MED 1104 - Embryology

Week 1 - Lecture Notes

GAMETOGENESIS
Gametogenesis is the process of forming gametes from diploid cells of the germ line.
This process prepares these sex cells for fertilization. It is called oogenesis in the
female and spermatogenesis in the male. During gametogenesis, a specialized process
of cell division occurs, called meiosis which uniquely distributes chromosomes among
the gametes i.e. the chromosome number is reduced by half.
MEIOSIS
Meiosis is the cell division that takes place in the germ cells to generate male and
female gametes, sperm and egg cells, respectively. Meiosis requires two cell divisions,
meiosis I and meiosis II, that result in the formation of four gametes, each containing
half the number of chromosomes (23 single chromosomes) and half the amount of DNA
(1N) found in the normal somatic cell (46 single chromosomes, 2N).
PLOIDY and the N number
Cells can be designated by their number of chromosomes and amount of DNA.
Ploidy refers to the number of chromosomes in a cell.
The N number refers to the amount of DNA in a cell.
Normal somatic cells and primordial germ cells contain 46 single chromosomes and 2N
amount of DNA. Such cells are called diploid. The chromosomes occur in 23
homologous pairs pairs 1-22 are autosomal; pair 23 consist of the sex chromosomes.
Gametes contain 23 single chromosomes and 1N amount of DNA. These cells are said
to be haploid.
CELL TYPE
Primordial germ cells
Oogonia
Spermatogonia
Zygote
Blastomeres
All somatic cells
Primary Oocyte
Primary Spermatocyte
Secondary Oocyte
Secondary Spermatocyte
Mature oocyte
Spermatid

# of CHROMOSOMES/AMOUNT OF DNA
46 single chromosomes
2 n DNA

46 duplicated chromosomes
4 n DNA
23 duplicated chromosomes
2 n DNA
23 single chromosomes
1 n DNA

Spermatozoon

Meiosis I
Male and female germ cells (oogonia and Type B spermatogonia) at the beginning of
meiosis I, undergo DNA replication so that each of the 46 single chromosomes is
duplicated into sister chromatids, thus forming primary oocytes and primary
spermatocytes, having 46 duplicated chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes then
align themselves in pairs, a process called synapsis. The pairing is exact and point for
point except for the XY combination which are not homologues. Homologous pairs then
separate with one representative of each pair randomly going to each pole of the
meiotic spindle.
By the end of the first meiotic division, each new cell formed (secondary spermatocyte
or secondary oocyte) has the haploid chromosome number (23 duplicated
chromosomes), i.e., half the number of chromosomes of the preceding cell (primary
spermatocyte or primary oocyte). This separation or disjunction of paired homologous
chromosomes is the physical basis of segregation, the separation of allelic genes during
meiosis.
Meiosis II
The second meiotic division follows the first division without a normal interphase (i.e.,
without an intervening step of DNA replication). Each duplicated chromosome divides
and each half, or chromatid, is drawn to a different pole; thus, the haploid number of
chromosomes is retained and each daughter cell formed by meiosis has this reduced
haploid number of chromosomes, that is, 23 single chromosomes. The second meiotic
division is similar to an ordinary mitosis except that the chromosome number of the cell
entering the second meiotic division is haploid.
Importance of Meiosis
Provides constancy of the chromosome number from generation to generation by
reducing the chromosome number from diploid to haploid, thereby producing

haploid gametes.
Allows random assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes between the
gametes.
Relocates segments of maternal and paternal chromosomes by crossing over of
chromosome segments, which "shuffles" the genes and produces a
recombination of genetic material.
Important events during Meiosis
Events

Meiosis I

Meiosis II

Synapsis

Pairing of 46 homologous Absent

duplicated chromosomes

Crossing Over

Large segments of DNA Absent

are exchanged

Alignment

46 homologous duplicated 23
duplicated
chromosomes align at the chromosomes align at the
metaphase plate
metaphase plate

Disjunction

46 homologous duplicated
chromosomes
separate
from
each
other;
centromeres do not split

Cell Division

2 secondary gametocytes 4 gametes are formed (23

are formed (23 duplicated single chromosomes, 1N)
chromosomes, 2N)

23
duplicated
chromosomes separate to
form
23
single
chromosomes;
centromeres split

OVARIAN CYCLE
FSH and LH produce cyclic changes in the ovaries, constituting the ovarian cycle that
is, development of follicles, ovulation, and corpus luteum formation). During each cycle,
FSH promotes growth of several primordial follicles into 5 to 12 primary follicles;
however, only one primary follicle usually develops into a mature follicle and ruptures
through the surface of the ovary, expelling its oocyte.
Follicular Development
Development of an ovarian follicle is characterized by:
Growth and differentiation of primary oocyte
Proliferation of follicular cells
Formation of zona pellucida
Development of the theca folliculi
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
The menstrual (endometrial) cycle is the time during which the oocyte matures, is

