PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
Principle- law of nature as formulated and
accepted by the mind
Geology- study of the nature, formation and
development of the earths crust thru the study
of rocks, layers of soil and its other layers

The Earth In Relation To Geodetic

Engineering

Principle of Geology gives insight to Earths

history

Study Dealing with Earth Science

1. The Earths Life As Recorded In Rocks
- Geological data comes from research on
solid earth materials (solid rocks and
unconsolidated materials)
2. The Primary Evidence For Plate Tectonics
- Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's
outer layer is made up of plates (solid
rocks), which have moved in cm each year
in Earth's history.
3. The Study Of Solid Matter Of The
Celestial Body
- In form of various rock formation making
the earths crust
4. Insights In The Past Climates
- In the early times, life become more
diverse and abundant due to effect of
climate on earth
5. The Mineral And Its Exploration
- A mineral may be a single element such
as copper (Cu) or gold (Au), or it may be a
compound made up of a number of
elements.
6. Evaluation Of Water Resources
- Earth is the only planet where water in its
liquid form exists covering 71% of earths
surface
- 97.5% Ocean and 2.5% Freshwater
7. Understanding Natural Hazard
8. The Remediation Of Environmental
Problems
- Refers to the mitigating measures on how
we can protect and conserve the
environment
9. Geologic Features
- Diamond- a mineral from within an
igneous or metamorphic rock that formed
at high temperature and pressure

Deals with the measurement and

representation of the Earth

The geology of an area changes through time as

rock units are deposited and inserted and
deformational processes change their shapes and
locations.

Considering space and its geodetic

component by relying on the coordinate
system determining geologic features,
location of rocks and natural hazards

Longitude- measured using the

meridian from east or west of the
Greenwich, Eng. which represents 0 long.

Latitude measured using the

parallels from the equator (00) to the north
or south pole (900)
Concerns with earths gravitational

field

geodynamic forces inside

the earth

Geodynamical phenomena such as design

of global and national control networks

From the geographic coordinates,

ascertain the primary evidence of plate
tectonics

FORMATION OF THE EARTH

History of the Earth

At first, Earth was extremely hot

and much larger than today. It was made of
rock different compounds, and dense
elements, like solid and liquid iron with
occasionally erupting volcanoes
As Earth cooled and contracted,
the heavier material moved to the center of
the Earth to form the core.
The liquid material settled over the
core to form the mantle.
As the Earth cooled more, a
solid crust formed over the liquid middle
The crust of the planet earth is
constantly moving, sliding over, under, and
sideways against itself.
Light from the Sun broke down the
ammonia and various gases and released
nitrogen/oxygen into the atmosphere

The water vapor that was in the

atmosphere condensed and formed clouds and
rains
The water, along with the ice from
the comets, formed the oceans and lakes that
was all fresh but became salty as chemicals
from the earths crust mixed in
The Earth is still changing even
today and it is yet the only planet that can
sustain life.

Theory on Core Accretion

Mantle

-account for the formation of the terrestrial

planets like earth
Accretion - process of growth or increase,
typically by the gradual accumulation of
additional layers or matter due to gravitation
forming larger bodies; a thing formed or
added by gradual growth or increase.
- around 4.6B years ago by accretion from the
solar nebula, clouds of gaseous materials and
dust contracted under extreme forces of gravity
into larger bodies
-solar wind swept lighter elements (H and He)
from closer regions leaving heavy materials to
create smaller terrestrials
-dense material sank to the center while the less
dense materials formed the crust
Theory on Disk Instability
- account for the formation of giant planets
Disk instability - formation of planets from
the breakup of a planetary disk due to
gravitational instability forming selfgravitating clumps of gas, evolving into
planets.
-clumps of dust and gas bounded together in the
early solar system then these clumps slowly
compact into a giant planet
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
Earth 3rd planet (orbits at 149.6M km from the
sun)
5th largest in solar system (12,756.3 km
dia.)
Layers of the Earth
PART

DEPT
H

TEMPERATU
RE

STATE

COMPOSITI
ON

NOTES

Inner
Core

6,370
km

5,000-6,000
O
C

Solid

Fe, Ni
(also So,
H, Si)

