Energy 35 (2010) 2552e2556

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Energy
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Development of engine oil using palm oil as a base stock for four-stroke engines
Kraipat Cheenkachorn a, b, *, Bundit Fungtammasan c, d
a

Department of Chemical Engineering, King Mongkuts University of Technology North Bangkok, 1518 Piboolsongkram Rd., Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
CHE Center for Energy Technology and Environment, King Mongkuts University of Technology North Bangkok, 1518 Piboolsongkram Rd., Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
c
The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi, 126 Prachautit Rd. Bangmod, Tungkru, Bangkok 10140, Thailand
d
CHE Center for Energy Technology and Environment, King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi, 126 Prachautit Rd. Bangmod, Tungkru, Bangkok 10140, Thailand
b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 20 October 2009
Received in revised form
19 February 2010
Accepted 2 March 2010
Available online 1 April 2010

The use of palm oil as a base stock for an environmentally friendly lubricant for small four-stroke
motorcycle engines is investigated. Palm oil was blended with mineral oil at different compositions to
the viscosity requirement of commercial lubricant. A liquid additive package was added to improve the
viscosity of the lubricant. A blend that meets the viscosity requirement was then chosen for physical and
chemical property characterization and subjected to an engine test. The blend consists of 50.6% (wt.)
palm oil, 41.6% mineral oil, and 7.8% additive package. The properties evaluated include viscosity,
viscosity index, ash point, foaming characteristics, and wear scar. The engine performance and emission
tests were carried out with a 125-cc motorcycle on a chassis dynamometer using a Bangkok Driving
Cycle. Compared to a mineral-based commercial oil, the palm oil-based lubricant exhibits superior
tribological properties, but offers no clear advantage on engine and emission performance.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Biodegradable lubricant
Four-stroke engine
Palm oil

1. Introduction
The use of vegetable oils and animal fats as lubricants dates back
to 1650 B.C. [1]. The discovery of petroleum oil in the late 1800s,
however, resulted in replacement of vegetable oils and animal fats
and, eventually, mineral oils became the primary base stock for
lubricants due to their lower price and superior overall performance [2]. However, the use of vegetable oils and animal fats as
lubricants continues, but mostly in specialty applications.
Early this century, environmental concerns have stimulated
increased interest in biodegradable lubricants. Since vegetable oils
and most esters are more biodegradable than mineral oils, worldwide attention on the biodegradability of lubricants has prompted
many lubricant manufacturers to reconsider vegetable oils as base
stocks. Many studies have explored the possibility of replacing
mineral oils with vegetable oils [3e5]. When vegetable oils are used
as base stocks for lubricants, they exhibit good lubricity and high
viscosity index. However, their oxidative stability and low
temperature properties are inferior to those of petroleum-based
lubricants. Vegetable oil-based lubricants are currently used in
many countries. For example, soybean oil and corn oil are used as

* Corresponding author. Department of Chemical Engineering, King Mongkuts

University of Technology North Bangkok, 1518 Piboolsongkram Rd., Bangsue,
Bangkok 10800, Thailand. Tel.: 66 2 913 2500; fax: 66 2 587 0024.
E-mail address: kpc@kmutnb.ac.th (K. Cheenkachorn).
0360-5442/$ e see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2010.03.002

base stocks for lubricants in the United States while rapeseed oils
are frequently used in North America and Europe [6,7]. However,
a study on vegetable oil-based lubricant for motorcycles has yet
been reported.
Motorcycles are widely used in many Asian countries including
Thailand, China, Taiwan, and Vietnam. In Thailand, with the total
number of registered motorcycles being more than 16 million in
2007 [8], these vehicles contribute a signicant portion of air
pollution due to their large population and high emission levels.
Since emission standards across the world are becoming more
stringent, the motorcycle original equipment manufacturers (OEM)
are shifting from two-stroke to four-stroke engine technology,
hence increasing the number of four-stroke motorcycles in the
market. Therefore, it is worthwhile formulating a biodegradable
lubricant for four-stroke motorcycle engines.
The objective of this study was to investigate the viability of
palm oil as a base stock in the formulation of an environmentally
friendly lubricant for four-stroke motorcycles. Specically, physical
and chemical properties of selected blends were obtained to
determine whether they meet the requirements of an SAE 40 grade
lubricant. A candidate blend was then selected for emission tests
using a four-stroke motorcycle running on a chassis dynamometer.
The analyzed emissions were total hydrocarbon (THC), nitrogen
oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and carbon dioxide (CO2). The
engine performance was then evaluated on the basis of maximum
power output and fuel consumption. The results were compared
with those of a mineral-based oil.

