Chemistry Lecture 3

2.1 Elements, compounds, and mixtures

o Matter can be divided into
Pure substance
Element
Compound
Mixture
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
o Element: the simplest type of matter and consists of only one kind of
atom. The smallest part of an element is an atom
o Compound: is a type of matter made up of two or more different kinds
of atoms chemically combined in a definite proportion. The smallest
part of a compound that contains the same property of that compound
is a molecule
o Mixture: is a type of matter made up of two or more different kinds of
elements or compound physically mixed together
Homogeneous: Mixture that is uniform throughout
Ex. Salt solution(aq)
Heterogeneous: Mixture that is not uniform
Ex. Salt and sand
o Difference Between Mixture and Compound
Compound and mixture are made up of different kinds of
elements
In a compound, the elements are chemically combined in a
definite proportion
The components of a compound cannot be separated by
physical means
In a mixture, the proportion or percentage of different elements
can be changed and the components can by physically
separated
Ex. Mixture of sulfur and iron powder vs. compound of
FeS(iron(II)sulfide)
2.2 Laws
o Law of conservation of mass: mass can neither be created nor
destroyed, the total amount of matter does not change during a
chemical reaction
o Law of definite composition
A particular compound is made up of the same elements in the
same proportion, irrespective of its source
o Water consists of 11.1% H and 88.9% O by mass
This proportion of h and o is the same, no matter the source of
water is
o Law of multiple proportion: If two compounds contain the same two
elements A and B, then for a fixed amount of A, the amount of B, that
combine with A, can be expressed as small whole number ratios

Ex. Compound 1 42.86% C and 57.14% O

Compound 2
27.27% C and 72.73% O
42.86/42.86 = 1 & 57.14/42.86 = 1.33
27.27/27.27 = 1 &
72.73/27.27 = 2.66
1.33:2.66 = 1:2 ratio
2.3 Daltons Atomic Theory
o Postulates
All matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms
Atoms of the same element are identical and cannot be changed
or converted to atoms of another element
Atoms of the same element have the same mass and properties
Compounds are formed as result of chemical combination of
different elements in a definite proportion. A chemical reaction is
nothing but rearrangement of the atoms
Ex. Ca(s) + CO2(g) CaCo3(s)
The first and the third postulates have been revised
2.4 The Nuclear Atom Model
o Discovery of the electron
Cathode ray tube experiment by British Physicist JJ Thompson in
1897
Led to the discovery of cathode ray particles which were named
electrons
Was successfully able to determine the mass to charge ratio of
an electron
o Millikans Oil Drop Experiment
Was able to calculate the charge of an electron
Mass to charge ratio(Thomson) = -5.686x10 -12 kg/Coulomb
Millikan = -1.602x10-19 C
o Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus
Matter is neutral, so the atoms that make it must be neutral too.
So, if atoms contained negatively charged electrons, there
should be positively charged particles too
Thomson proposed the plum pudding model, in which an atom is
spherical shaped and composed of diffused positively charged
matter in which electrons were embedded like raisins
This model was corrected by the New Zealand born physicist
Rutherford in 1910, which is now better known as Rutherfords
gold foil experiment
From the data collected he concluded that the atom is mostly
empty space and the center space which he called the nucleus
contains the positive charge and all the mass of the atom
Called these protons
Rutherfords model could not account for all the mass of an
atom
Resolved in 1932, when James Chadwick discovered the
neutron
2.5 The Atomic Theory Today
o

Structure of the atom

Bohr
Atomic Numbers: the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom. It is denoted by Z. All atoms of the same elements have
the same atomic number
Mass Number: the number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom, denoted by A
In a neutral atom, number of protons and electrons are
the same
Ex. A Mass number, Z Atomic number
24/12 Mg protons =12, electrons =12, neutrons =12
(24-12)
o Isotopes: are atoms of the same element, therefore have the same
atomic number but different mass numbers due to the different
number of neutrons in the nucleus
o The mass of an atom is measured relative to the mass of an atomic
standard
It is the Carbon-12 atom
1 amu = 1/12 the mass of a Carbon 12 atom
o Mass Spectrometry: is a method used to measure the relative masses
and abundances of atomic-scale
o The atomic mass given in the periodic table is the weighted average of
all the isotopes of that element
Ex. Silicon exists in three isotopic forms
28Si 27.97693 amu 9.223% abundance
29Si 28,97649 amu 4.67% abundance
30Si 29.97amu 3.10% abundance
This data has been experimentally determined by mass
spectrometer
Isotopic mass * fractional abundance + isotopic mass*fractional
abundance = average atomic mass
2.6 The Periodic Table
o The modern periodic table is arranged according to increasing atomic
numbers
o Organizations
Periods horizontal rows, there are 7 periods
Groupp vertical columns, there are 8 groups each divided into
and A and B. Group 8B is furthers divided into three
o Elements are classified into
Metals good conductors of heat and electricity
Metalloids in between metals and nonmetals (those that lie
along the separation line)
Nonmetals nonconductors
o Metals tend to lose electrons and for positive ions called cations
o Nonmetals tend to add electrons and form negative ions called anions
o Most common oxidation numbers
1A - +1
o

