PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING NOTES

Water Supply System

The components of a water supply system may include:
collection works
transmission works
treatment works
distribution works
.................................................................................
The design capacities are governed by:
design period
design population
design flows
Design Period:
The choice design periods is governed by:
useful life based on wear and tear
expected developments and obsolescence
feasibility for addition or expansion
expected demographic, industrial, and social changes
Financial constraints and interest rates
functional ability of works at initial periods
The design periods usually adopted are as follows:
dams: 25 - 100 years
wells: 5 years
transmission pipes: 25 years
treatment plants: 10-15 years
pumps: 10 years
distribution system: 35-45 years
Design Population:
The population expected at the end of the chosen design period is influenced by:
births
deaths
migration
Methods of Estimating Future Population:
Arithmetic Progression Method
Geometric Progression method
Decreasing Rate of Increase Method
Graphical Comparison Method
Logistic Method
Ratio Method

Arithmetic method:
This method assumes that the rate of growth will be constant
P=Population
t = time
dp /dt = K
K = arithmetic growth constant
K = {P2 - P1} / {t2 - t1}
Or
Pn = P + nIa
N=Design Period
P= current Population
Ia= Average increment in population per decade
Pn = Estimated population at the end of design period
Geometric method:
This method assumes that the rate of growth will be proportional to the population
P=Population
t = time
dP/dt = K*P
K = geometric growth constant
K = {Ln P2 - Ln P1} / {t2 - t1}
OR
Pn = P [1 + Io/100]n
Io= average of %age increment

Incremental Increase Method:

Pn= P + [Ia + Ii] x n
Ia= average %age increment
Ii = average of incremental rate increment

Graphical Comparison Method:

This method involves extension of the population-time curve of the city C (under
consideration) based on comparison with population-time curves of similar but larger cities A
and B. These larger cities A and B must have reached the present population of the city C one
or more decades ago.
Starting from the point on curve C representing the present population, the curves
corresponding to the growths of A and B after their reaching that population are plotted. The
extension of the curve C is modified keeping in view the projections offered by A and B as
well as other related conditions.
NOTE:
Accuracy of population projection decreases as time period of forecast increases.
Accuracy is less in cases of smaller cities than with larger cities.
In choosing methods, give full consideration to local conditions, and ignore methods which
are unacceptable for use.
Exercise care in using geometric method.
Decreasing rate of increase is a reliable method, especially in cases of limited land area.
Graphical comparison method is a very favourable method, especially for checking results
obtained through other methods.
Design Flows:
The computation of flows for the design of various components of a water supply system
requires assessment of:
water uses by different consumer groups
predictions of future trends in water use
variations in water demand
Consumer Groups:

Domestic and public use

Industrial and commercial use
Livestock use
Waterworks use
Losses and wastes ('unaccounted for' water)
Fire demand
Factors influencing water use:
Size of city
Climate and location
Industrial development
Habits and living standards
Parks and gardens
Water quality
Water pressure
Cost of water
Administration of water supply system
Variations in water demand:
Average day demand
Maximum day demand
Maximum hour demand
Local practices (?):
Source: to meet average day demand or maximum day demand
Transmission from source to treatment plant: to meet average day demand or maximum day
demand
Water treatment plant: to meet maximum day demand

Pumping plant: to meet maximum day demand (if feeding into reservoirs) Distribution
system: to meet maximum hour demand or (maximum fire demand + fire demand) whichever
is greater.
Need for testing water quality:
For drinking water:
To assess safety and palatability of water for consumption
For raw water sources:
To select treatment systems; to establish pollution control monitoring systems
For wastewaters:
To select type and degree of treatment; to control treatment plant operation
For receiving waters:
To evaluate their ability to accept pollution loads; to monitor self-purification
Types of Examination:
Physical examination:
to determine aesthetic quality
Chemical examination:
To test for chemicals which affect the water quality and/or which are indicative of
pollution
Bacteriological examination:
To test for the presence of bacterial indicators of pollution and hence safety for
consumption
Biological examination:
To determine the causes of objectionable odours, clogging of filters, etc.
Some salient water quality parameters:
Temperature
Turbidity
Odours and Tastes
Colour
pH
Alkalinity and Acidity
Chlorides
Nitrogen compounds (organic N, ammonia N, nitrite N, nitrate N)
Hardness
Fluorides

Iron and Manganese

Sulphates
Residual Chlorine
Total Dissolved Solids
Dissolved Oxygen
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Coliforms
Temperature:
Surface waters fluctuate in temperature with season; in ground waters there is only a small
variation.
Significance:
warm waters taste flat
Influences rates of chemical and biological activities
Influences the saturation values of dissolved gases
Heat pollution
Fish kill when more than 30 - 35oC.
Turbidity:
Turbidity represents lack of clearness in water (measure of interference presented by
suspended matter to passage of light).
Turbidity is due to:
clay, silt, finely divided organic matter, microorganisms
Water in:
lakes and ponds: less turbid
rivers: more turbid
wells: low turbidity
Turbidity is not to be confused with true colour!
Significance:
Aesthetic consideration
Influences disinfection
affects filtrability
Odours and tastes:
Odours are caused by volatile substances associated with:

organic matter (decaying)

