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Biogeography GEOG 2
Professor Cusack
MIDTERM REVIEW: LECTURES, BOOK AND LABS WILL BE ON THE MIDTERM
*This guide is to give you an idea of the types of questions you will be asked.
Questions and topics in the actual test will not be limited to what is on this
review sheet, but this should provide some direction about what to study.
Week One:
Introduction t o Geography and Biogeography
Example questions;
What are isolation and connectivity, and how do they contribute to BioD?
o Isolation is when individuals are isolated and eventually become two different
species (connects to Darwins theory). Connectivity is the degree to which the
landscape affects the closeness between two species (i.e Pangaea outwards).
They increase biodiversity over a larger area.
What are biodiversity hotspots in terms of conservation?
o They are areas whose biodiversity is threatened by extinction, having lost 70%
of their biodiversity. Areas such as Japan, and the Asian Mountains.
What is the difference between pattern and process?
o Process is a set of means used to accomplish a certain end (i.e. work to
accomplish the SAT, or eat herbivory to survive in an area with no meat.)
Pattern is something that may accompany a process, such as certain trends
(i.e. CR scores get better)
Why does diversity decrease from the base to the tip of a peninsula?
o At the base of the peninsula is closest to the ocean. Smaller area towards the
tip, less chances to migrate, higher chances of extinction.
Why is diversity greater in mountainous regions than in flat areas?
o Difference in number of plant species as elevation increases.
Multiple
ecosystems in a small space.
Climate and Atmospheric Basics
Example questions:
Explain the difference between climate and weather. What are the 3 main climate
cells called, and how to they drive biome distributions on earth?
o Climate is a trend in weather; weather is the daily activity of the sky and
temperature.
Hadley Cell: Warm, moist air from equator goes to 30 degrees North
and South. This is why there are deserts at this time, fewer clouds
producing rain and little wind, high pressure will lead to no wind due to
clash with Ferrel.
Polar Cell: Cold, dry air will head to the poles (why there is no rain at
the poles).
Ferrel Cell: Occurs at 30-60 degrees latitude. Explains balance of
temp. Warm moist air rises. Runs out, clashes with Polar, very wet up
at 60. Air gets colder and wetter as you go up.

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What is NPP? GPP? What are the 4 groups of resources that drive NPP?
o Net Primary Productivity (NPP): The exact rate of increase/decrease in
energy from plants. Decreases as you go up the food chain. 10% of energy
retained in the next higher. Biomass is proportional to energy.
o Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): Total amount of Carbon/EG that comes
in.
o Affected by water, sunlight, carbon, and temperature.
Explain the concept of a limiting factor
o Maximum rate of photosynthesis is limited by whichever basic resource of
plant growth is in least supply. Liebigs Law of the minimum (will cause
competition.)
Ex. Water in desert, Sunlight/Temps in NW forests.
What is Biogeography the study of?
o Study of the patterns and mechanisms of distribution of living organisms
across space and time.
What is systematics?
o Study of the diversity and the relationships of living things over time.
Explain 2 ways in which we can understand what a species is
o They possess the similar taxa, they can breed with one another.
What is the modern taxonomic hierarchy commonly used?
Taxa

Week Two:
Hierarchies o f Life, Physical & Bio logical Cont rols on Life
Example questions:
Draw an energy pyramid and a biomass pyramid for an oceanic food web with 4
trophic levels.
What are C3 and C4 photosynthesis?
o C3: very energy-use efficient and uses 3 Carbon molecules in carboxylation.
Developed earlier than C4 Plants, ancestral, less efficient at low C02. Better
off of at lower temperatures.
o C4: Very water/H20-use efficient and uses 4 C molecules in carboxylation.
Evolved later than C4 plants, leaves open stomata for less time at high temps,
to use enough C02 to outcompete photorespiration, but less energy efficient.
Adapted to low C02. Lower nutrients. Good with high heat, as most is located
in the tropics and arid temps.
o CAM (Crassulacean acid metabolism) where CO2 is absorbed at night and the
C3 method is used at day. Have lowest rates of photosynthesis. Good with
high heat. CAM closes stomata during the day, far more efficient with H20.
Common in the desert, cactus.
Explain the terms Avoid, Tolerate, Escape and give an example of each
o Avoid is to gain characteristics that will allow you to not be affected by certain
conditions (plants with deep roots).
o Tolerance is to live under certain conditions normally unfavorable. (C4 and
CAM plants, especially CAM, with no water.)
o Escape is to migrate.
What are 2 factors that contribute to global patterns in temperature?
o Sunlight and global circulation of weather
Where is most of the atmospheric mass? Troposhere
How do soil nutrients change over geological time?