K. Cheenkachorn, B. Fungtammasan / Energy 35 (2010) 2552e2556

2. Experimental

2553

Table 2
The detailed specications of the tested vehicle.

The primary purpose of this experimental study was to determine an appropriate composition of a palm oilemineral oil mixture
that may be used as a biodegradable lubricant for four-stroke
motorcycle engines. The base stocks used were palm olein oil (Krabi
Oil Palm Farmers Co-Op., Krabi, Thailand) and mineral oil (PTT
Public Co. Ltd., Ayuthaya, Thailand), with palm oil fraction ranging
from 40 to 65%. A proprietary additive package, which is a liquid
mixture of high-molecular weight multifunctional components,
was used to improve the quality of lubricant. Its proportion ranged
from 0 to 9.09%. The lubricating properties of base oils and the
selected blend are presented in Table 1. To prepare the candidate
lubricant, various blends of palm oil and mineral oil were initially
tested until one that meets viscosity standard was found. The
lubricating properties were then determined using standard
methods published by the American Society for Testing Materials
(ASTM), as shown in Table 1. All measurements were repeated at
least three times and the presented results were the average of the
triplicate tests.
The vehicle used in this study was Honda Dream 125. The
detailed specications of this vehicle are shown in Table 2. Engine
performance and emission tests of the selected blend were performed at the Automotive Emission Laboratory, Pollution Control
Department, Pathumthani, Thailand. A chassis dynamometer
(Schenck Komeg Model 1060/GS60, Schenck Komeg GmbH,
Germany) was used to simulate the average driving pattern in
Bangkok Metropolis. In this study, the Bangkok Driving Cycle for
motorcycle, shown in Fig. 1 and Table 3, was used as a representative of driving conditions in Bangkok, details of which can be found
elsewhere [9]. To investigate the emissions, exhaust gas was
collected to a dilution tunnel. The diluted exhaust was analyzed
using non-dispersive infrared technique (Pierburg PIA-2000, Peirburg Instruments, Germany) for CO and CO2, ame ionization
detector (Pierburg PM-2000) for total hydrocarbon (THC), and
chemiluminescence detector (Pierburg CLD PM-2000) for NOx. Fuel
consumption characteristics were determined using a carbon
balance method from the exhaust emission data. All experiments in
the engine test were conducted by a single driver.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Physical property tests
The primary effort of this research is to formulate a biodegradable lubricant, SAE 40 grade, for a four-stroke motorcycle engine.
Based on an SAE specication, the viscosity of the formulated oil
must be initially achieved. The corresponding viscosity range at

Engine
Displacement
Bore and stoke
Compression ratio
Transmission
Weight
Fuel capacity

Four stroke e overhead cam shaft air e cooled

97 cc
50.0  49.5 mm.
9.0:1
Rotary 4 gear
92 kg
4.0 L, unleaded benzene octane >91

100  C for SAE 40 lubricant is 12.5e16.3 cSt. [10]. For this experiment, the desired viscosity was set at 15 cSt. All blends of palm oil,
mineral oil, and the additive showed homogenous phase, that is no
phase separation and sedimentation, after a three-month storage at
room temperature. Fig. 2 shows the results of viscosity of the
blends, the compositions of which are shown in Table 4. Blend No. 1
(45% palm oil and 55% mineral oil with no additive) was randomly
mixed to predict the viscosity of the mixture. The result shows that
the desired viscosity was not reached. Therefore, Blends No. 2 and 3
were performed by addition of the additive package. The viscosity
of both blends was satisfactory. However, the portion of palm oil is
still less than 50%.
Blends No. 4e6 were made by adjusting the compositions of
vegetable oil and mineral oil while the additive dosage was kept at
7.24 %wt. The results show that an increase in palm oil fraction
tended to reduce the viscosity of the blends. The same trend was
observed for Blends No. 7e10, with an additive dosage of 7.80 %wt.
This is due to the fact that the viscosity of vegetable oil is considerably lower than that of mineral oil, being typically 8.65 cSt and
32.51 cSt at 100  C, respectively.
The viscosity indices of palm oil and mineral oil were 187.00 and
96.15, respectively. Higher viscosity index of palm oil results in
higher viscosity index of the blend. This is attributed to the fact that
palm oil, which contains triglycerides, has a narrow molecular
weight distribution. On the contrary, mineral oil contains a mixture
of various molecular weight hydrocarbons. The molecular interaction of vegetable oil also results in higher viscosity index [3]. Oils
with high viscosity index can resist excessive thickening when the
engine is cold. This leads to better engine starting, promoting
prompt lubrication circulation [11]. It also prevents excessive
thinning when the engine is hot and thus provides full lubrication
to protect the rubbing surfaces. Therefore, vegetable oil can provide
this advantage when used as a base stock for lubricants.
After the blends of palm oil and mineral oil were made and the
desired viscosity was reached, additional property tests of the
selected blend, Blend No. 9, were conducted for its ash point,
volatility loss, sulfate ash, foaming, and wear scar. The results are
shown in Table 1. Although palm oil and mineral oil show nearly the

