x) = dj, ,
d

Bj, = vj, , j, (vj, ), . . . , j,j, (vj, )

hvj, i , j = 1, . . . , n, = 1, . . . , kn
5.2.2: V , L(V )
m (x) = pe11 (x) . . . penn (x),
e

pj j (x), j = 1, . . . , n, , , V




V = hv1,1 i . . . hv1,k1 i (hvn,1i . . . hvn,kn i ,

40 32 2 97 7


hvj, i, j = 1, . . . , n, = 1, . . . , kn V j, -; j, = hv

j, i

e
min j, = pj j, (x),

ej = ej,1 ej,2 ej,kj 1,

j = 1, . . . , n.



e
deg pj j, (x) = dj, ,

Bj, = vj, , j, (vj, ), . . . , j,j, (vj, )

hvj, i ,
B = B1,1 , B1,2 , . . . , Bn,kn

e
C[p11,1 (x)]

..

e1,k1

C[p
(x)]
1

..
[ ]B =
.

C[pnn,1 (x)]

..

C[pnn,kn (x)]

(rational canonical form)

e
e
[ ]B = diag C[p11,1 (x)], . . . , C[pnn,kn (x)] .

5.2.2 : A ()
: F

5.2.1 5.2.2 ,
, ,

 41

5.3.
1. p(x) = a0 + a1 x + + an1 xn1 + xn , C[p(x)] ,

x
0

0
a0

1 x

0
a
1

..
..
..

.
.
A = xI C[p(x)] = 0
1
.
.

.
.
..
..
..

x
a
n2

0
0
1 x + an1

A x, a0 , . . . , an1 , A = A(x; a0 , . . . , an1 )

5.3.1: det xI C[p(x)] = p(x)
: n = 2 ,


 x
a0

det A(x; a0 , a1 ) = 
 1 x + a1




 = x(x + a1 ) + a0


=a0 + a1 x + x2 = p(x).

n = 3 ,


 x


det A(x; a0 , a1 , a2 ) =  1

 0

 x

=x 
 1





x
a1 

1 x + a2 


 1
a1 

 + a0 
 0
x + a2 
0

a0

=a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + x3 = p(x).





1 
x

n, ,




det A(x; a0 , , an1 = x det A(x; a1 , . . . , an1 ) + (1)n+1 (1)n1 a0 .

x xn1 + an1 xn2 + + a1 + a0 = p(x).

5.3.1 :

5.3.2: L(V ), R ,

Y ej,
C (x) = det xI R =
pj (x),
j,

42 32 2 97 7

(eigenpolynomial characteristic polynomial)

, ,


A det xI A

(a) A B , CA (x) = CB (x)

(b)
(c)

2. F L(V ) C (x) ,


det I R = 0,

I R dim(V ) = d, R d d


det I R = 0 x F d ,


I R (x) = 0,

R(x) = x.
v V [v]B = x, B V R,
(v) = v.
5.3.1: L(V ), F (eigenvalue),
v V ,
(v) = v.
v (eigenvector)
A F , F A x,
A(x) = x.
x A ,
, V , (eigenspace), E

5.3.3:
(a) F L(V ) C (x)

 43

(b) F L(V ) m (x)

(c) F L(V )
(d)
(e) F A , E


I A (x) = 0,

: (c) F L(V ) 0 6= v V ,

(v) = v.
dim(V ) = d, B V ,
B : V F d
B (u) = [u]B A = [ ]B ,
= B
(v) = v
B

1

1

A B .

A B (v) = v = B

1

B (v),

AB (v) = B (v).
A , A

5.3.4 , vj Ej , j = 1, . . . , k,
{v1 , . . . , vk } , 1 , . . . , k L(V ) ,
Ej E = {0}.
: vj , j = 1, . . . , k , ,
,
1 v1 + . . . + k vk = 0.

(5.3.1)

44 32 2 97 7

(5.3.1),
1 (v1 ) + . . . + k (vk ) = 0,

1 1 v1 + . . . + k k vk = 0.
, (5.3.1) 1 ,
2 (2 1 )v2 + . . . + k (k 1 )vk = 0.
, j , j = 2, . . . , k ; (5.3.1),
1 = 0
C (x) ,
m (x) = pe11 (x) . . . pnen (x),


m (x)  C (x) :
5.3.1: L(V ),

(a) m (x)  C (x)


(b) (Caley-Hamilton ) m (x)  C (x), C ( ) = 0

5.4. Jordan

,
,
, :
L(V ), ,
m (x) = (x 1 )e1 (x n )en .