Outer
Core

5,150
km

4,000-6,000
O
C

Liqui
d

Fe, Ni, So,

O

Lower
Mantle

2,890
km

3,000 OC

Solid

Fe, O, Si,
Mg, Al

The solid
state is
due to
incredible
pressure
covering
Metal flow
movement
creates
the
magnetic
field
Rock is
enough to
melt but
solid due
to
pressure
Asthenosp
here-basis
of plate
tectonics
Upper rock

Upper

670

1,400-3,000

Solid

Fe, O, Si,

km

Crust

Liqui
d

Mg, Al

22 OC

Solid

Fe, O, Si,
Mg, Al

Continen
tal

8-70
km

Granite

Oceanic

8 km

Basalt

ELEMENTS OF THE EARTH

1) Air
3) Metal
2) Fire
4) Space

is stiffer
because it
is cooler
Lithospher
e
First and
Outer
Layer
Denser
and
thicker
Basalt
forms the
deep-sea
floor

5) Water
6) Wood

MATERIALS OF THE EARTH

1) Rock
Naturally-occurring, coherent aggregates of
minerals such as natural gas or organic
matter formed by one or more minerals.
Color, density & texture are some
properties of rocks
2) Minerals
Minerals are 1naturally occurring, 2inorganic
3
solids, with 4definite chemical composition
characterized by 5crystalline structure.
Most minerals are chemical compounds
joined together called molecules.
3) Soil
A mixture of decomposed organic matter
and broken down rocks & minerals due to
erosion or weathering.
Soil is composed of
50% pore space (allows water and air to
circulate)
45% rock & minerals (plants attach their
roots)
5% decomposed inorganic materials
(responsible to produce nutrients for plants
and water retention)
4) Water

Water is the essence of fluidity

and liquidity. Every living thing on Earth is
made primarily of water.

Composed of 97.5% Ocean,

2.5% Freshwater (which is 68.7% Glaciers,
30.1% Groundwater, 0.8% Permafrost,
0.4% Surface and atmospheric water)
5) Metals
6) Precious Rocks
Kinds of Rocks (Formation Type)
Igneous Rocks molten and melted rocks from
heat
- crystallization formed rocks

Crystalline Rocks how fast & where cooling

took place
- Intrusive/Plutonic Rocks from magma
when cooled slowly below the ground,
surrounded with less dense materials
- Extrusive/Volcanic Rocks from lava, a
magma that reaches the surface without
cooling, cools quickly and hardens on the
surface
o Pyroclastic Rocks pyro (fire) & klastos
(shattered)
- Result of lithification of erupted volcanic
materials
- Distinguished by size of particle
components
Sedimentary Rocks made of small sediments
(weathered rock, shells, organism remains)
- disposition of sediments by water, wind or ice
- deposits sediments from water, wind, or ice
- pressure makes layers of dropped sediments
- compaction and cementation form
sedimentary rocks
- lithification of sediments form clastic rocks
o Sediment by size (small-large): clay, silt,
sand, gravel, shale
Metamorphic Rocks rock formed from heat
& pressure from another rock or some other
physical force
- metamorphism of high temperature and
pressure of minerals or other solid rocks deep
underground form metamorphic rocks
- mineral grains in rock may flatten and line up
-minerals in the rock may change chemical
composition and may separate into layers of
different densities
o Original rock to metamorphic rock: Granite >
Gneiss Shale > Slate > Sandstone >
Quartzite Limestone > Marble Slate > Schist
o

General Characteristics of Minerals

1. Naturally-occurring - exist naturally
2. Inorganic - limited to substances formed
through inorganic processes
3. Solid - all minerals are solid in state.
4. Definite chemical composition - should
express the exact chemical formula with
elements and compound in specific ratios
5. Ordered internal structure the atoms in
the minerals are organized in a regular,
repetitive, geometric patterns or crystal
structure