Table 1
Physical properties of base stocks, commercial oil, and Blend No. 9.
Properties

Palm oil

Mineral oil

Commercial oil

Blend No. 9

Method

Viscosity, cSt
At 40  C
At 100  C

42.66  0.05
8.65  0.02

503.40  0.05
32.51  0.02

151.60  0.06
15.00  0.02

111.60  0.07
15.04  0.01

ASTM D445

Viscosity index
Flash point,  C
Volatility loss, wt.%
Sulfate ash, wt.%

187.00
304.3  1.3
0.09  0.01
0.007  0.01

96.15
302.0  1.0
12.98  0.05
1.52  0.02

99.00
256.0  2.0
3.07  0.03
0.99  0.03

140.00
278.0  0.3
2.64  0.03
1.10  0.02

ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM

Foaming, ml/ml
Sequence I
Sequence II
Sequence III

210/0
/0
60/0

200/0
30/0
270/0

20/2
240/0
10/0

490/310
300/50
190/10

ASTM D892

Wear scar, mm

0.58  0.01

0.95  0.01

0.60  0.01

0.34  0.02

ASTM D4172

D2270
D92
D5800B
D874

2554

K. Cheenkachorn, B. Fungtammasan / Energy 35 (2010) 2552e2556

20.0

100

7.24 % additve

Blend No.2

90

7.80 % additve

Blend No.3

18.0

60
50
40
30

Blend No.9

14.0

9.09 % additve

Blend No.4

Blend No.10

16.0

70

Viscosity (cSt)

Velocity (km hr-1)

80

No additive

Blend No.5

Blend No.8
Blend No.6

Blend No.7

12.0
10.0

20

Blend No.1

8.0

10
0

6.0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

30

40

50

Time (s)

60

70

80

% Palm oil

Fig. 1. The Bangkok driving cycle for motorcycles.

Fig. 2. Viscosity of various blends at 100  C (ASTM D445).

same ash point temperature, blending the two oils (Blend No. 9)
results in unexpectedly lower ash point than the two oils. This is
possibly due to the presence of the additive package. Nevertheless,
the ash point of the blend is still higher than that of the
commercial oil, which is desirable.
Since the lubricant is exposed to severe conditions, it may result
in volatility loss, that is, loss of some light-weight hydrocarbon
fractions while leaving behind the heavy-weight molecules. This
leads to an increase in lubricant viscosity, which contributes to poor
circulation, increased oil consumption, wear and emissions [12].
The volatility loss data obtained by the NOACK test indicates that
Blend No. 9 has a lower loss than commercial oil. This could be due
to the fact that the molecular weight distribution of Blend No. 9 has
a narrower range than commercial oil.
Sulfate ash is a product of the combustion of sulfur present in
fuels and lubricants. Pure palm oil shows extremely low sulfate ash.
However, Blend No. 9 shows higher sulfate ash than commercial oil.
This is because of the presence of additive package which contains
sulfur. The result agrees with the previous study by Colclough [13],
which demonstrated that the main additives used in automotive
lubricants, i.e., zinc dithiophosphates (ZDDP), can lead to catalytic
converter poisoning. Higher sulfate ash oil contributes to an
increase in particulate matter in the exhaust gas emission. A
previous study demonstrated that sulfate may originate from both
fuel and oil [14]. In general, the contents of sulfur in fuel and oil are
500 and 5000 ppm, respectively. The consumption ratio of fuel to
oil is 1000:1. When a sulfur balance is applied to the engine fuel and
oil, it was found that 99% of sulfate ash originated from the fuel and
only 1% originated from the oil [15].
Foaming characteristics of selected blends were also shown in
Table 1. Foaming in the lubricant is caused by the presence of water
in the base oil or some chemicals such as air, grease, solid
contaminants, etc. The results show that Blend No. 9 shows relatively higher foaming characteristics than commercial oil for all
sequences. This may be resulted from the incompatibility between
the antifoam agent in the additive package and vegetable oil. A new
additive package should, therefore, be investigated. The use of this
formulated blend in applications that incur foaming such as gear oil