2a - +2
3a - +3
5a -3
6a - -2
7a - -1
o ELemtnes belonging to Group B generally show variable oxidation
number
2.7 Compounds and Bonding
o Molecular compounds: Formed by sharing of electrons and consist of
nonmetals
o Ionic compounds: Formed by gaining or losing electrons and consists of
cation and anions
o Molecular compounds are called covalent
o Covalent bonding involves the mutual attraction between two nuclei
and the two electrons between them whereas
o Ionic bonding involves the mutual attraction between positive and
negative ions
o Electronegativity when there is bonding between two atoms, one of
them has a higher tendency of pulling the electron cloud to itself
Metals lose electrons, but nonmetals like picking up electrons
Florine has the highest electronegativity
o Polyatomic ions
Groups of covalently atoms with a specific positive or negative
charge
2.8 Types of Chemical Formula
o Empirical Formula: is the smallest whole number ratio of the elements
in a compound
o Molecular Formula: is the actual number of atoms in each element
present in a compound
o Structural Formula: shows the relative placement and bonding of
elements in the compound
o Naming of compounds
Binary: consists of two elements
Ternary compounds: consists of 3 or more elements
o Binary Molecular Compounds
Consist of two nonmetals
The element that is less electronegative will be written first, the
second element ends in -ide
P2O5 --? Diphosphorus pentoxide
The mono- prefix is not used for the first element
Prefixes
o Mono
o Di
o Tri
o Tetra
o Penta
o Hexa

o Hepta
o Octa
o Non
o Deca
Ionic Compounds
Metals with fixed oxidation numbers
Group 1A,2A,3A, and Ag+1 and Zn+2
Metal is written first
The nonmetal is written second and ends in -ide
Greek prefixes are not used
Metals with variable oxidation numbers
While writing the names of these compounds from their
chemical formulas, the oxidation number
+1,+2
Cu, Hg
Cu+1, Cu+2
Hg+1, Hg+2
The Hg+1 ion exists as a diatomic state Hg2+2
+2,+3
Fe
Cr
Co
+2,+4
Mn
Sn
Pb
Sn and Pb are group 4A
FeCl2 Iron (II) Chloride (ferrous chloride(
Cr+2 O-2 Chromium (II) oxide
Ternary Compounds
Contain more than 2 elements, contain polyatomic ions and can
be broken down into cation and anions
Most Polyatomic ions end in -ate or -ite
Common Polyatomic ions (Look up formulas)
+1
o NH4+ Ammonium
o H3o+ Hydronium
-1
o NO3- Nitrate
o NO2- Nitrite
o CH3COO- acetate
C2H3O2o MnO4 permaganate
o ClO- hypochlorite
o ClO2- chlorite
o ClO3- chlorate

o
o
o
o
o

ClO4- perchlorate
OH- hydroxide
CN- Cyanide
HCO3- Hydorgen carbonate
HSO4- hydrogen sulfate

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Carbonate
Sulfate
Sulfite
Chromate
Dichromate
Oxalate
Peroxide Ion

o
o
o
o
o

Phosphate
Phosphite
Hydrogen Phosphate
Di-Hydrogen Phosphate
Arsenate

-2

-3

Acids and Bases

H+ acids
OH- bases
NaCl anion plus cation = salts
Naming of Hydrates
The salt is named according to the rules discussed earlier
The water molecule is termed as hydrate and the number of
water molecules is expressed using Greek Prefixes
Copper II sulfate pentahydrate
BaCl2 * 2H2O
ZnSO4 * 7H2O zinc sulfate heptahydrate
Naming acids
Binary acids
Acids contain the H+
Oxoacids
Contain the polyatomic ion as the anion
o If polyatomic ion ends in ate acid ends in -ic
o If polyatomic ion ends in ite acid ands in -ous
o Prefix hydro- is no used
HNO3 Nitric acid
HNO2 Nitrous acid
Hydrates
There are ionic compounds that contain loosely held water
molecules that can be removed