living organisms (algae)
gases (hydrogen sulphide, chlorine)
Measurement of odour intensity: Threshold Odour Number
Tastes are caused by:
chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium and sodium
organisms (algae)
industrial wastes
Measurement of taste: Threshold taste Number
pH:
pH: Common logarithm of the reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration
pH is an intensity factor.
pH = 7: Neutral
pH < 7: Acidic
pH > 7: Alkaline
pH of most raw water sources: 6.5 - 8.5
Significance:
Influences chemical reactions (in coagulation, softening, disinfection, etc.)
Corrosion problems (low pH)
Many industrial waters require rigid pH control
Optimum pH required for fish and other aquatic life
Sudden pH changes affect aquatic life
Alkalinity & Acidity
Alkalinity:
Capability to neutralize acids; Expressed in mg/L as CaCO3.
Most waters are alkaline because alkaline salts are common in ground
Alkalinity in water is due to:
carbonates
Bicarbonates
Hydroxides
Hydroxides are generally never present in natural waters. Alkalinity is mostly due to
bicarbonates of Ca, Mg and Na.
Significance:
Important in water treatment (especially coagulation)
In industrial waters: deposits, corrosion of steam lines, cloudiness in ice, off flavors in
beverages and food products
Many industrial waters require rigid pH control

Acidity:
Less significant when compared to alkalinity
Acid rain, water becoming acidic in some treatment processes, etc.
Chlorides
Chlorides are present in all water sources.
Chlorides get into water from:
mineral deposits
domestic wastewater discharges
industrial wastewaters
Irrigation drainage
Human excreta (urine) contains chloride, about 6g/capita. d
Significance:
Undesirable taste
Contributes to non-carbonate hardness
In industrial waters: deposits, corrosion under boiler conditions, affects ice,
undesirable for beverages and food products
Natural waters have a uniform chloride content. An increase above the normal
chloride level is an index of pollution by domestic wastewaters.
Nitrogen Compounds
Refer to Nitrogen Cycle.
Forms of nitrogen:
Organic nitrogen
Ammonia nitrogen
Nitrite nitrogen
Nitrate nitrogen
The presence of various nitrogen forms throw light on the pollution history of the carrying
water.
Organic nitrogen:
Animal tissue is richer in nitrogen than plant tissues. So, higher concentration
indicates pollution by wastes of animal origin.
Characteristic of recent pollution
Ammonia nitrogen:
Initial product of decomposition, and hence indication of recent pollution
Always found in sewage polluted waters
Toxic to fish

Nitrite nitrogen:
Oxidation product of ammonia nitrogen (Intermediate product)
Nitrites are easily and rapidly converted to nitrates, hence indication of active
biological processes
Nitrate nitrogen:
End product of decomposition of organic matter
Nitrates
Occurs in water from:
fertilizer use
decayed vegetable and organic matter
domestic effluents
sewage sludge disposal to land
industrial discharges
leachate from solid waste landfills
atmospheric washouts
Significance:
infantile Methaemoglobinaemia
carcinogenicity of nitrosamines
Eutrophication of lakes
Hardness
Common in groundwater.
Water is hard when it does not readily form lather with soap.
Hardness in water is due to:
calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg)
Carbonate hardness: due to carbonates and bicarbonates of Ca and Mg
Non-carbonate hardness: due to chlorides and sulphates of Ca and Mg
Significance:
scale build-up in boilers and hot water systems
excessive soap usage
fuel wastage
poor cleaning of clothes and reduced fabric life
health effects: minor: dishpan hands, laxative effects. Soft water: cardiovascular
diseases?
Iron and Manganese
Common in groundwater
Iron

from soil, rock and plant matter

from pipes; from coagulants
Significance:
stains plumbing fixtures and clothes
growth of filamentous iron bacteria (crenothrix) in pipe lines (red water complaints)
corrosion of pipe lines
taste and odour problems
Manganese:
though often associated with iron, less common
troublesome even in small quantities
problems similar to iron - black water complaints
Sulphates
Occurs in water from:
solvent action of water on gypsum and others like epsom salt
decomposition of organic matter
industrial wastewaters
atmospheric SO2 (acid rain)
Significance:
laxative effects
tastes
affects ice
scales in boilers
hardness
Fluorides
Occurs in water from:
fluoride-containing minerals in the ground
industries (fertilizers, bricks, ceramics, pharmaceutical products)
Significance:
less than 1 mg/L: dental caries
more than 1.5 mg/L: mottling of enamel of teeth
3 to 6 mg/L: skeletal fluorosis
more than 10 mg/L: crippling skeletal fluorosis
(Influence of temperature?)
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Oxygen-content
of
water
Biological decomposition of organic matter uses up the dissolved oxygen. Hence DO

is the most important single criterion indicating the sanitary condition of water.
Water deficient in DO is likely to be polluted with organic matter (Groundwater ?)
Significance:
Measure
of
the
impact
of
oxidizable
wastes
in
water
Lack
of
DO
affects
fish
and
aquatic
life
Measure
of
progress
of
self-purification
in
rivers
Influences solution and precipitation of metals like Al and Fe
For determining biochemical oxygen demand of wastewaters
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
BOD is a measure of the DO required for the utilization of organic matter as food by
the
aerobic
microorganisms.
BOD test evaluates the loss of oxygen that accompanies the decomposition induced
and
maintained
by
the
aerobic
organisms.
BOD is measured by DO determination before and after an incubation period of 5
days
at
20oC
BOD is an indirect measure of the amount of readily biodegradable organic matter.
It
is
a
measure
of
the
strength
of
wastewater.
Carbonaceous and nitrogenous BOD ?
Significance:
Pollutional
strength
of
domestic
and
industrial
wastewaters
In
stream
pollution
control
activities
Evaluation
of
self-purification
capacity
of
receiving
waters
Assessing efficiency of wastewater treatment processes