and compressor oil should be avoided since foaming increases

oxidation and reduces oil ow to the bearing [11].
The results from wear scar diameter, Table 1, show that palm oil
and the commercial oil are not signicantly different. Compared to
the commercial oil, an addition of additive package in Blend No. 9
signicantly improves wear scar. Vegetable oils are by their
chemical nature long chain fatty acid triester of glycerol. The polar
ester structure in vegetable oil is able to interact with the metal
surfaces, leading to better wear property. The antiwear additive
also forms a protective layer on the metal parts. Therefore, a good
lubricity and wear property is obtained.

Table 3
The Bangkok driving cycle for motorcycles.
Details

Phase I

Phase II

Phase III

Total

Distance (km)
Time (s)
Average velocity (km/h)

3.260
520
23.4

3.298
368
33.2

6.594
568
42.9

12.852
1456
33.5

3.2. Emission tests

The results of emission measurements from the test vehicle
based on the Bangkok Driving Cycle for motorcycle are summarized
in Table 5. The data shows that, for all phases, the biodegradable
lubricant (Blend No. 9) showed no signicant difference in all
emissions compared to those of commercial oil. For the biodegradable lubricant, the THC emission levels appear in the ascending
order as follows: Phase III, Phase I, and Phase II. In Phases II and III,
the biodegradable lubricant show slightly less THC emission than
commercial oil. This is possibly due to the less volatility loss of palm
oil-based lubricant during hot warming periods.
One of the main sources of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions from
the combustion engine is the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen
within the cylinder, which is directly proportional to the ame
temperature. As shown in Table 5, for biodegradable lubricant, the
NOx emission levels for the driving pattern are in the descending
order as follows: Phase I, Phase III, and Phase II. The thickness of
lubricant lm in a combustion chamber varies from one phase to
Table 4
Composition of various blends.
Blends No.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Compositions (wt.%)
Percent palm oil

Percent mineral oil

Percent additive

45.00
41.74
40.91
55.66
60.30
64.94
57.90
52.90
50.60
41.20

55.00
51.02
50.00
37.11
32.47
27.40
34.30
39.30
41.60
51.00

0
7.24
9.09
7.24
7.24
7.24
7.80
7.80
7.80
7.80

K. Cheenkachorn, B. Fungtammasan / Energy 35 (2010) 2552e2556

Table 5
The exhaust emissions from the tested vehicle on a chassis dynamometer.
Fuel

Phase I
(g/km)

Phase II
(g/km)

Phase III
(g/km)

Average
(g/km)

THC

Blend No. 9
Commercial lubricant

0.277
0.270

0.261
0.283

0.288
0.291

0.279
0.284

NOx

Blend No. 9
Commercial lubricant

0.202
0.189

0.179
0.180

0.198
0.195

0.194
0.190

CO

Blend No. 9
Commercial lubricant

7.006
7.081

6.793
6.975

7.773
7.769

7.336
7.398

CO2

Blend No. 9
Commercial lubricant

34.332
33.983

29.061
28.958

30.054
29.790

30.874
30.630

7
6
5

Power output (kW)

