FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD

AND
ITS IMPLEMENTATION
ENCE 640: ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
TERM PAPER
BY
ATUL KUMAR SINGH
UID 114860903
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
DR. BEHZAD AMIR-FARYAR
DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND, COLLEGE PARK

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD
Finite Difference methods is one of the methods which is use to solve the ordinary differential
equations. In this method, we approximate the differential operator by replacing the derivatives
in the equations using differential quotients. Today, FDMs are the dominant approach to
numerical solutions of partial differential equations. Manually solving a PDE using FDM is
still a very big task so to solve various PDE we use various softwares. For example, from the
definition of derivative,
/ = 0 (( + ) ())/,
Eq 1.1

we can approximate the value of / by using the finite difference approximation

(( + ) ())/
Eq 1.2

with a small value of h.

1.2 PRINCIPLE OF THE FINITE-DIFFERENCE (FD) METHOD
Finite Difference Methods are applied in the following steps: a. Constructing the discrete Finite Difference model for the problem:
- coverage of the computational domain by a space-time grid,
- Applying natural boundary conditions over the PDE/model
- construction of a system of the finite-difference (i.e., algebraic) equations using various FDM
schemes
b. Analysis of the finite-difference model:
- consistency and order of the approximation
2

c. Numerical computations using softwares

1.3 FINITE DIFFERENCE GRIDS

Fig 1.1. Finite Difference Grids

Above figure describes the grids with two-dimensional variable (x, t). Here, x are t are
usually called grid spacings and black dots are known as nodes. These FDM grids are applied
on the structure so as to determine the desired results, for example; if we want to determine the
deflection in a beam then we use Eulers Differential equation as Governing differential
equation and then we divide the whole beam in FDM grids and then we apply the desired loads
on nodes so as to determine deflections/moments in beam.
A spatial grid that is the most appropriate for the problem under consideration should be
chosen. In many applications, the regular (uniform) rectangular grid with the grid spacings x
= y is a natural and reasonable choice for a regular shape structure. Other types of grids,
including non-uniform grids, for example, grids with a varying size of the grid spacing,
discontinuous or combined grids with sudden change in size of the grid spacing, are used to
3

describe irregular shape of structures. The rectangular grid with a varying size of the grid
spacings was first used by Boore (1970) in the 1D case. Mikumo and Miyatake (1987) used a
grid with varying size of the grid spacing in the 3D case in a homogeneous medium. Jastram
and Behle (1992), Falk et al. (1996), Moczo et al. (1996), Robertsson and Holliger (1997),
Kristek et al. (1999), Aoi and Fujiwara (1999), and Hayashi et al. (2001) introduced
discontinuous grids. A clever approach to combine two grids with different size of grid
spacings was presented by Wang et al. (2001).
1.4 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
FDM require proper boundary conditions in order to define and then properly solve a problem.
The BCs should be applied in a fixed number, if we apply too much BCs or two less BCs
we will not get any solutions. Continuing the example of Beam, we need to describe whether
it is fixed/hinged at one end or both the end so as to determine the deflection at the centre or
the desired location.
1.5 FORWARD, BACKWARD AND CENTERED FINITE DIFFERENCE SCHEMES
The approximation
/ = (( + ) ( )/
Eq 1.3

is called a forward difference formula because the derivative is based on the value x = x 0 and
it involves the function f(x) evaluated at x = x0+h, i.e., at a point located forward from x0 by an
increment h. If we include the values of f(x) at x = x0 - h, and x = x0, the approximation is
written as
/ = (( ) ( ))/
Eq 1.4

and is called a backward difference formula. A centred difference formula for / will
include the points ( , ( )) ( + , ( + )). If we wish to use the finite
difference method, we would begin by writing the finite difference from which is an
approximation of the derivatives appearing in the governing differential equation.
1.6 SOLUTION OF STEADY STATE FLOW EQUATION FOR CONFINED
HOMOGENEOUS AND ISOTROPIC AQUIFER USING FDM CONCEPT
(FOR FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIUM)
The steady state flow equation for homogeneous and isotropic confined aquifer can be written
as :-( If a source N(x, y, t) is present, the equation becomes)

2
2
2 + 2 + (, ) = 0


..Eq (1.5)

Here, the source term represents the pumping or recharge per unit horizontal area of the aquifer.
If case of pumping a negative sign is used as mass is withdrawn from the control volume. On
the other hand, the source term will be positive in case of recharge as we are adding mass to
the system. For example, if Qm3/sec is the pumping rate from the control volume, the value of
N(x, y, t) will be

Where, T is the transmissivity of the aquifer (m2/day), is the hydraulic head (m), N is the
pumping or recharge value (m3/day/m2).