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o Precipitation, weathering, etc.
What is a fundamental niche?
o The potential area and resources an organism is capable of using (where a
species CAN live). The realized niche is where the species actually lives and is
at times not ideal because of limiting factors.
What is difference between range and density?
o Range is the entire area where the population can be found. Density is the
relative abundance of a species in one area.
What is carrying capacity? How does it relate to exponential growth?
o Carrying capacity is basically the maximum density in an ecosystem and a
certain area before any resources are harmed. Carrying capacity is a limiting
factor in exponential growth, and carrying capacity is affected by things like
migration of new species or disturbances.
What is a top-down control?
o Basically when a top predator is removed, the entire ecosystem is affected.
Wolves eat herbivores, but when they die, plant pop dies, and things go bad.
How is the soil food web different from aboveground food webs?
o In above ground food webs, energy goes from primary producers to
consumers. In soils, dead energy is recycled and transferred back to the
producers.
Name two kinds of symbiosis. Commensalism, mutualism.
How does photosynthesis change with increasing light intensity? It increases at first until
it reaches a certain point, and then it decreases to a threshold. Because transpiration
increases and stomata closes to avoid water loss. For flooding, too much water will increase
C02 intake, but it will damage certain organs and cause certain cells to blow up.
High
temps are good for photosynthesis, but at certain extremities, the enzymes managing
photosynthesis do not have energy or have too much and die.
What is the compensation point for photosynthesis? Photosynthesis equals respiration.
What are stomata? Pores that allow for the exchange of gases such as CO2 and H20 vapor.
What are 2 strategies for plants to survive cold winters?

o
o

Dormancy and the loss of leaves (deciduous trees)

Change of the chemical structure of liquids for some conifers
Radiation of heat by some plants.

Chapter 4 Main points:

What is the Lotka-Volterra model? Two different equations used to describe the trends in the
population of predator and prey, in regards to their relationships. With x being predators
Interspecific versus intraspecific competition: Different species vs. similar species. The first
one is in relation to resources and territory, the second one is in relation to mating.
Week Three:
Dist urbance
Example Questions/Essays:

What is disturbance? Change in biomass, change in resources.

What is a density-dependent factor in disturbance?
A density-dependent factor in disturbance is population and space, where the
ecosystem is affected based on the density of species. Ex. Fire, and plague.
Explain invasive versus exotic as a way of describing non-native species. Invasive
causes harm to an established ecosystem, exotic does not and in fact allows them to
settle in.

List 3 human disturbances.

Waste of fossil fuels, deforestation, mining, fishing, irrigation, overgrazing.
Why are natural fluxes of carbon in and out of ecosystems roughly balanced on an
annual cycle? How many times bigger are these natural fluxes compared to human
fluxes to the atmosphere?
It is because the natural methods that make up the carbon cycle are not
adversely affected by human disturbances (i.e. photosynthesis and respiration
are still going on). Human fluxes are weaker by 1/10.
What in the relationship between increased CO2 in the atmosphere and temperature?
GREENHOUSE EFFECT. More C02 corresponds to more heat.
How do we know about past climates?
Past climates were slightly colder: the heat
What is Life Cycle analysis in the context of carbon sequestration?
The amount of it must be decreased, but what about plants and the rest of the
cycle? Will it help for the decrease in output by plants?
What is the CA climate bill? What are 2 of the strategies it proposes?
Assembly 32, plant on top of dead soil, improve agriculture, forest rotation,
Kyoto Protocol: 2005 2012, targets as % change, ratified or signed by all UN
signatories except USA, Canada withdrew in 2011
Copenhagen Accord: non-binding, no targets, US helped draft
US declares greenhouse gases as a pollutant

Reading: MacDonald, Chapt er 5:

What
happens
after
a
disaster
(SUCCESSION,
FACILITATION,
CLIMAX/MATURE COMMUNITY).
Succession (primary and secondary), facilitation or the increase in number of
species in area (characterized by an increase in dispersal), and the climax
(species reaches close to carrying capacity)
Pioneers: Species that first appear during succession (i.e algae, lichen)
Background Mortality: Expected mortality

Fire: types of fire, differences among ecosystems

- Ground fire: A fire that burns in surface organic materials such as peat or deep duff
layers. Ground fires typically undergo a large amount of smoldering combustion and
less active flaming than other types of fires. They may kill roots of overstory species
because of prolonged high temperatures in the rooting zone.
- Surface fire: Fires that burn only the lowest vegetation layer, which may be
composed of grasses, herbs, low shrubs, mosses, or lichens. In forests, woodlands, or
savannas surface fires are generally low to moderate severity and do not cause
extensive mortality in the overstory vegetation.
- Understory or sub-canopy fire: A fire that burns trees or tall shrubs under the
main canopy. Depending on structure, this may also be called a surface fire.
- Crown fire: A fire that burns through the upper tree or shrub canopy. In most cases
the understory vegetation is also burned. The fire affects the whole forest. and lethal
stand replacement fire with the variation occurring in space or time
- The capability for fire in certain ecosystems, and the damage that can potentially be
caused, is dependent on several factors, such as wind, temperature, greenery, and
so on.
Models of succession (tolerance, inhibition, random)

Inhibition: Pioneer species may limit a certain factor to the point where it is
vital, prevents the growth and flourishing of newer species.

