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School of Mechanical Aerospace and Civil Engineering

Turbulent Flows
As noted above, using the methods described in earlier lectures, the Navier-Stokes
equations can be discretized and solved numerically on complex domains.
In principle, by refining the grid, and using high-order convection schemes, numerical errors
can generally be reduced to negligible levels.

Computational Modelling of Turbulent Flows

For laminar flows, it is usually feasible to obtain grid-independent solutions in the above
manner.

T. J. Craft
George Begg Building, C43

However, many flows of engineering interest are turbulent, and these introduce a number of
further complications.

Contents:

Turbulent flows are still described by the Navier-Stokes equations. However, we need to
consider some of the differences in behaviour one finds in laminar and turbulent flows.

Introduction to CFD
Numerical solution of equations

Reading:
J. Ferziger, M. Peric, Computational Methods for Fluid
Finite volume methods
Dynamics
Pressure-velocity coupling
H.K. Versteeg, W. Malalasekara, An Introduction to ComSolving sets of linear equations
putational Fluid Dynamics: The Finite Volume Method
Unsteady problems
S.V. Patankar, Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow
Turbulence and other physical modelling Notes: http://cfd.mace.manchester.ac.uk/tmcfd
- People - T. Craft - Online Teaching Material
Body-fitted coordinate systems
Finite difference methods

- p. 3

Overview

Turbulent Eddies and Scales

In earlier lectures we have examined schemes for discretizing, and subsequently solving,
generic fluid flow equations.

Prof. Osborne Reynolds demonstrated the


transition from laminar to turbulent pipe flow at
Manchester in 1883.

We have noted that the same methods can be applied to other transport equations when
considering temperature or mass fraction transport, for example.
When examining finite volume schemes we saw how the full Navier-Stokes equations could
be discretized, and how a pressure-velocity coupling scheme could be applied to obtain the
pressure field.
In this lecture we consider how we might use the methods already met to model turbulent
flows which are often of interest in engineering problems.
One question to be addressed is whether we could simply apply the methods already met, or
whether further modelling or approximation needs to be introduced.

He identified the parameter U D/ as a dimensionless group that could be used to


characterize whether the flow would be laminar or turbulent.

As might be expected, we will examine a number of alternative treatments, with the aim of
outlining when, and in what circumstances, they might be used.
Flow visualization of a turbulent boundary
layer shows a range of eddy sizes, mixing
the fluid.

- p. 2

- p. 4

In a finite volume scheme (or any other numerical method), the grid must be fine enough to
resolve all the details of the flow. In a turbulent flow, where there is a large range of turbulent
eddy sizes, the computational mesh would have to be significantly finer than the smallest of
these eddies.
In a flow round an airfoil section, for instance, the total domain size might be of the order of
several metres. However, at a high Reynolds number, the smallest eddies may be less than
a millimetre in size.

Large Eddy Simulation (LES)


This strategy also employs a 3-D, time-dependent, solution of the Navier-Stokes equations,
but with a relatively coarse grid and time step, so the fine-scale eddies are not resolved.
A model thus has to be introduced to account for the effect of the small-scale eddies. In
most cases this consists of effectively increasing the viscosity by an amount termed the
"sub-grid-scale viscosity" (which may vary in space and time).

Since the turbulent eddies are three-dimensional, a direct solution of the Navier-Stokes
equations for the above flow would require a full 3-dimensional, time-dependent, solution on
a grid with at least several thousand nodes in each of the three coordinate directions.

This sub-grid-scale model accounts for the effects of the small, energy-dissipating eddies,
which are too small for the computational grid to resolve.

These requirements are well beyond the capabilities of any current computers (and will,
most likely, stay so for a long time).

Most of the standard finite volume solution techniques examined earlier can usually be
adopted for LES, although a few adaptations are sometimes necessary.

Hence, a number of different approaches for computing turbulent flows have been
developed.

LES schemes are now beginning to be used at research level for a variety of complex
engineering flow.
The computational time is still unacceptably long, however, for most routine industrial
applications.

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- p. 7

Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)

Reynolds Averaging

For very low Reynolds number (and simple geometrical) flows, it is possible to simply solve
the Navier-Stokes equations numerically, fully resolving all the eddy sizes and timescales.

In most engineering situations it is the average velocity ad pressure that are of interest, and
the fine details of all the turbulent eddies are not required.

DNS can provide highly detailed flow data, but requires supercomputing class machines.