Fig 1.2 2D confined aquifer with boundary conditions

Now consider the aquifer as shown in Fig. 4.1. The 2D confined aquifer is homogeneous and
isotropic and has no flow boundary at two sides and constant head boundary on two other two
sides as shown in the Fig.4.1. For applying the finite difference scheme, the aquifer has to
discretize as sown in Fig. 4.2 below. Let and are the size of a discretize grid.

Fig 1.3 Discretized 2D confined aquifer with boundary conditions

 2 +1, 2, 1,

+
2
2
2
2
2 +1, 2, 1,

+
2
2
2
2
..Eq (1.6)

Putting (16) in equation (15) and after simplifying, the finite difference approximation of the
steady 2-D flow equation at cell (i, j) may be expressed as:

+1, + 1, + +1, + 1, + (2 + 2), + (, ) = 0

..Eq (1.7)

Where,

= 2 and = 2

2. GROUNDWATER MODELLING
2.1 OBJECTIVE OF GROUNDWATER MODELLING
Groundwater models provide a tool to estimate groundwater availability for various water use
strategies and to determine the cumulative effects of increased water use and drought. A
groundwater model is a numerical representation of the aquifer system capable of simulating
historical conditions and predicting future aquifer conditions. Inherent to the groundwater
model are a set of equations that are developed and applied to describe the primary or dominant
physical processes considered to be controlling groundwater flow in the aquifer system.
Groundwater models are essential to performing complex analyses and in making informed
predictions and related decisions.

The mathematical modelling of regional aquifers has the following purposes:

1. To predict the future behaviour of the studied aquifer in response to stress-factors like
new pumping, infiltration changes due to global changes, irrigation, and pollutant
contaminations.

2. To provide information required in order to comply with local regulations.

3. To obtain a better understanding of the aquifer system from the geological,
hydrogeological and hydro chemical point of view.
4. To provide information for the improving of the observation networks and field
experiments.
5. To determine the interaction of Groundwater and Surface water.
6. To determine the discharge and recharge rates of the Groundwater.

The geologic medium is not an engineering system, where all the characteristics or parameters
are deterministically known. The parameters expressing the characteristics of the aquifer
(hydraulic conductivity, effective porosity, dispersivities etc.) are equivalent or averaged
values. The hydrogeological parameters are obtained through a calibration process applied for
the whole aquifer, based on the best agreement between the measured and the computed levels.
Local heterogeneities are taken into account by different values of the chosen parameters. The
accuracy of the simulation strongly depends on the scale of the problem.

It has been recently shown that contaminant transport properties of geological media cannot be
deduced from laboratory tests. A strong scale effect affects, among others, the dispersivity
coefficients. A reliable and quantitative way of determining the aquifer transport properties
consists in interpreting two-well injection-pumping tracer tests. A pulse of tracer-labeled water
is injected in one well and pumping in a nearby well creates a radially converging flow field.
Tracer breakthrough curves are measured in this last well. This information is used to evaluate
aquifer transport properties and to calibrate the contaminant transport model. Interpretation by
modelling local transport conditions of the aquifer is not an easy task.

2.2 INPUTS FOR GROUNWATER MODELLING

For the calculations one needs inputs like:

hydrological inputs,

operational inputs,

external conditions: initial and boundary conditions,

(Hydraulic) parameters.

The model may have chemical components like water salinity, soil salinity and other quality
indicators of water and soil, for which inputs may also be needed.
Input data that is required for code simulations can be classied into:
2.2.1. Geometry and topography issues
(a) Site boundaries and dimensions
(b) Surface topography (e.g. to detect zones with surface inltration)
(c) Location of streams, divides, ponds and so on (d) Land use (landlls, dikes, well locations,
irrigation)
2.2.2. Geology and hydrology issues
a) Aquifers (stratication, depth, lithological parameters, hydraulic conductivities, longitudinal
and transversal dispersivities, storativities (i.e. matrix and water compressibilitys), porosities)
(b) Porous medium density
(c) Water levels at surface reservoirs (rivers, ponds, etc.) compressing shallow aquifers
(d) Pumping/recharge point sources (well depth, intensity, periodicity, and time of application)
(e) Distributed sources of inow, for example, rain-fall and irrigation rates
(f) Distributed sources of outow, for example, evapotranspiration
9

(g) Time dependent data at spatial points

2.2.3. Water and porous medium chemical properties
(a) Sorption (adsorption and desorption) factors.
(b) Electrical conductivities.
(c) Temporal and spatial concentration of solutes in the water and the solid phases of the
porous medium
(d) Solutes associated with sources of recharge uxes.
e) Concentration of stable isotopes and microelements.
2.2.4. Boundary and initial conditions
(a) Initial eld distribution of piezometric head and components concentration.
(b) Pervious/impervious boundary segments with the ascribed ux conditions.
(c) Piezometric heads and concentrations along boundaries.