(5.4.1)

F , F (split)
F F , F (algebraic closed)
, F

hvj, i , pj j, (x) pj j, (x)

, V -,


d 1
Bj, = vj, , j, (vj, ), . . . j,j, (vj, ) .

 45

(5.4.1),
e

pj j, (x) = (x j )ej, .
,


e
dim(hvj, i) = deg pj j, (x) ,

Gj, = vj, , (j, j )(vj, ), . . . (j, j )ej, 1 (vj, )

hvj, i Gj, k bk , k = 0, . . . , ej, 2 ,



j, (bk ) = j, (j, j )k (vj, )


= (j, j + j ) (j, j )k (vj, )
= (j, j )k+1 (vj, ) + j (j, j )k (vj, )
= bk+1 + j bk ;
k = ej, 1 ,
(j, j )k+1 (vj, ) = (j, j )ej, (vj, ) = 0,

j, (bej, 1 ) = j bej, 1 .
, Gj, , j,

ej, ej, :

0 0

j
1 0
j

.
.
.
..
. . .. .
G(j , ej, ) =
0
1

.
.. . .
..

..
.
.
.
0

hvj, i

j Jordan (Jordan block) Jordan j ,

1, , 5.2.2
:
5.4.1: L(V ) F ,
m (x) = (x 1 )e1 (x n )en .

46 32 2 97 7

V




V = hv1,1 i . . . hv1,k1 i (hvn,1i . . . hvn,kn i ,


hvj, i, j = 1, . . . , n, = 1, . . . , kn V -; j, = hv

j, i

min j, = (x j )ej, ,

ej = ej,1 ej,2 ej,kj 1,

j = 1, . . . , n.

Gj, = vj, , (j, j )(vj, ), . . . (j, j )ej, 1 (vj, )
hvj, i ,
G = G1,1 , G1,2 , . . . , Gn,kn

[ ]B =

G(1 , e1,1 )
..

.
G(1 , e1,k1 )

..

.
G(n , en,1 )
..

G(n , en,kn )

Jordan (Jordan canonical form)

, F Jordan ,
Jordan
Jordan G, G C (x) (
) , G j j 5.4.1
,
,

 47

5.5.
1. 2.4 3.3 :
,
V, W F , L(V ), : W V

h (v), wi = hv, (w)i,

v V , w W
V , L(V ), (), =
, 1 = = ,

5.5.1: , C (x) ,

: V , V C (x) , v 6= 0
(v) = v
h (v), vi = hv, vi = hv, vi.
,

h (v), vi = hv, (v)i = hv, vi = hv,

vi.
R
= ,
V , V A,
C (x) = CA (x) A , Cn ,
, A , ,

5.5.2: , 1
: (v) = v

hv,
vi = hv, vi = h (v), (v)i = hv, vi.
||2 = 1, || = 1
5.5.3: , , ,
,

48 32 2 97 7

: (v) = v (w) = w, 6= ,
hv, wi = h (v), wi = hv, (w)i = hv,
wi = hv, wi.
6= , hv, wi = 0 (w) =
w, 3.3 (5),

Jordan ,
?
5.5.1: V , L(V ), V O [ ]O
, (orthogonal diagonalizable)
5.5.1: V
(a) V
(b) V ,
(c) V , 1
: (a) V ,

m (x) = (x 1 )e1 (x k )ek ,

(Decomposition Theorem for Primary modules), V
V = V1 . . . Vk .
3.3 3.3.5 (4),


Vj = v V : ( j )ej (v) = 0


= v V : ( j )(v) = 0 = Ej ,

j = 1, . . . , k Vj x j , ej = 1, j = 1, . . . , k
V = E1 . . . Ek .