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

COD is obtained by oxidizing the waste with boiling acid dichromate solution.
In a COD test, 95% of organic matter is oxidized, and results are available within 3
hours.
Significance:
COD test provides no information on the proportion of waste that can be oxidized by
microorganism.
It does not distinguish between stable and unstable organic matter.
It is very useful for wastewaters containing toxic substances.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
TDS
represents
mainly
inorganic
substances
Principal constituents are: bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of Ca, Mg, and Na.
There is generally an increase of hardness with TDS.
Significance:

Taste
Laxative
Indication
of
Waters with high TDS not desirable for industries

effects
hardness

Conductivity test for rapid and rough determination of TDS

Testing for pathogens is very difficult, and it is impossible to monitor water for every
single pathogen:
A
wide
variety
of
pathogens.
Tests
for
pathogens
difficult
and
time
consuming
The number of pathogens present is small
Indicator organisms:
Organisms normally present in the faeces of human are used as indicator organisms. If
present in water, they indicate the presence of faecal material and hence the presence of
intestinal pathogens.
Coliforms as indicator organisms:
The number of coliforms in faeces is very great; 125 - 400 billion per capita daily
discharge
Rates of removal/decay/death of coliforms are parallel to that of pathogens
Tests
are
simple
Easy numerical evaluation
Other Indicator organisms
Purpose of Water Treatment:
To make it safe and to protect public health
To make it aesthetically acceptable
To make it suitable for use by industries
To minimize economic losses
To make it suitable for recreational uses
Unit Processes:
Gas transfer
Ion transfer
Solute stabilization
Solids transfer
Disinfection, etc.
A conventional plant treating water from surface sources like river or lake or impounded
reservoir may consist of coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, rapid sand filtration and
disinfection.
Colloids & Stability of Colloidal Systems:
The suspended impurities in water include colloids which are less than 0.001 mm in
size. These colloids have a large surface area to volume ratio, remain in dispersed
state without the tendency to coalesce, and hence do not settle down quickly.

Colloids are of 2 types: hydrophilic colloids and hydrophobic colloids

Hydrophilic colloids do not coalesce with each other due to their affinity to water
molecules which form a sheath around them. Hydrophobic colloids repel each other
due to the electric charges they possess. These colloidal systems maintain their
stability in spite of the instability forces like Van Deer Wall's forces (atomic cohesive
force) and Brownian Movement (constant motion of particles).
Coagulation & Flocculation:
Coagulation aims at destabilizing the colloidal system and inducing the tendency for
inter-particle contact. Coagulation is achieved through addition of chemicals called
coagulants. The hydrolysis products of the coagulants (aluminium and iron salts) play
a crucial role in creating destabilization through compression of electrical double
layer, adsorption & charge neutralization, physical enmeshment in the precipitate and
inter-particle bridging.
In a treatment plant, coagulation is achieved through rapid and intensive mixing of
coagulants with water in a tank (like flash mixer).
Flocculation aims at converting the destabilized colloids into readily settleable flocs.
Flocculation is achieved through slow and gentle mixing of the coagulated water in a
tank (like paddle flocculator).

Commonly used coagulants:

Alum (aluminium sulphate) - Al2 (SO4)3*14 H2O
Alum reacts with alkalinity (natural or added) to form aluminium hydroxide floc:
Al2 ( SO4 )3 . 14H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2
Al2 ( SO4 )3 . 14H2O + 3Ca(OH)2

2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2 + 14H2O

2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 14H2O

Desirable pH range: 5.5 - 8.0

Alum gives good floc; it is readily available and may be less expensive than other coagulants.
Ferrous sulphate
Ferrous sulphate reacts with alkalinity forming Fe(OH)2 which is oxidized to Fe(OH)3
utilizing the dissolved oxygen. This requires addition of lime to raise the pH above 9.5.
2FeSO4. 7H2O + 2Ca(OH)2 + (1/2)O2

2Fe(OH)3 + 2CaSO4 + 13H2O

Ferrous sulphate leads to formation of heavy, easily settling floc. Its application may be
preferred in lime-soda softening or iron/manganese removal.
Chlorinated copperas
When chlorine is used to oxidize the Fe(OH) 2 to Fe(OH)3, its called treatment with
chlorinated copperas.
First, the FeSO4 reacts with Cl2 to yield Ferric sulphate - Fe2(SO4)3 and ferric chloride - FeCl3.
3FeSo4 + 1.5Cl2

Fe2(SO4)3 + FeCl3

Ferric sulphate reacts with alkalinity giving ferric hydroxide:

Fe2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(OH)2

2Fe(OH)3 + 3CaSO4

Ferric chloride also reacts with alkalinity giving ferric hydroxide:

2FeCl3 + 3Ca(OH)2

2Fe(OH)3 + 3CaCl2

Coagulation with chlorinated copperas is effective over a wide pH range of 4.0 to 11.0. It is
used to advantage in plants practising pre-chlorination.
Ferric sulphate - Fe2 (SO4)3:
Ferric sulphate can be used as a coagulant, and it reacts with alkalinity (as shown above)
giving ferric hydroxide.