Figure 2.1 FDM Grids for Groundwater Modelling

10

2.3 GROUNDWATER SOFTWARE OVERVIEW

Many different software tools are today available to help users to set up their models. The aim
of the models is to assist in the solution of practical problems, simulating processes in
subsurface uids and porous media. In the majority of cases, modelling serves to improve
under-standing of hydrogeological systems. Forecasting and thus studying the response due to
different scenarios is the most ambitious goal of modelling efforts.

Software tools can be subdivided into different classes, for which codes that perform numerical
calculations are considered as the core software program. Around these packages have been
developed for several pre- and post-processing tasks. GMS, Visual MODFLOW, and PMWIN
are examples, which are built around the MODFLOW code in the core in most recent versions
accompanied by other numerical codes. Other packages, like FEFLOW, embed all tasks in one
package.
Some Softwares used for Groundwater Modelling are:

Analytic Element Method

FEFLOW

SVFlux

FEHM

HydroGeoSphere

MicroFEM

MODFLOW

GMS

Visual MODFLOW

OpenGeoSys
11

SahysMod, Spatial agro-hydro-salinity-aquifer model, online: [8]

US Geological Survey Water Resources Ground Water Software

ZOOMQ3D

The most prominent code for groundwater modelling is MODFLOW. The most recent version
is MODFLOW2005, described by Harbaugh et al. (2000). The origins of MOD-FLOW can be
traced back to the beginning of the 1980s. An overview on the history of MODFLOW is given
by McDonald and Harbaugh (2003).
3. MATHEMATICAL MODEL
3.1 BASIC EQUATIONS RELATED TO GROUNDWATER FLOW
Groundwater ow models are based on the differential equations for groundwater ow. Such
differential equations, are usually based on Darcys Law as the linear macroscopic uid
momentum balance equation, considering the drag terms of the Navier Stokes equation as
dominant, and on the principle of the uid mass conservation.
In the year 1856, Henry Darcy, a French hydraulic engineer investigated the flow of water
through a vertical homogeneous sand filter. Based on his experiments, he concluded that the
rate flow through the porous media is proportional to the head loss and is inversely proportional
to the length of the flow path.
=
.....Eq (3.1)

is the flow rate i.e volume of water flows through the sand filter per unit time.
is the Hydraulic Gradient.
is the coefficient of permeability.
is the area of cross section.

12

The Darcys Law was derived experimentally for one dimensional flow in a homogeneous
porous medium. The generalized three-dimensional form of the equation can be expressed as,
=
.....Eq (3.2)

Where,

= { } , = , = [

{ }

The negative sign also indicates that water is flowing from higher hydraulic head to lower
hydraulic head. Thus hydraulic gradient is negative along the direction of flow. The equation
(3.2) can also be written as:-

{ } = [

{ }

.....Eq (3.3)

The flow in x, y and z direction can be written as:-

= [

+
+ ]

......Eq (3.4)

= [

+
+ ]

.....Eq (3.5)

= [

+
+ ]

.....Eq (3.6)

13

Depending on the special features of the situation to be modelled, different circumstances have
to be taken into account. A model for a conned aquifer is different from that for an unconned
(phreatic) aquifer. The spatial dimensionality (1D or 2D or 3D) depends on the physical
situation and the aim of modelling. Depending on the very same aspects, a decision about
steady state versus unsteady simulations has to be taken, just to name the most basic properties
of a model.
There are different formulations of the differential equations. Equation (3.2) states the mass
balance in 3D:

( ) = ( ) +
.....Eq (3.7)

Where, denotes porosity, uid density, v the three-dimensional vector of Darcy velocity
that is specic discharge, and represents mass sources or sinks of whatever type. Most
models work with a simplied version of equation (2), which is valid for constant density. With
the help of Darcys Law, the equation can be reformulated in terms of hydraulic head h.
Simplied 2D versions of equation (2) are used quite frequently, which are different for
conned or unconned aquifers. In the conned situation:

== +

.....Eq (3.8)

In which and represent pumping and recharge rates, respectively, where denotes the
storativity and the transmissivity. Usually the hydraulic head, h is the dependent prime
variable, for which the differential ow equation is formulated and which is calculated by the
model.
3.2 GOVERNING EQUATION FOR THE FLOW THROUGH PORUS MEDIUM
3.2.1 CONFINED FLOW
14

Now, from the above two equations i.e. Darcys Law and Mass Flow equations all the equations
listed below are derived. So the Governing Equations for two dimensional flow through
confined aquifer is:

(
)+
(
) =

.....Eq (3.9)

is the Aquifer thickness

h is the piezometric
is the coefficient of Transmissibility

( = )

is the specific storage

is the Storage Coefficient

( = )

[ = = As we are considering homogeneous aquifer condition]

In generalised form we can write Equation 3.4 as: 2 2
+
=
2 2

.....Eq (3.10)

Now for Steady-State Condition ( = ) Eq (3.5) becomes,

2
2
+

2 =0
2

.....Eq (3.11)

This is Laplace's equation (2-D), the subject of much study in other fields of science. Many
powerful and elegant methods are available for its solution, especially in two dimensions.
Here,
is known as Velocity Potential. The velocity potential may be defined as a scalar function
of time and space such that its derivative with respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity
I that direction.
15

=
= =

.....Eq (3.12 a)

=
= =

.....Eq (3.13 b)

Now, lets consider 3-D flow in porous medium, so the main governing equation in 3-D flow
is (Non Homogeneous Aquifer):-

(
)+
(
)+
(
) =

.....Eq (3.14)

Here,
Velocity Potential () =
Considering Aquifer to be Homogeneous in nature so Eq (3.7) can be written as: 2 2 2
+
+
=
2 2 2
Or

. 2 =

.....Eq (3.15)

3.2.2 UNCONFINED FLOW (Only 3-D Flow)

INHOMOGENEOUS ANISOTROPIC UNCONFINED AQUIFER

(
)+
(
)+
(
)=0

.....Eq (3.16)

16

The right-hand side equals zero not because = 0 (it doesn't), but because in unconfined
aquifers Ss 0.The flow domain for which solutions of this equation are sought is not
constant because the water-table position changes with time.
HOMOGENEOUS ANISOTROPIC UNCONFINED AQUIFER

2
2
2
+

=0
2
2
2
Or
. 2 = 0
.....Eq (3.17)

a. HOMOGENEOUS ISOTROPIC UNCONFINED AQUIFER

2 2 2
+
+
=0
2 2 2
.....Eq (3.18)
Note, this equation is again a Laplace Equation
3.3 GOVERNING EQUATION FOR RADIAL FLOW IN AN AQUIFER
The flow towards a well, situated in homogeneous and isotropic confined or unconfined aquifer
is radially symmetric. Fig. 3.1(a) shows the cone of depression caused due to constant pumping
through a single well situated at (0,0) in a confined aquifer. Fig.3.1 (b) shows the cone of
impression caused due to constant recharge through the well. In case of homogeneous and
isotropic medium, the cone of depression or cone of impression is radially symmetrical. The
governing equation derived earlier in Cartesian coordinate system for confined and unconfined
aquifer can also be derived for radial flow in an aquifer. In this lecture, we will derive the
governing flow equation for confined and unconfined aquifer in polar coordinate system.

17

Figure 3.1 An ANSYS visualisation of (a) Cone of depression (b) Cone of impression
3.3.1 CONFINED FLOW
Let us consider a case of radial flow to a single well in a confined aquifer. Let there be the
radial flow towards a well and a control volume of thickness dr. The aquifer is homogeneous
and isotropic and have constant thickness of b. The hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is K.
The pumping rate (Q) of the aquifer is constant and the well diameter is infinitesimally small.
The well is fully penetrated into the entire thickness of the confined aquifer.
So the flow equation for radial flow into a well for confined homogeneous and isotropic aquifer
is:1

( ) =

.....Eq (3.19)

18

 2 1
+
=
2

.....Eq (3.20)

In case of steady state condition, the governing equation becomes,

2 1
+
=0
2
.....Eq (3.21)

3.3.2 UNCONFINED FLOW (Only 3-D Flow)

Let us consider a case of radial flow to a single well. The unconfined aquifer is homogeneous
and isotropic. The hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is K. The pumping rate (Q) of the
aquifer is constant and the well diameter is infinitesimally small. The well is fully penetrated
into the aquifer and hydraulic head in the aquifer prior to pumping is uniform throughout the
aquifer.