Emission

2555

4
3
2

Blend No.9
Commercial lubricant

1
0
0

another depending on the engine temperature. The fact that Phase I

shows highest NOx emission may result from the presence of thin
lm of lubricant in the cylinder during a warm-up period. The
oxygen in lubricant may shift air/fuel ratio in favor of more NOx
emission [16]. In Phases II and III, where engine temperature is
higher compared to that of Phase I, a thinner lm of lubricant is
formed at the cylinder wall. Therefore, the effect of the oxygen
presence in the lubricant is less pronounced. Compared to Phase II,
NOx emission in Phase III is higher. This is because, in Phase III, the
engine is operating at higher shift and vehicle speed leading to
more throttle-valve opening. This results in intense combustion
and hence higher combustion temperature, which lead to higher
NOx emission [17]. Compared to biodegradable oil, commercial oil
shows slightly lower NOx emission in Phase I which may be
explained by the same reason. However, such difference was not
observed in Phases II and III.
The amount of CO emissions for both lubricants decreases in the
descending order as follows: Phase III, Phase I, and Phase II. The
biodegradable lubricant shows slightly lower CO emissions in
Phases I and II than commercial oil. The oxygen in vegetable oil may
lead to more complete combustion, and hence lower CO emissions.
The results agree with a previous study [18] that lower aromatic
content in both fuel and oil results in lower CO and THC. This
benecial effect of biodegradable lubricant agrees with the study of
Weller et al. [16].
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from both lubricants show
a decreasing tendency from Phases I, II, to III. The higher speed
drive leads to higher combustion efciency resulting in higher CO2
emission. However, no substantial difference in CO2 emission was
observed between the two lubricants.

10

20

30

40

50

60

Vechicle speed (km hr-1)

Fig. 3. The power output at different speed.

groups on metal surfaces. However, the results on the fuel

consumption in this study show no signicant difference between
biodegradable and commercial lubricants. One plausible explanation for this result could be the fact that the percentage of vegetable
oil present in this biodegradable lubricant was limited to 50.60%.
Hence, the improved lubricity that would have led to less fuel
consumption was not clearly observed.

3.4. Engine performance

Fig. 3 shows the power output at different engine speeds, which
were converted from the vehicle speed. For chassis dynamometer,
the maximum power is referred to as the maximum rotational
power that the chassis dynamometer can be subjected to and still
operate within specications. To obtain the maximum power
output from the engine of the tested vehicle at each speed, the
chassis dynamometer is used to maintain a specied vehicle speed
while the maximum load is performed and measured. This power
output is different from an engine dynamometer since it includes
frictional and mechanical losses in a driveetrain system. No
signicant difference was observed from the use of different
lubricants. The results agree with those from the fuel consumption
results. Since the amount of vegetable oil in the blend is 50.60%, the
benecial effect of vegetable oil was not obviously seen.

4. Conclusion
3.3. Fuel consumption
The effect of lubricants on fuel consumption of the four-stroke
motorcycle from the Bangkok driving cycle is shown in Table 6. The
fuel consumption increases with the vehicle speed due to an
increase in the frictional loss. The experimental results on friction
and wear tests in the previous study [19] showed that the use of
vegetable oil as a base stock for biodegradable lubricant results in
lower friction and wear scar diameter due to the afnity of polar

Table 6
The fuel consumption in each phase.
Phase

Phase I
Phase II
Phase III
Average

Fuel consumption (km/L)

Blend No. 9

Commercial lubricant

50.48
57.51
54.03
53.90

50.75
57.16
54.36
54.09

The blends of palm oil, mineral oil, and an additive package were
conducted to formulate biodegradable lubricant for four-stroke
motorcycle engines. The selected blend consists of 50.6%(wt.) palm
oil, 41.6% mineral oil, and 7.8% additive package. The formulated
blend shows better properties than commercial oil in terms of
viscosity index, ash point, evaporative loss, and wear scar.
However, foaming characteristics and sulfate ash are poorer
because of the presence of improper additive. From the emission
and engine performance tests using the Bangkok driving cycle for
a motorcycle, it was found that there is no signicant difference in
the emissions, including THC, NOx, CO, and CO2, between the
biodegradable and commercial lubricants. The engine performance
and fuel consumption for both lubricants showed no signicant
difference either. However, the fact that palm oil-based lubricant is
derived from a renewable, lower carbon source and that it offers
superior tribological properties (wear scar, viscosity index, etc.),
this new formulation could potentially be considered an attractive
alternative to mineral oil-based lubricants.

2556

K. Cheenkachorn, B. Fungtammasan / Energy 35 (2010) 2552e2556

Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of the
Department of Chemical Engineering, King Mongkuts University of
Technology North Bangkok. The contributions of palm oil from
Krabi Oil Palm Farmers Co-Op. Ltd., mineral-based oil and the
additive package from PTT Public Co. Ltd., and the provision of
engine test facilities from the Pollution Control Department are
greatly appreciated.
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