As originally proposed by Reynolds, the velocity and pressure fields can be split into a mean
(or average) and a fluctuating part:

~
U(t)

ei = Ui + ui
U

~
U

Pe = P + p

u(t)

Since the range of turbulent eddy sizes grows rapidly as the Reynolds number increases,
computational requirements soon become prohibitive, as noted above.
0

(1)

High order numerical schemes are also normally required.


The underlying second-order accuracy of most finite volume schemes is often not sufficient,
and spectral methods are frequently employed. These generally restrict one to using simple
geometries.
Whilst useful for fundamental flow studies, DNS is not therefore a tool for routine engineering
calculations.
- p. 6

In many cases the flow field may be steady on average, in which case the decomposition of
variables can be easily done by defining
Ui = lim

1
T

ei dt
U

(2)

- p. 8

Eddy Viscosity Models

In flows where there is a large-scale unsteadiness a slightly different definition is needed.


For example, in periodic flows a
phase-averaging may be introduced:
Ui (t) = lim

N
1 Xe
Ui (t + N T )
N 1

N
1 Xe
Ui (t)
N 1

(3)

(7)

From these, it appears that the ui uj terms simply act as additional stresses on top of the
viscous stresses Ui /xj .

In others, an ensemble-averaging may be


used:
Ui (t) = lim

The Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes equations can be written as

1 P

Ui
Ui
Ui
=
+
ui uj

+ Uj
t
xj
xi
xj
xj

A simple way to model the Reynolds stresses is thus by introducing a turbulent or eddy
viscosity, t , and modelling ui uj in terms of t and the mean velocity gradients:

(4)

ui uj = t
t

Uj
Ui
+
xj
xi

+ 2/3kij

(8)

where ij is a special tensor, known as the Kronecker delta, which is defined as


In such cases the mean quantities are still functions of time, but they only represent the
largest unsteady motions, and none of the fine-scale turbulence is included in them.

ij =

Since only the mean flow is resolved in the calculations, symmetries (and/or 2-dimensionality
or steadiness) can be taken advantage of to reduce computational requirements.

1
0

if i = j
if i 6= j

(9)

The quantity k is the turbulent kinetic energy, defined as


This approach is therefore the most widely used in engineering applications.
k = 1/2(u21 + u22 + u23 )

(10)

- p. 9

The Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations

With this model for ui uj , the momentum equation can simply be written as

Having decomposed velocities, pressure, etc. into mean and fluctuating parts, the next step
is to substitute these into the Navier-Stokes equations and average the resulting expressions
in order to arrive at a set of equations governing the behaviour of the mean flow field.
Details of this derivation are not given here, but the result is a set of equations rather similar
to the original Navier-Stokes system:
Continuity:

Momentum:

Ui
=0
xi
(Ui Uj )
Ui
1 P

+
=
+
t
xj
xi
xj

(5)

Ui
ui uj
xj

- p. 11

(6)

However, the Reynolds stresses, ui uj , are not known (and cannot be calculated, since we
are not now resolving the turbulent eddies).

Ui
Ui
1 P

=
+
+ Uj
t
xj
xi
xj

eff

Uj
Ui
+
xj
xi

(11)

with the effective viscosity eff = + t .


Since the above momentum equation is essentially the same form as that already
considered, the same numerical procedures already examined can be employed to obtain a
set of discretized equations for the mean velocity at each node.
The main difference is that in the diffusive fluxes the viscosity that has to be computed at the
cell faces is now the effective viscosity, eff .
If the above eddy-viscosity approach is adopted, the remaining modelling problem is how to
prescribe the eddy-viscosity, t .

Models must therefore be introduced to approximate the Reynolds stresses.


Note that whilst is a fluid property, t is not it is simply a function of the local flow
behaviour.

The subject of turbulence modelling as a whole is beyond this course. Here we can only
note a few aspects of some of the more common approaches found in many CFD codes.
At its simplest level, the modelling of the turbulent stresses is done by relating ui uj to the
mean velocity gradients and some prescribed lengthscale, derived from the geometry of the
flow. More complex models solve additional transport equations for quantities such as the
turbulence energy.
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- p. 12

Zero-Equation Models

Two-Equation Models

In the simple mixing-length, or one-equation model, a mixing-length lm is prescribed


algebraically, and t is obtained from

2 U
t = l m
y

One problem with the above models is that the turbulence lengthscale has to be prescribed,
which is often difficult to do in a reliable manner for complex flows and geometries.
(12)

or, in a more general formulation:

2
t = l m

Uj
Ui
+
xj
xi

(13)

In a two-equation model, a second variable (often ) is solved for:

Dk

k
= Pk +
( + t /k )
Dt
xj
xj

D
( + t / )
= c1 Pk c2
+
Dt
k
k
xj
xj

(16)

(17)

and the turbulent viscosity is modelled as


t = c k2 /

lm

The lengthscale lm is taken to vary linearly


with distance from the wall, but with a
damping term to account for viscous
effects in the near-wall viscous sublayer.