CHAPTER 5

PLATE TECTONICS
Plate skin of the planet with different shapes &
sizes
All of earths land & water sit on these
moving plates
Constantly moves around the planet
about cm/year
Thickness varies from <15km for young
oceanic lithosphere to 200km for old continental
lithosphere
Movement of Plates
Due to internal heat from mantle, hot rocks
rise and cold rocks descend
Slow motion in solid state transfers stresses
to the lithosphere
Convection in the mantle causes it to buckle
where convection cells meet w/c moves the
plates
Plate tectonic = Lithospheric Plate
Lithosphere - a rigid, rocky outer layer of earth
composed of crust and upper part of mantle with
large moving plates.
A massive and irregularly shaped slab of solid
rock
Lithosphere & asthenosphere - a flowing area
of molten rock. Heat and radiation energy given
off from the center of the Earth constantly heats
the rocks and melts them.
The tectonic plates are floating on top of molten
rock
Key Principle
1. The division of the Earth's interior into
lithospheric and asthenosphere
components is based on their mechanical
differences.
2. The lithosphere is cooler and more rigid,
while the asthenosphere is hotter and
mechanically weaker. This division should
not be confused with the chemical
subdivision of the Earth into (from
innermost to outermost) core, mantle, and
crust.
3. The key principle of plate tectonics is that
the lithosphere exists as separate and
distinct tectonic plates, which "float" on
the fluid-like asthenosphere.
4. The relative fluidity of the asthenosphere
allows the tectonic plates to undergo
motion in different directions.
Plate Tectonic
-the theory that Earths outer layer is made up of
plates

-describes the large scale motions of Earths

lithosphere
-explains the physical features of earth with its
living things
Eight Major Plates
1) North American Plate
2) South American Plate
3) Antarctic Plate
Plate
4) Eurasian Plate

5) Pacific Plate
6) Nazca Plate
7) Indian-Australian
8) African Plate

There are twenty (20) or more tiny plates such as

the Arabian, Cocos and Philippine plates.
Earthquakes are more frequent in the plate
boundaries.

Type
Approx.
Area
Movemen
t
Speed
Features

Philippine Plate
Minor Plate, Oceanic Lithosphere
5,500,000 km2
North west
48-84 mm/year
Philippines, Philippine Sea,
Geologically and Tectonically
separated from Philippine Mobile
Belt

Parts of Plates:
Convergence Zone zone where they are
force together
Spreading Center floating plates spread
apart
Subduction Zone region where plate
tectonics meet and interact with each other;
forms trenches
o May contain hydrous minerals releasing
water on heating, causing mantle to melt
& create volcanoes
Trench a long narrow hole in the ocean floor
from erosion by rivers or plate movements; a

region where the less dense plate moves

down into the asthenosphere above a more
dense plate
Faults surface where when two blocks of
earth suddenly slip past one another
o Hypocenter location below earths
surface where earthquake starts
o Epicenter location on surface of earth
directly above the hypocenter
Five Types of Plate Boundaries
Transform Boundaries plates slide/grind
past against each other along transform faults
Ex.: San Andreas Fault in California
Divergent Boundaries plates slide apart
from each other and a new crust is formed
Ex.: Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Great Rift Valley in
Africa
Convergent Boundaries plates slide
towards each other forming either a
subduction zone or continental collision
Ex.: Andes Mountain Range in South America,
Japanese Island Arc, Himalayan Mountain
Range in India-Nepal
Collision Boundaries two continental
plates collides having a continental collision
Continental Rift Zone Boundaries occur
where young plates are formed

Key Principle
One plate meets another along a plate
boundary, having geological events such as
earthquakes & the creation of topographic
features like mountains, volcanoes, rifts,
ridges & trenches.
The majority of the world's active volcanoes
occur along plate boundaries, with the Pacific
Plate's Ring of Fire being most active and
famous.
Tectonic plates are comprised of two types of
lithosphere: continental and oceanic
lithospheres.
The distinction is based on the density of
constituent materials; oceanic lithospheres
are denser than continental ones due to their
greater mafic mineral content.
The oceanic lithospheres generally lie below
sea level (for example the entire Pacific Plate,
which carries no continent), while the
continental ones project above sea level.
EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake rumblings, shaking or rolling of
earths surface
developed in outer crust of earth