Ontology

Ontology and epistemology are two different ways of viewing the research philosophy.
Ontology can be defined as the science or study of being[1] and it deals with the nature of
reality. Ontology is a system of belief that reflects an interpretation of an individual about what
constitutes a fact. In simple terms, ontology is associated with a central question of whether
social entities need to be perceived as objective or subjective. Accordingly, objectivism
(or positivism) and subjectivism can be specified as two important aspects of ontology.
Objectivism portrays the position that social entities exist in reality external to social actors
concerned with their existence[2]. Alternatively, objectivism is an ontological position that
asserts that social phenomena and their meanings have an existence that is independent of social
actors[3].
Subjectivism (also known as constructionism or interpretivism) on the contrary, perceives that
social phenomena is created from perceptions and consequent actions of those social actors
concerned with their existence. Formally, constructionism can be defined as ontological
position which asserts that social phenomena and their meanings are continually being
accomplished by social actors.[4]
The table below illustrates the ontology of four major research philosophies related to business
studies:
Research
philosophy
Pragmatism
Positivism
Realism
Interpretivism

Ontology: the researchers view of the nature of reality or being

External, multiple, view chosen to best enable answering of research
question
External, objective and independent of social actors
Is objective. Exists independently of human thoughts and beliefs or
knowledge of their existence (realist), but is interpreted through social
conditioning (critical realist)
Socially constructed, subjective, may change, multiple

Identification of ontology at the start of the research process is critically important as it

determines the choice of the research design. The figure below illustrates the consequent impact
of ontology on the choice of research methods via epistemology, research approach, research
strategy and methods of data collection and data analysis.

Ontology in business studies

Fortunately, you dont have to discuss ontology in great depth when writing a dissertation in
business studies. Several paragraphs to one page will suffice for a dissertation on Bachelors or
Masters level, whereas you can devote about two pages to ontology on a research at a PhD level.
You can address ontology part of methodology chapter of your dissertation in the following
manner:
Firstly, you can provide a formal definition of ontology, followed by explanation of ontology in
simple terms. See example at the beginning of this page.
Secondly, you have to specify whether you are adopting objectivism or constructivism view. This
should be followed by explanation of rationale for your choice.
Thirdly, you have to discuss implications of your ontological choice on the choice of
epistemology, research approach, and research strategy and data collection methods
My e-book, The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step
assistance contains discussions of theory and application of research philosophy. The e-book
also explains all stages of the research process starting from the selection of the research area to
writing personal reflection. Important elements of dissertations such as research
philosophy, research approach, research design, methods of data collection and data
analysis are explained in this e-book in simple words.

John Dudovskiy
Methodology ... to do with the tools and techniques of research
Ontology ... to do with our assumptions about how the world is made up and the
nature of things
Epistemology ... to do with our beliefs about how one might discover knowledge
about the world

The difference between epistemology and ontology in part is the subject that is
being studied by each. In ontology, the study of being or existence and questions of
what kinds of entities exist are studied. In epistemology, the study of knowing and
how we come to know and questions about what knowledge is and how knowledge
is possible are studied.

Both ontology and epistemology are branches of philosophy. Ontology is a type of metaphysics.
Epistemology often involves a debate between empiricism and rationalism, in which the former
claims knowledge can only be gained through experience whereas the latter believes that
knowledge can be acquired through reason alone.
Ontology concerns itself with what is true, and on the other hand, epistemology involves the
different methods of figuring out that truth. Put in other words, ontology is about the nature of
reality and epistemology is about the relationship between the researcher or other person and that
reality.
Many issues have multiple, often conflicting ontologies, or theories about what is true, as well as
various epistemologies, or ways of figuring things out. For example, science and religion have
oppositional ontologies and epistemologies about the existence of God and the origins of the
universe.

Ontology
forms the basis of all research inquiry as it forms the basis for the
construction of reality or as claims and assumptions that are made about the
nature of social reality, claims about what exists, what it looks like, what
units make it up and how these units interact with each other. (Blaikie, 2000,
p. 8, as cited in
Grix,
2002, p. 177) Epistemology is concerned with the theory of knowledge, how it is
obtained, how is it validated and new ways of knowing which are more effective
than other knowledge gathering models and theories (Grix, 2002). Paradigm then
results from the combination of the researchers ontological and

epistemological approach which informs the approach to research methodology and

research methods (Grix, 2002)
Obviously, you've read a lot. Personally, a easier understanding is:
1) Ontology is the target that the research is going to achieve.
2) Epistemology is the theoretical framework that support ontology.
3) Methodology is the method that is used to prove whether the ontology is right or
wrong based on epistemology.

Ontology - how you view social reality.

Epistemology - how you come to know social reality.
Paradigm - set of beliefs / assumptions that guide actions.
Who is the better footballer - Ronaldo or Messi?
Positivist epistemology - would focus upon who had scored the most goals, who was
quickest over a specific distance / measure how high they could jump etc. A
positivist would focus upon determining this through objective and measureable
quantities. Epistemologically you would come to know this through tests that were
set up / observations / sending out large numbers of questionnaires to get statistical
data etc and look at your quantitative evidence..
Interpretivist would take into account who else was in the team, the opposition that
they played against, the positions that they took up on the field, how they felt on
the day / how coachable they were etc. These would not be seen as measurable as
such, but would be based upon perceptions and opininions. These would take into
account temporal factors of time and space etc. You would come to know this
through observation, interviewing so called experts etc. You might keep a reflexive
diary of how you think that they have played.
Where you sat on the continuum between positivism and interpretivism would
determine your position or the paradigm that you situated yourself in. Other
paradigms could include critical, if for example you thought Ronaldo was
discriminated against because he wasn't playing for Barcelona, and therefore is
perceived to have less media exposure (just a thought!). The critical paradigm
would seek to draw attention to this and change it. Without trying to complicate
matters you could start to look at post-structuralism which takes into account
relationships of power.
The paradigm determines how you will approach your research, which in turn
determines how you will collect, record and analyse your data, and present your
findings. The positivist would show who was the better player through a series of

graphs and numbers etc, the interpretivist would look for their data in transcripts /
notes etc.