Ferric chloride (FeCl3):

Ferric chloride can be used as a coagulant, and it reacts with alkalinity (as shown above)
giving ferric hydroxide.
Sodium aluminate - NaAlO2
Sodium aluminate is alkaline in reaction. It is rarely used, and, when used, it is added along
with alum.
Polyelectrolytes
Optimum coagulant dosage:
The jar test employs a multiple stirring unit consisting of 6 agitator padels. A variable speed
drive facilitates operation of these paddles at the same speed which may vary from 10 to 100
rpm. Six jars (one-litre beakers), filled with measured amounts of water, are placed under the
paddles.
Each jar is dosed with a different amount of coagulant (for example: 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35
mg/L). The contents of the beakers are first mixed at 100 rpm for one minute (simulating
coagulation) and then they are stirred at 30 rpm for 15 minutes (simulating flocculation).
After stopping stirring, the nature and settling characteristics of the floc and the clarity of the
supernatent are observed. The lowest dosage that exhibits good turbidity removal is taken as
the first trial dosage which can be narrowed down by subsequent tests.
In addition to determining the optimum dosage, the jar test can be used to evaluate various
coagulants (or combinations of coagulants), optimum pH conditions, dosage of coagulant
aids, etc.
Coagulant aids (or better 'Flocculation Aids'):
If the flocs resulting from coagulation and flocculation are slow-settling or fragile, coagulant
aids can be used to improve the flocs. These find application especially in waters of low
turbidity.
The following are used as coagulant aids:
Oxidants to oxidize interfering organic matter (chlorine, ozone, potassium
permanganate)
Adsorbents to adsorb interfering organic matter and to increase floc weight (activated
carbon, powdered silica, activated silica, bentonite clay)
Polyelectrolytes to provide bridging between colloids and to produce tough quicksettling flocs. The cationic polyelectrolytes also act as primary coagulants.
Rapid mixing is done to disperse the coagulant quickly and uniformly throughout the mass of
water and to effect destabilization of the colloids. This involves creation of turbulence and
feeding the coagulant at some point of high turbulence.

In very small plants (in rural areas), the turbulence created through the following simple
devices could be used to achieve rapid mixing:
Flow
over
Hydraulic
Venturimeter
in
Suction and delivery ends of pumps

a
jump
pressure

weir
pipes

Rapid Mixers (Flash Mixers):

These are tanks in which rotating impellors create the turbulence. Propeller or turbine
impellors are commonly used.
DESIGN PARAMETERS:
Detention
time:
The rapid mixers are small tanks with a detention time of 10 - 40 seconds. (NOTE:
detention time t = Volume of tank/Flow rate)
Velocity
Gradient:
The stirring action generates velocity gradients. Velocity gradient is the rate of change
of velocity per unit distance normal to the section. The velocity gradient G is related
to power input as follows:
G = { P/( V)}1/2
where:
P=
power

=
dynamic
V=volume
of
G= velocity gradient (s-1 )

input
viscosity
tank
(m

(W)
(N.s/m2)
)

A good dispersal of coagulant is achieved for values of G between 700 s -1 and 1000 s1
.
Power
Input:
The power input creates the turbulence, and the degree of turbulence is proportional to
the power input. The power input (or requirement) under turbulent conditions is
computed by Rushton's formula:
P = k . . n3 . D 5
where
P
=
power
k
=
a
constant
(based
on

=
mass
density
n
=
revolutions
D = diameter of the impeller (m)

input
the
type
of
of
fluid
per

(W)
the
impellor)
(kg/m 3)
second

This formula is applicable for values of Reynold's Number greater than 10000.

R = (D2 . . n)/
Values of k in Rushton Formula:
Type of Impeller

Propeller, pitch of 1, 3 blades

0.32

Propeller, pitch of 2, 3 blades

1.00

Turbine, 6 flat blades, vaned disc

6.30

Turbine, 6 curved blades

4.80

Fan turbine, 6 blades at 45o

1.65

Shrouded turbine, 6 curved blades

1.08

Turbine, with stator, no blades

1.12

Flocculation accomplishes the formation of readily settleable flocs from the destabilized
colloids. In a treatment plant, flocculation is achieved through a slow and gentle mixing of
the coagulated water, generally in paddle flocculators.
Paddle Flocculators:
These are tanks in which paddles mounted on horizontal or vertical shafts provide the
required agitation.
DESIGN PARAMETERS:
Detention
time:
The flocculators are sized to provide a detention time of 10 - 40 minutes. (NOTE:
detention time t = V/Q)
Velocity
Gradient:
The stirring action generates velocity gradients. Velocity gradient is the rate of change
of velocity per unit distance normal to the section. The velocity gradient G is related
to power input as follows:
G = { P/( V)}1/2
where:
P=
power

=
dynamic
V=volume
of
G= velocity gradient (s-1 )

input
viscosity
tank
(m

(W)
(N.s/m2)
)

A flocculator is designed for values of G between 20 s-1 and 75 s-1.

Power
Dissipated:
The power dissipated is calculated using the formula:

P = (1/2)CD. A. . v3
where
P
=
power
CD
=
(1.20
for
paddle
length
1.50
for
paddle
length
1.90
for
paddle
length
to

=
mass
density
v
=
relative
velocity
of
A = area of paddles (m)

input
(W)
Drag
coefficient
to
width
of
5:1
to
width
of
20:1
width
more
tha
20:1
of
fluid
(kg/m 3)
paddle
in
fluid
(m/s)

v =
70 - 80% of paddle
tip speed
v f (without
vf
=
2

r
n
where r = radius of the paddle wheel, and n = revolutions per second.

stators)

In flocculators without stator blades, paddle area at any corss-section should not
exceed
20%
of
the
cross-sectional
area
of
the
tank.
Flow-through velocity in flocculators range from 15 cm/min to 45 cm/min.
Tapered flocculation (from G = 75 s-1 to 20 s-1) is recommended.
Baffled
Basins
as
Types: 'Around-the-end' type and 'over-and-under' type.

Flocculators:

The changes imposed by the channels on the direction and velocity of flow of water
generate the velocity gradients required for turbulence.