Figure 3.2 A Well in an unconfined aquifer

19

So, the flow equation for radial flow into a well for unconfined homogeneous and isotropic
aquifer is:1

( ) =

.....Eq (3.22)
Where,
Sy is the specific yield which is equal to Ss / h.
In case of steady state condition, the governing equation becomes,
1

( ) = 0

.....Eq (3.23)
4 PROBLEM USING VISUAL MODFLOW FLEX TRAIL VERSION
To study details about the groundwater flow which occurs due to the presence of six different
soil layers, these layers have different values of permeability. A river is also present in which
water flows with a constant velocity 1m/sec and river bed has permeability constant as
.01m/sec. The width of the river is taken as 10m. Details about the various types of soil is given
in the boundary condition.

Figure 4.1 3-D view of the model

20

Figure 4.2 3-D view of soil horizons (six different soil layers)

Figure 4.3 Blue dots indicate the path of flow of river on the upper most layer of soil

21

Figure 4.4 Red lines indicates the various observation wells that are located in the soil layers

Figure 4.2 indicates the various six soil horizons with different contour level. Figure 4.3
indicates the flow pattern of river on the uppermost Zone of the model. We can clearly see the
path of the river which is having a discharge of 2m3/sec. Figure 4.4 indicates various
observation well on the soil layers. These wells are present so as to record the volume of
groundwater on the various soil layers.

22

4.1 BOUNDARY CONDITION

Figure 4.5 Six Different soil layers

Here we use three main boundary condition and three boundary condition are:(1) Conductivity/ Permeability
Zone

Colour

Kx

Ky

Kz

5e-05

5e-05

5e-06

3e-07

3e-07

3e-08

1e-05

1e-05

1e-06

2e-05

2e-05

2e-06

2e-06

2e-06

2e-07

5e-05

5e-05

5e-06

Table 4.1 Constant conductivity used in various Zone

23

(2) Types of Soil

All the six soil layers are made up of clay whose soil density is 1.9g/cm3
(3) Storage
Zone

Ss(Specific

Sy(Specific Yield)

Porosity

.015g/cm3

Storage)
1

1e-05 m-1

Table 4.2 Constant storage and porosity in various Zones

(4) Initial Head

Initial Head is 3.93m across the model.

Figure 4.6 Red colour indicate permeability in zone six (Last Soil Layer) while the blue colour indicate the
initial storage across the various soil layer

24

Figure 4.7 Blue dots indicates the path of river flow while red dots indicates the constant heads across the
various zones

Figure 4.8 Meshing of the Model, while the green dots in this grid gives the position of Observation Well

25

4.2 OUTPUT (RESULTS)

Figure 4.9 Variation of heads Model

Colour

Head Value
2.84m
2.99m
3.14m
3.29m
3.44m
3.59m
3.74m
3.89m

Table 4.3 Different Values of head in the soil layers

26

In the figure 4.9 we can see the variation of the heads across the soil layer. As we know that
we have applied a constant head of 3.93 across the various soil layers, after the analysis we
can see the change in the heads across the top of soil layers because of various reasons. Now
the heads vary from 2.84m to 3.89m.
In the figure 4.10 we can see the drawdown in the soil layers. Dupits Equation is the main
equation because of which this analysis was possible. We can see that the drawdown varies
from 7m to 110 m across the model.

Figure 4.10 Drawdown variations in our model

27

Colour

Head Value
.07m
.21m
.36m
.51m
.65m
.80m
.95m
1.09m

Table 4.4 Different Values of Drawdown in the soil layers

5. CONCLUSIONS
Finite Difference method is one of the approximate method which we can use in various civil
engineering situations. In the above example, we use a software which was based on FDM
concept so as to calculate the ground water movement throughout the soil layer. The problem
though is not practical but still it helps to understands that how groundwater is based on various
general physics differential equation and how those general equations can be solved using
Finite Difference Method by applying proper boundary conditions. But one has to keep in mind
that Finite Difference Method or Finite Element Method helps in solving various problems but
the solution are approximate solutions not the correct/exact solutions.
In case of use of FDM in solving groundwater problems, we can determine various parameters
like flow velocity in ground, the impact of pumping of groundwater on the groundwater level
or even the effect of industrial pollution on groundwater which will be helpful in many cases.
For Example, for my country India whose majority of economy is dependent on agriculture its
necessary to determine the increase or decrease in groundwater level because of rain or river