ovulated, and enters the uterine tube. The hormones produced by the ovarian follicles
and corpus luteum (estrogen and progesterone) produce cyclic changes in the
endometrium. These monthly changes in the internal layer of the uterus constitute the
endometrial cycle, commonly referred to as the menstrual cycle or period because
menstruation (flow of blood from the uterus) is an obvious event.
The endometrium is a "mirror" of the ovarian cycle because it responds in a consistent
manner to the fluctuating concentrations of gonadotropic and ovarian hormones. The
average menstrual cycle is 28 days, with day 1 of the cycle designated as the day on
which menstrual flow begins. Menstrual cycles normally vary in length by several days.
In 90% of women, the length of the cycles ranges between 23 and 35 days. Almost all
these variations result from alterations in the duration of the proliferative phase of the
menstrual cycle.
FERTILIZATION
The usual site of fertilization is the ampulla of the uterine tube, which is its longest and
widest part. If the oocyte is not fertilized here, it slowly passes along the tube to the
uterus, where it degenerates and is resorbed.
Fertilization is a complex sequence of coordinated molecular events that begins with
contact between a sperm and an oocyte and ends with the intermingling of maternal
and paternal chromosomes at metaphase of the first mitotic division of the zygote, a
unicellular embryo. Defects at any stage in the sequence of these events might cause
the zygote to die. The fertilization process takes approximately 24 hours.
CAPACITATION OF SPERM

Freshly ejaculated sperms are unable to fertilize oocytes. Sperms must undergo a
period of conditioning-capacitation-lasting approximately 7 hours. During this period, a
glycoprotein coat and seminal proteins are removed from the surface of the sperm's
acrosome. Capacitated sperms show no morphologic changes, but they are more
active. Sperms are usually capacitated in the uterus or uterine tubes by substances
secreted by these parts of the female genital tract. Completion of capacitation permits
the acrosome reaction to occur.
Fertilization is a sequence of coordinated events, occurring in three phases:
1. Passage of sperm through the corona radiata. The corona radiata is a layer of
cells surrounding the zona pellucida, which surrounds the secondary oocyte. For
sperm to penetrate the corona cells, they must first become capacitated.
Capacitation essentially, is a period of conditioning which activates sperm to
fertilise. Once capacitated, sperm can pass freely through the layer of corona
cells.
2. Penetration of the zona pellucida. The zona pellucida is a glycoprotein coat
surrounding the plasma membrane of the secondary oocyte. Passage of sperm
through the zona pellucida is an important phase in the initiation of fertilization
and results from the action of enzymes, mainly acrosin. Capacitated sperm that

have passed through the coronal layer, then bind to the zona pellucida and this
induces the Acrosome reaction. Acrosomal enzymes are released from the
acrosomal cap of sperm and digest a path through the zona pellucida. Passage
through the zona pellucida allows a spermatozoon to make contact with the
secondary oocyte.
3. Fusion of plasma membranes of the oocyte and spermatozoon. Once the
spermatozoon penetrates the zona pellucida, the plasma membranes of the
spermatozoon and the secondary oocyte fuse and break down at the area of
fusion. The head and tail of the sperm then enter the cytoplasm of the oocyte, but
the sperm's plasma membrane remains behind.
Upon entry of the spermatozoon into the oocytes cytoplasm, two reactions are
stimulated: Cortical reaction and Zona reaction.
Cortical reaction cortical granules lining the plasma membrane of the oocyte
release lysosomal enzymes which act on the zona pellucida to alter its structure
and composition, rendering it impenetrable to other sperms.
Zona reaction The impermeability of the zona pellucida constitutes the zona
reaction. This reaction prevents polyspermy.
Also, entry of the spermatozoon into the cytoplasm of the oocyte immediately
activates completion of the second meiotic division of the oocyte and
formation of the female pronucleus. This forms a mature oocyte and the
second polar body. Within the cytoplasm of the oocyte, the nucleus of the
spermatozoon also enlarges to form the male pronucleus and the tail of the
sperm degenerates.
As the two pronuclei fuse into a single diploid aggregation of
chromosomes, a zygote is formed.
CLEAVAGE OF THE ZYGOTE
Cleavage consists of repeated mitotic divisions of the zygote, resulting in a rapid
increase in the number of cells called blastomeres. Division of the zygote into
blastomeres begins approximately 30 hours after fertilization. After the nine-cell stage,
the blastomeres change their shape and tightly align themselves against each other to
form a compact ball of cells, compaction, which permits greater cell-to-cell interaction
and is a prerequisite for segregation of the internal cells that form the inner cell mass or
embryoblast. When there are 16 to 32 blastomeres, the developing human is called a
morula. The spherical morula forms approximately 3 days after fertilization and enters
the uterus.
FORMATION OF THE BLASTOCYST
Shortly after the morula enters the uterus, at approximately day 4, a fluid-filled space

called the blastocystic cavity appears inside the morula and the structure is called a
blastocyst. As fluid increases in the blastocystic cavity, it separates the blastomeres into
two parts:
A thin, outer cell mass, the trophoblast (Greek, trophe, nutrition), which gives
rise to the embryonic part of the placenta and
A group of centrally located blastomeres, the inner cell mass, which gives rise to
the embryo; because it is the primordium of the embryo, the inner cell mass is
called the embryoblast
At Day 5, the zona pellucida surrounding the blastocyst degenerates. This is a
necessary precursor for implantation to be possible.
Approximately 6 days after fertilization (day 20 of a 28-day menstrual cycle), the
blastocyst attaches to the endometrial epithelium and the trophoblast starts to
proliferate rapidly and gradually begins differentiation into two layers
An inner layer of cytotrophoblast and
An outer layer of syncytiotrophoblast consisting of a multinucleated
protoplasmic mass in which no cell boundaries can be observed
By the end of the first week, the blastocyst is superficially implanted in the compact
layer of the endometrium.