Sedimentation is the process in which the velocity of the flowing water is reduced so as to
permit the suspended matter to settle out under the influence of gravity.
In water treatment, sedimentation may be applied as plain sedimentation, sedimentation
following coagulation and flocculation, or for chemical precipitation.
Sedimentation reduces the load on filters, increases the filtter runs, and improves filtration
efficiency.
Factors affecting settling velocity of particles:
Specific
gravity
Flow
velocity
Temperature
of
Shape, agglomeration and concentration of particles

of
of

particles
water
water

Settling velocity of discrete particles:

A discrete particle maintains its individuality and characteristic settling velocity throughout
the period of settling and hence settles at a constant rate with respect to the fluid.

Newton's Law:
vt = [ (4/3) g {p - f } d/ {CD f } ]1/2
where
vt
=
Terminal
settling
velocity
(m/s)
2
g
=
gravitational
constant
(m/s
)
p and f = density of particle and fluid respectively (kg/m3
d=
diameter
of
particle
(m)
CD = Drag coefficient

where
CD = 24/Re (Laminar; Re is less than or equal to 1.0)
CD = {24/Re } + {3/(Re )1/2 } + 0.34 (Transitional)
CD = 0.4 (Turbulent; Re is equal to or more than 104 )
Re = Reynolds Number = vt f d/
= dynamic viscosity (N.s/m2 )
Stoke's Law:
vt = g {p - f } d2 /18
Ideal Sedimentation Basin:
Concept
of
surface
loading
(surface
overflow
rate)
Efficiency of settling basin as a sole function of settling velocity of particles and
surface
loading
(or
surface
area
of
basin)
Limitations in real practical basins
Measurement of Settling Characteristics:
Discrete
particle
settling
Flocculent particle settling
Types of settling basins:
Rectangular horizontal-flow, circular radial-flow/spiral-flow, upflow, etc.; Tube settlers;
Sludge blanket type basins; Solids contact clarifiers
Design parameters (for conventional basins):
Detention time: 2 - 8 h
Surface loading: 20 - 50 m3/m2.d
Number of basins: minimum 2

Depth = 2.5 - 4.0 m

Length = 3 to 4 times the width (for rectangular basins) ; width defined by scraper
mechanism
Flow-through velocity: not greater than 0.5 cm/s (for rectangular basins)
Weir loading = 150 - 400 m3/m.d
Inlet and outlet design; Outlet launders
Filtration is a process whereby water is passed through a porous medium for removal of
suspended impurities and flocs remaining after sedimentation.
The processes involved in filtration are:
Straining
Sedimentation
Adsorption
Electrostatic
Biochemical and microbial reactions

attraction

Rapid Sand Filter:

The rapid sand filter receives water subjected to preparatory treatment throgh coagulation,
flocculation and sedimentation.
Water flows to top of a filter bed with sand as medium, filtration proceeds, and the filtered
water is lead to clear water tanks through an under drainage system. As filtration proceeds,
impurities accumulating throughout the depth of the sand bed increase the resistance to flow,
and the loss of head increases. The filter bed is cleaned by a process of backwashing.
Backwashing is effected by sending filtered water into the under drainage system and
distributing it upward through the sand bed. The washwater expands and fluidizes the sand
bed, and carries the dirty matter over into washwater troughs which discharges into the drain
and then out of the filter. Backwashing is stopped after the bed has been washed clean, the
sand bed settles down and filtration is resumed.
Design Features and Parameters:
Rate of filtration: 120 -360 m<sup3< sup="">/m2.d </sup3<>
Filter medium:
Sand: Effective size (D10) = Sieve size passing 10% of sand = 0.4 - 0.6 mm;
Uniformity Coefficient (D60/D10) = 1.2 - 1.7
Depth of sand bed = 60 - 75 cm
Number and size of filter units:

Filter units are usually small in size, about 20 - 40 m2

At least 2 beds. The beds (usually even numbered) are arranged in 2 rows
accommodating a pipe gallery in between.
Length is 1.25 to 1.35 times the breadth
Depth of filter box:
The filter box provides for a depth of about 3.0 m to accommodate the sand bed (0.60
- 0.75 m), supporting gravel bed (0.45 - 0.60 m) and under drainage system (0.20 m)
(or other types filter bottoms), water depth over the sand bed (1.0 - 1.6 m), and a
freeboard (0.3 - 0.5 m).
Under drainage System:
Function: To collect filtered water and to distribute washwater
The design of under drainage system is based on the rate of backwash which is many
time the rate of filtration.
Conventional and modern types of under drainage systems and filter bottoms
Washwater Troughs:
Function: Serves as inlet to filter at time of filtration, and to collect washwater and
lead it to the drains at time of backwash.
Arrangement of washwater troughs
Design of washwater troughs:
Washwater not to travel more than 1 m laterally, and therefore, distance
between troughs not more than 2.0 m
The lips of troughs to be placed at a distance equal to rate of washwater rise
per minute above the sand bed
The bottom of trough to be kept just above the the expanded sand bed
Backwashing:
Function: To expand and fluidize the sand bed and to enable the washwater to carry
with it the flocs entrapped in the bed
Backwashing when the head loss reaches ~ 2.5 m or when flocs are found in filtered
water
Rate of backwash = 600 Lpm/m2

Note: 600 Lpm/m2 = 0.6 m3/m2.min = 864 m3/m2.d

Period of backwash ~ 5 min; but filter will be out of operation for ~ 15 min.
Interval betwenn backwashings = filter run = 12 - 72 h
Washwater tank capacity: to hold water to wash 2 filters for 5 min each.
Scour intensification usually by air scour
Operational Problems:
Mudball formation
Cracking and shrinking of sand bed
Airbinding
Growth of sand particle
Loss of sand
Bed disturbance
Other Types of Filters:
Slow sand filters
Pressure filters
Upflow filters
Dual media filters
Multimedia filters
Disinfection
Function: To kill pathogens and to make water safe.
Disinfectants:
Heat
Light (ultraviolet, sunlight)
Chemicals (Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Ozone, Potassium Permanganate, Hydrogen
Peroxide, metal ions, etc.)
Criteria for a good disinfectant

Chlorination:
Chlorine reacts with water as follows:
Cl2 + H2O
HOCl

HOCl + H+ + Cl-

H+ + OCl-

HOCl and OCl- are referred to as 'Free Available Chlorine'.