28

flowing nearby so that farmers can plant the crops according to it so as to get better
productivity.
5. FUTURE WORK
There is some recommendation that should be done so as to use the numerically solve the
groundwater problem: a) Software like MODFLOW is not very user friendly so first a user-friendly software
should be used which is based on FDM concept.
b) With the introduction of Finite Element Method very few people try to solve any
problem with the concept of Finite Difference Method concept, so we should try to
solve a problem using Finite Element Method.
c) Softwares like Plaxis 2D/3D are based on the concept of Finite Element Method
and it is user-friendly too, the groundwater problems should be tried in that
software.
d) Recently, many people are work on solving the impact of introduction of sheet pile
on the groundwater flow when there is river flowing nearby.
7. REFRENCES
Gilberto E. Urroz, September 2004. Numerical Solution to Ordinary Differential Equations
Peter MOCZO , Jozef KRISTEK , and Ladislav HALADA. The Finite-Difference Method
for Seismologists
D.M.Causon &C.G.Mingham. Introductory Finite Difference Methods for PDEs
Amarsinh B. Landage, Ashok K. Keshari, 2016. Groundwater Contaminant Transport FDM
Modelling for Non-linear Freundlich and Langmuir Sorption with an Instantaneous Spill,
International Journal of Engineering Research Volume No.5, Issue Special 1, pp : 265-273

29

Li Chen, Xun-Hong Chen, 2012. Solving Groundwater Flow Equations Using Gradually
Varied Functions
A.W. Harbaugh, Banta, E.R., Hill, M.C., and McDonald, M.G., 2000, MODFLOW- 2000, the
U.S. Geological Survey modular ground-water model User guide to modularization
concepts and the Ground-Water Flow Process: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 0092, 121 p. 2000.
Harbaugh, A.W., 2005, MODFLOW-2005, The U.S. Geological Survey modular ground-water model
-- the Ground-Water Flow Process: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques and Methods 6-A16, variously
p.

Weixing Guo and C.D. Langevin,2002, User's guide to SEAWAT; a computer program for
simulation of three-dimensional variable-density ground-water flow Open-File Report 2001434
Ahlfeld, D.P., Baker, K.M., and Barlow, P.M., 2009, GWM-2005A GroundwaterManagement Process for MODFLOW-2005 with Local Grid Refinement (LGR) Capability:
U.S. Geological Survey Techniques and Methods 6-A33, 65 p.
G. F. Pinder, Groundwater Modeling Using Geographical Information Systems, John Wiley
and Sons, 2002.
W. Sanford, Recharge and groundwater models: An overview, Hydrogeol. J., 10, 110-120,
2002.
Aucott, Walter R., 1988. Areal Variation in Recharge to and Discharge from the Floridan
Aquifer System in Florida, U.S. Geological Survey WaterResources Investigations Report 88
4057.

30

Li Chen, Gradual Variation Analysis for Groundwater Flow of DC, DC Water Resources
Research Institute Final Report 2009.
Cheng, H.P., J.R. Cheng, and G.T. Yeh, 1998. A LagrangianEulerian method with
adaptively local zooming and peak/valley capturing approach to solve threedimensional
advectiondiffusion transport equations. International Journal for Numerical Methods in
Engineering, 41(4), 587615.
Guo W., and Bennett, G.D., 1998. Simulation of saline/fresh water flows using MODFLOW.
In: MODFLOW 98 Conference, Golden, Colorado. pp; 267274.
Langevin, C.D., Shoemaker, W.B., and Guo, W., 2003. MODFLOW2000, the U.S. Geological
Survey Modular GroundWater ModelDocumentation of the SEAWAT2000 Version with
the VariableDensity Flow Process (VDF) and the Integrated MT3DMS Transport Process
(IMT), U.S. Geological Survey OpenFile Report 03426, 43 p.
Nash, J.E. and Sutcliffe, J.V., 1970. River Flow Forecasting Through Conceptual Models Part
I A Discussion of Principles. Journal of Hydrology 10:282290.
National

Oceanic

and

Atmospheric

Administration

(NOAA),

http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/geo.shtml?location=8723214
Kretschmer, P, Christie, E, Fisher, S, Marillier, B & Reitsema T 2011, Feasibility of managed
aquifer recharge using drainage water, Water science technical series, report no. 38,
Department of Water, Perth.

31