5.5.3 , V
V = E1 . . . Ek .
V
,

 49

, , V O = {u1, . . . , uk }
(uj ) = j uj , j = 1, . . . , k
huj , (u )i = h (uj ), u i = j huj , u i
u i,
= j j, = j, = huj ,
u
(u ) =
(u ) =
u j
(u ) =
= (u ) = (u ),

(b). , , V
, , u ,
u = u = (u ).
(u ) =
u ,
(c). , 1 , V
, 1, u ,
hu , u i = h u , u i = h (u ), (u )i = hu , (u )i.
hu , u i =
u , = 1 ,

5.5.2: V

: V , 5.5.1 R
3.3 3.3.2 (8) 5.5.3 , V
; 5.5.1
: , V O,
[ ]O [ ]O ,
[ ]O = [ ]O = [ ]TO = [ ]O ,

50 32 2 97 7

=
5.5.1 5.5.2
5.5.3:
(a) A , U U A U 1 A ;
A Hermitian A A
1
(b) A , O O A O 1 A (
2.3.5)
2. C R
R
, = + = + 1 ,
, 5.5.1 , V
V = E1 . . . Ek ,



Ej = v V : ( + 1 j )(v) = 0 ,



Ej = v V : ( 2 j + 1)(v) = 0 .

j = 2, ,




E2 = v V : ( 1)2 (v) = 0 = v V : ( 1)(v) = 0 .

j = 2,




E2 = v V : ( + 1)2 (v) = 0 = v V : ( + 1)(v) = 0 .

E2 E2 () +1 1
j 6= 2 , v Ej , span{v, (v)} Ej ,

( (v)) = 2 (v) = j (v) v.

Ej = span{v, (v)} span{v, (v)} .

 51

, Ej , :
V = E2 E2 D1 Dm ,
dimDi = 2, i = 1, . . . , m,
, D D
, ,
[ ] =

"

a b
c d

a2 + b2 = 1,

c2 + d2 = 1,

ac + db = 0.

det([ ]) = 1 , ad bc = 1 , , d = a, c = b,
#
"
a b
.
[ ] =
b a
(a, b) R2 , (a, b) = (cos , sin ), R,
#
"
cos
sin
.
[ ] =
sin cos
, :
5.5.4: V , V ,

Im1

Im2

cos

sin

1
1

sin 1 cos 1
.

..

cos

sin

k
k

sin k cos k
Imj , j = 1, 2 mj mj

5.5.4 :

(5.5.1)

52 32 2 97 7

5.5.5: A , O, O A O 1 (5.5.1)

5.6.
5.1 , F V F F [x] ,
,
4.1 , R R -, R = Z () , Z - Abel
, Abel Z - Abel
,
G Abel , G Z -
4.3.1, G Gtor Z - Gf ree Gf ree r,
Gf ree Zr
Gtor x1 , . . . xm , Gtor
; , , Gtor Abel

4.3.2., Gtor = pe11 . . . penn , pj , j = 1, . . . , n, ,

Gtor
Gtor = Gp1 . . . Gpn ,
e

Gpj = {v Gtor : pj j (v) = 0}, Gpj Gtor pj j , , Gpj

Gtor Sylow pj -, j = 1, . . . , n
: Abel G , |G|, G
; G Z - ,

G Sylow p - G pm , pm |G|,
pm+1 |G| Sylow p -, , Gpj Gtor Sylow

pj -, j = 1, . . . , n

4.3.3., Sylow pj -, pj , j = 1, . . . , n,
pj -,
Gpj = Gj,1 . . . Gj,kj ,

j = 1, . . . , n,

Gj,1 pj j, pj -, = 1, . . . , kj ,
ej = ej,1 ej,2 ej,kj .

 53

ej,jk

pj
,

 ej,jk1 

p
  pej,1 .
j
j

5.6.1: ( Abel ) G Abel , G

r pj - r pj -
e

pj j, , j = 1, . . . , n, = 1, . . . , kj , G , Abel

Abel
, Abel
, ,

, , , , 1977
, , , , 1986
, , , , 1989
, , , , 1999
, (), , , 2000
, , , , 2005
T. W. Hungerford, Algebra, GTM 73, Springer-Verlag, Berlin-New York-Heidelberg,
1974
8. N. Jacobson, Basic Algebra I, W. H. Freeman & Company, San Francisco, 1985
9. T. S. Blyth, Module Theory - An Approach to Linear Algebra, Oxford Univesity Press,
London, 1990
10. S. Roman, Advanced Linear Algebra, GTM 135, Springer-Verlag, Berlin-New YorkHeidelberg, 1992
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

; Georgetown University