With ammonia present or added:
NH3 + HOCl

NH2Cl + H2O

NH2Cl + HOCl

NHCl2 + H2O

NHCl2 + HOCl

NCl3 + H2O

The choloramines - NH2Cl (monocholoramine) and NHCl2 (dicholoramine) - possess

disinfecting properties and are referred to as 'Combined Available Chlorine'.
Combined available chlorine is weaker than free available chlorine but persists for a longer
time.
Breakpoint chlorination refers to application of chlorine to produce either directly or through
destruction of ammonia a residual of free available chlorine.
The contact time required for chlorine to effect pathogen kill varies with chlorine
concentration, the type of pathogens present, pH, and temperature of water.
A chlorine residual of 0.3 - 0.5 mg/L after an adequate contact period should be maintained.
Chlorination Practices:
Plain
chlorination
Superchlorination followed by dechlorination
Based
on
Prechlorination
Post-chlorination
Rechlorination

points

of

application:

Chlorination By-products - Trihalomethanes (THMs)

OZONATION:
Ozone is a more powerful oxidizing and disinfecting agent than chlorine.
It must be generated on-site.

It does not maintain an adequate residual in water, and chlorine is, therefore, added as a
secondary disinfectant to ozonated water.
Softening:
Lime-Soda Process:
The lime-soda softening process converts the soluble compounds responsible for hardness
into insoluble compounds which can be precipitated out in settling basins.
Reactions:
CO2 + H2

CaCO3 + H2O

Ca(HCO3 )2 + Ca(OH)2
Mg(HCO3
)2
MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2
MgSO4
+
CaSO4 + Na2CO3
MgCl2
+
CaCl2 + Na2CO3

CaCO3 + 2H2O
Ca(OH)2
CaCO3 + Mg(OH)2

Ca(OH)2
CaCO3 + Na2SO4
Ca(OH)2
CaCO3 + 2NaCl

CaCO3

MgCO3

H2O

Mg(OH)2

CaSO4

Mg(OH)2

CaCl2

NOTE:
CO2 requires lime.
Lime reacts with carbonate hardness; Mg requires 2 equivalents of lime.
Non-carbonate hardness requires addition of of Na2CO3
CaCl2 and CaSO4 require only Na2CO3; but MgCl2 and MgSO4 require additional lime.
Precipitation of Mg requires higher pH, hence the need for excess lime
Practical limits of lime-soda softening: 30 - 40 mg/L of CaCO3 and 10 mg/L of Mg(OH)2
Lime softened water is supersaturated with CaCO 3. Recarbonation is used to prevent afterprecipitation by keeping the excess CaCO 3 in solution as bicarbonate.
CaCO3 + CO2
Ca(HCO3 )2
It
also
Ca(OH)2 + CO2

neutralizes
CaCO3 + H2O

the

excess

lime:

A lime-soda softening plant may consist of aeration, rapid mixing, flocculation,

sedimentation, recarbonation, rapid sand filtration and disinfection.

Softening:

Ion Exchange Process:

This process utilizes an ion-exchange materials (natural zeolites or synthetic resins) which
have the ability to exchange Na for Ca and Mg. The ion-exchange material can be
regenerated with a regenerant like sodium chloride (NaCl).
The reactions involved can be illustrated as follows:
The ion-exchange material is represented by Z.
Ca(HCO3
)2
Mg(HCO3 )2 + Na2Z

+
Na2Z
MgZ + 2NaHCO3

CaZ

2NaHCO3

CaSO4
+
Na2Z
MgSO4 + Na2Z
MgZ + Na2SO4

CaZ

Na2SO4

CaCl2
+
Na2Z
MgCl2 + Na2Z
MgZ + 2NaCl

CaZ

2NaCl

Na2Z

CaCl2

Regeneration:
CaZ
+
MgZ + 2NaCl

2NaCl
Na2Z + MgCl2

NOTE:
Ion exchange softening can achieve 100% hardness removal.
Not suitable for water with Fe or Mn.
Commonly used in industries and individual residences.
Other Treatment Processes:
Odour and taste control
Water stabilization
Iron and manganese removal
Fluoridation
De-fluoridation
Desalination
Objectives of Wastewater Treatment:
Prevent/reduce spread of communicable diseases
Prevent pollution of surface and ground waters
Choice of Processes and Degree of Treatment:
Plant location & nature of present and future surroundings

Condition of wastewater received at the plant site

Need or incentive for planned reuse
The condition of receiving waters and the uses to which they are put
Effluent and other environmental standards
Operational and cost-related aspects
Wastewater Characteristics:
Wastewaters are categorized as:
Domestic
wastewater
Industrial wastewater
A municipal sewer system collects not only the domestic wastewater but also industrial
wastewaters whose characteristics are compatible with the domestic wastewater.
The wastewater received at the site of wastewater treatment plant will contain suspended
solids, biodegradable organic matter, pathogens and nutrients. In addition dissolved inorganic
solids, refractory organics and heavy metals may also be present.
The characteristics of wastewaters are defined by:
Biochemical
Chemical
Suspended
Settleable
Total
Total phosphorous, etc.

oxygen
Oxygen

demand
Demand
solids
solids

Kjeldahl

nitrogen

Industrial wastewaters vary widely in their characteristics based on the raw materials
and processes used.