(18)

The model constants c1 , c2 , c , and are tuned for simple equilibrium shear flows.
A fairly standard k- model takes c1 = 1.44, c2 = 1.92, c = 0.09, and = 1.3 .
In the near-wall region, where viscous effects are important, a damping function is
introduced into c , and additional source terms are sometimes included in the equation.

Two-equation models thus avoid the need to prescribe a lengthscale, and are the most
widely used class of model in typical industrial CFD simulations.
- p. 13

One-Equation Models

More Advanced Models

In a one-equation model, a transport equation is solved for the turbulent kinetic energy k:

k
Dk
= Pk +
( + t /k )
(14)
Dt
xj
xj
where Pk = ui uj Ui /xj and the dissipation rate is modelled as =

- p. 15

k3/2 /l

There are a number of more advanced modelling schemes. For example, full stress
transport models solve modelled transport equations for each individual stress component:
Dui uj
= Pij + ij ij + diffij
Dt

(19)

For a 3-dimensional flow this requires 6 transport equations to be solved for the ui uj tensor
(and usually a further one for the dissipation rate, ).

The turbulent viscosity is then taken as


t = c k1/2 l

(15)

Such schemes are therefore more computationally expensive than two-equation models, but
are potentially more reliable.
Note that the additional transport equations for turbulence quantities are of the same generic
form as those already considered when discretizing other equations.

Both lengthscales l and l are typically


prescribed as increasing linearly with distance
from the wall although they may have different
viscous damping terms associated with them to
account for very near-wall viscous effects.

Broadly the same methods already covered can thus be applied to discretize and solve them.
In the typical segregated finite volume solver structure examined in earlier lectures, one thus
simply introduces the additional step(s) within the main iteration loop of discretizing each
turbulence variable transport equation and solving the resulting set of equations to update
each variable.

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Near-Wall Treatments

In the fully turbulent region of a simple zero pressure gradient boundary layer, the velocity
profile is known to satisfy the log-law:

Close to a wall viscous effects become important, and damping functions have to be
introduced into some of the model coefficients and functions.

U+ =

There are also usually large gradients of velocity, turbulence energy (and ), and a very fine
grid must therefore be employed in order to resolve these.

(21)

where the non-dimensional velocity, U + , and wall distance, y + , are defined as


U + = U/(w /)1/2

The high aspect ratio cells can also


affect the numerical solution stability.

1
log(Ey + )

and

y + = y(w /)1/2 / (22)

If this is assumed to hold at node P , we obtain


Up
1
= log(Eyp (w /)1/2 /)

(w /)1/2

In large 3-D calculations the need to


use very fine near-wall grids can make
computations extremely expensive.

(23)

In an iterative solution procedure, equation (23) can be solved to obtain an estimate for the
wall shear stress, w , which is then used in updating the velocity, as described above.
Such an approach removes the need to fully resolve the near-wall viscous layer of the flow.

Wall functions are a method of treating the near-wall region of the flow in an approximate
manner, without fully resolving the thin viscosity-affected flow region.

However, it does assume that all near-wall flows satisfy the log-law, which is not true!
There are more advanced wall function approaches, which are more widely applicable, but
these will not be covered here.
- p. 17

Wall Functions
The idea of a wall function approach is to place the first
computational node outside the viscous sublayer, and
make suitable assumptions about how the near-wall
velocity profile behaves, in order to obtain the wall shear
stress.
As seen earlier, the U momentum equation in the
near-wall cell can be discretized into an equation of the
form
ap Up = ae Ue + aw Uw + an Un + as Us + Su

(20)

yn
P
yv
x

where as arises from the shear stress at the south face


of the cell (ie. the wall shear stress).
However, since we are not resolving the near-wall sublayer, estimating the velocity gradient
from a linear variation of U , as we do at other positions, will not give an accurate
approximation of the gradient, and hence the shear stress, at the wall.
If, instead, we could obtain the wall shear stress from an assumed velocity profile, we could
set as to zero and then add the wall shear stress contribution, w (x), directly into the
source term.

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- p. 19

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