Wastewater Treatment System:

A wastewater treatment system provides a combination of selected unit operations to produce
an acceptable effluent.
The operations may be grouped into 'Primary Treatment' or 'Secondary Treatment' or 'Tertiary
Treatment'.
PRIMARY TREATMENT:
The primary treatment includes 'screen' or 'bar rack', grit chamber, and 'primary
sedimentation basin'.
A bar rack removes large objects. I may also be supplemented by a comminuter to
shred
the
screenings.
Inert inorganic materials (sand, road grit, glass pieces, bone chips, etc.) are removed

in
the
grit
chamber.
The primary sedimentation basin removes organic matter in solution and in
suspension.
SECONDARY TREATMENT:
The secondary treatment is in the form of biological treatment (e.g. trickling filter and its
secondary settling basin).
A trickling filter (or an aerator in the activated sludge process) converts organics into
biomass.
The biological slimes or sludges discharged from these units settle down in secondary
sedimentation basins.
TERTIARY TREATMENT:
The tertiary treatment provides for advanced treatment like nutrient removal and or a higher
degree of suspended or dissolved solids removal.

Screens:

Function: To remove large objects which may damage the equipment, cause clogging of
pipes, and accumulate in settling basins.
Bar Racks (or bar screens):
Bar racks consist of bars spaced 10 to 50 mm apart and are usually mechanically cleaned. The
screens are placed in rectangular channels. The raking, done by means of endless chains on
sprockets, moves the debris (screenings) upward and drops in a collection bin.
The screenings are odorous and also attract flies. They are disposed by incineration or land
filling or by returning to the wastewater flow after shredding (using comminuters).
Grit Chamber:
Grit: Inert and inorganic material (sand, gravel, road grit, metal pieces, bone chips, glass
pieces, etc) in the wastewater
Function: To protect equipment from abrasion, to prevent pipe clogging, and to prevent
accumulation in settling basin, digestors, etc.
Design principle:
The grit chamber must be designed to remove only grit and not organic matter. Organic
matter will be kept in suspension, and any organic matter that might settle must be
resuspended
by
scour.
Grit with a specific gravity of 2.65 has a settling velocity of 30 mm/s. Organic particle with a
specific
gravity
of
1.10
has
a
settling
velocity
of
3
mm/s.
The design of a grit chamber exploits the difference in settling velocities of these particles.
Horizontal-flow, velocity-controlled grit chambers:
In a horizontal-flow, velocity controlled grit chamber, the velocity of wastewater flow is
maintained at 0.30 m/s so that only grit will settle out. This grit chamber will have to be
designed to maintain constant velocity of 0.3 m/s.
Maintaining a constant velocity of 0.3 m/s can be achieved in:
a channel of parabolic cross-section, controlled by a downstream standing wave
flume, or
a channel of rectangular cross-section, controlled by a proportional-flow weir at the
outlet
The grit chambers are narrow channels also with a length to depth ratio of 20:1. The detention
time is about 1 min.
Aerated grit chambers are also used for grit removal.
The grit, removed by mechanical collectors, is disposed of by burial or used as a fill material.
If it still contains organic material, it is sent to sanitary landfills.

Primary Sedimentation Basins

Function: To remove some of the settleable organic solids and thus reduce the load on
subsequent biological treatment units
Design principles:
The basic design principles evolved for sedimentation in water treatment apply also for
wastewater
treatment.
The solids settling at the bottom of the sedimentation basin (referred to as primary sludge) is
removed by mechanical scrapers. Grease and oil which float to the surface are removed by a
skimming system.
Surface loading is the controlling parameter, typical values ranging from 25 to 50 m3/m2.d
Detention time: 1.5 to 2.5 h
Weir loading: 120 - 200 m3/m.d
Depth: 2 - 5 m (~3.5 m)
Length to width ratio for rectangular basins: 3 to 5:1
Efficiency of primary settling basins:
Suspended solids removal: 50 - 60%
BOD removal: 30 - 35%
Secondary Treatment:
Function: To reduce the suspended solids remaining after primary sedimentation and all other
dissolved organics. Biological treatment is employed for secondary treatment in most of the
wastewater treatment plants.
Biological decomposition of waste:
Microorganisms use organics in wastewater as food and convert them into biological cells, or
biomass.
Based on the electron acceptor available, the type of decomposition may be:
1. Aerobic
2. Anaerobic
3. anoxic
4.
AEROBIC DECOMPOSITION:
Free (molecular) oxygen must be present as electron acceptor
End products are primarily carbon-di-oxide, water, and new cell material
Low
odour
production

Many
times
faster
than
anaerobic
decomposition
Production of large amount of cell material (more sludge)
ANAEROBIC DECOMPOSITION:
Nither molecular oxygen nor nitrates used as electron acceptors; Sulfates, carbon-dioxide
and
organic
compounds
serve
as
electron
acceptors.
End products: carbon-di-oxide, methane, and water; Others are ammonia, hydrogen
sulfide
and
mercaptons
(foul
smell).
Low cell yield (low sludge production)
ANOXIC DECOMPOSITION:
Absence of molecular oxygen, and nitrate is the electron acceptor
End products: nitrogen gas, carbon-di-oxide, water and new cell material
Cell yield high but less than aerobic decomposition
Trickling Filters (Attached Culture System):
Function: Biological oxidation of organic matter present in settled wastewater (in solution or
as suspended matter) by bringing it in contact with biological agents developed on the surface
of a contact medium
Trickling filter is not 'filter'. It is a biological contact bed.
It is a filter-like structure with contact media on the surface of which biological agents form
slimes. It has a system to apply the settled wastewater to come into contact with the
biological slimes. The organisms in the slime use organics in wastewater as food and convert
them into biological cells. The effluent is collected by an under drainage system for further
treatment in a secondary settling basin.
The trickling filter is usually circular, and the contact medium consists of crushed stones (5075 mm) or synthetic media. The settled wastewater is applied on the surface of media by
rotating distributors.
The pore space, the method of distribution of wastewater, the natural ventilation due to the
temperature differential between wastewater and ambient temperatures, and the partial-flow
conditions in the under drainage system facilitate the air circulation and hence maintenance
of aerobic conditions in the trickling filter.
As the wastewater trickles down, the microorganisms grow into a slime over the surface of
the contact media. The development of the slime is gradual over a period of several weeks
(ripening period). The microorganisms in the slime feed on the organic matter in the
wastewater trickling over them. Over the time, excess slimes and also dead slimes from the
media are flushed out along with the effluent. This discharge of slime, known as sloughing, is
influenced by the hydraulic and organic loading rates. The suspended solids content in the
filter effluent will, therefore, be very high and needs to be removed by passing it through a
secondary settling basin.
Recirculation:
Returning a portion of the effluent to the inflow to filter is known as 'recirculation'.

Recirculation dilutes the influent to the trickling filter and provides a seeding with active
microorganisms. It helps to dampen variations in flow and in maintaing a desirable hydraulic
loading. It reduces clogging of contact media and minimizes the problem of psychoda fly
nuisance.

Loading of Trickling Filters:

Organic or BOD loading: expressed as kg of BOD per day per m 3 of contact media
volume, kg/m3.d
BOD loading = {wastewater flow rate, Q * BOD of settled wastewater}/Volume of
filter
media
NOTE: BOD of settled wastewater = 65-70% of BOD of raw wastewater
Hydraulic loading: expressed as m3 of wastewater applied per day per m 2 of surface
area of trickling filter
Hydraulic loading = {wastewater flow rate, Q + Recirculation flow rate, Q R}/Surface
area of filter
Recirculation ratio = QR/Q
Typical
loadings:
Low-rate trickling filters: BOD loading = 0.25 kg/m3.d ; Hydraulic loading = 2-5
m3/m2.d ; Recirculation ratio = 0
High-rate trickling filters: BOD loading = 0.75 kg/m 3.d ; Hydraulic loading = 10-30
m3/m2.d ; Recirculation ratio = 0.5-3.0
Design Formulae: National Research Council (NRC) formulae for a single-stage rock-filled
trickling filter and for a two-stage filter.
Bio-tower, Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC)
Activated Sludge Process (Suspended Culture System):
Function: Biological oxidation of organic matter present in settled wastewater (in solution or
as suspended matter) by mixing it with biological sludge and subjecting the mixture to
aeration
The biological sludge (called 'Activated Sludge') is the sludge derived from settling a
wastewater which has been subjected earlier to thorough mixing, agitation and oxygen intake
created by an injection of air.
The activated sludge process uses an aerator and a secondary settling basin. In the aerator the
injected air provides oxygen for growth of aerobic organisms and also provides a good
mixing of the raw wastewater and the activated sludge. This mixture, termed as 'mixed
liquor', flows into a secondary settling basin where the 'activated sludge' settles out. A portion
of this activated sludge, which contains a luxurient growth of microorganisms, is returned to
the aerator and the remaining sludge (Waste Activated Sludge - WAS) is wasted to the sludge
treatment system.

Modifications of Activated Sludge Process:

Step aeration
Tapered aeration

Extended aeration
High-rate aeration
Contact stabilization
Pure-oxygen
Oxidation ditch
Process Parameters:
Hydraulic detention time
Mean cell residence time (MCRT)
Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS)
Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS)
Food to microorganism ratio (F/M)
Specific utilization rate (U)
Sludge volume index (SVI)
Organic loading rate
Sludge Treatment and Disposal:
Primary Sludge:
Primary settling removes 40-60% of influent (raw wastewater) suspended solids.
The quantity of primary sludge, i.e., the mass of primary solids (on a dry mass basis)
removed , can be computed using the flow rate, suspended solids content of raw wastewater,
and the removal efficiency of the primary settling basin.
Secondary Sludge:
The secondary sludge contains suspended solids remaining after primary settling and also
solids resulting from conversion of dissolved organics into cellular material in the biological
treatment unit.
The quantity of secondary sludge can be computed using the flow rate, the BOD removed by
secondary treatment, and a biomass conversion factor.

The sludge have a water-content of about 97%, and the sludge treatment involves mostly
dewatering and stabilization.
The treatment of sludge involves a combination of some of the following processes:
Sludge thickening (gravity thickeners, dissolved air flotation)
Sludge conditioning (chemical conditioning, heat treatment)
Sludge stabilization (anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion)
Sludge dewatering (vacuum filtration, pressure filtration, drying beds)
Disposal of sludge has the following alternatives:
Incineration
Disposal at a sanitary landfill
Land spreading (farmland, land reclamation)
Advanced Wastewater Treatment:
Advanced wastewater treatment may be required when the effluent from secondary treatment
is not of an acceptable quality under the given conditions.
This advanced treatment is also referred to as 'tertiary treatment'.
Advanced treatment is incorporated for:
Nutrient removal (nitrogen, phosphorous)
Solids removal (suspended solids, dissolved solids)