Pioneers: Species that first appear during succession (i.e algae, lichen)
Background Mortality: Expected mortality

Week Four:
Communit ies, Bio mes
Example Questions:
What biome has the lowest NPP on earth? What is the major disturbance in this biome?
DESERTS. The major disturbance is fire.
What are three possible reasons that wet tropical forests have higher biodiversity than other
biomes? Explain which you think is most important and why.
o Higher degree of NPP.
o Lots of sunlight and rain.
o Variety of habitats.
Dispersal and Co lonizat ion
Example Questions:
Explain what happened in the Great American Exchange. Describe the change in
corridors and filters that led the colonization in each direction.
The Isthmus of
Panama worked as a filter of marine animals and a corridor for land animals. 10% of
mammals from each continent migrated over. (50% of North American genera came
over). Initially the area was an open savannah (corridor) but after the glacial period,
it became a filter, and part of the isthmus became a filter. Explains why smaller
animals are the ones that jumped across.
Reading: MacDonald, Chapt ers 6 & 8
Main points from Chapter 6:
Clements versus Gleason view of ecosystems. All organisms are part of one large
superorganism who helps each other, coexists together, and evolved (Clemeans,
based off of Darwin). Gleason believes in more of an individualistic approach (species
are more spread out and idealistic.
Know main characteristics of each biome
E.g. seasonality, rank for NPP, relative position on precipitation vs. temperature space,
major kinds of disturbance in each biome, distribution globally
Von Humboldt, Holdridge, Whittaker-Classifies the biomes by temperature,
precipitation, and NPP. Holdridge groups by temperature, evapotranspiration, and
precipitation. Whittaker graphs by precipitation and temp.
Main points from Chapter 8:
Ecological vs. biogeographical dispersal
Modes of dispersal (anemo- hydro- zoo- and anthro-chores). Anemochores are
distributed by winds.
Very good for plants, but may spread in diseases and
pesticidies.
Active dispersal involves self-movement also called zoochores.
Aquochores are distributed via water (coconuts and some plants). Biochores are
distributed via attachment to plants (i.e. seeds or spores). Anemohydrochores can
be distributed via wind and sea (aspen, among other leaves). Anemo/hydro transports
can be also be labeled as waif dispersal over a long distance.
Colonization vs. Migrations vs. Irruptions. Colonization is a form of a successful

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migration into a new area. Migrations are the movement of animals (on a seasonal
basis). Irruption is the growth of animals as population grows.

Logistic growth in colonization-Population continues to grow after reaching new area if

successful
What is happening at each part of the curve? Easy.
Diffusion vs. Jump: Jump (also known as sweepstake events) is when various animals
are thought to have arrived via flying. Dispersal and colonization.
Barriers, corridors, filters, stepping stones and sweepstakes. Barriers are features
that blocks dispersal and colonization (i.e. mountains and the ocean, can also be
biological factors). Corridors are environmental or physical conditions that allow for
dispersal between geographically separate location (such as wind). Sweepstake
routes are extremely random, yet extremely vital to diversity. All of these explain
disjunction between various organisms. Filters are barriers that selectively inhibit
the transfer of taxa. Stepping stones are islands really close in proximity, such as
Indonesia and the Philiipines (such island chains can double up as filters and block
certain organisms from going across.)

// DO ALL NOTES FROM WEEKS 6-8.

WEEK6

Isolationovertimecausesendemismandadaptiveradiation.
Connectivityofalandmassovertimecausesendemization.
Whatcausesnewspeciestoappear?Dispersal.
Whatcausesspeciestodisappear?Competition.
Howdoanatomicalandphysiologicaladaptationsdevelop?Isolationandadaptiveradiation.
How has geographical and environmental change contributed to great biodiversity? Causes
speciestoevolve,adapttotheirsurroundings.
Butwhataboutspeciesthatreproduceasexually?Notoriouslydifficulttodefine.
Whataboutindividualsthathybridize?
Whatismeantbypotentiallyinterbreeding? Definestwospeciesthatcaninterbreedand
whoseoffspringanalsodoso,andcaninterbreedwithparentspecies
Whataboutgeographicallyseparatedpopulations?Classifiedasisolatedspecies.
Hybridspeciation=twospeciesmate,offspringareanewspeciesthatcanreproduce,buthave
reproductiveisolationfromparentspecies
Macroevolutionismechanismsofmicro+TIME(3.8billionyears)
o Stasislittletonochange(ex.coelacanth,livingfossil)
o Characterchange:multipletimes,backandforth
o Speciation:splittingoflineages:branchesinatree(cladesarethegroups)
o Extinction: very important, about 99% of all species ever lived on Earth have gone
extinctitcanbefrequentorrareeventwithinalineage,orcanoccursimultaneously
acrossmanylineages(extinction)
DarwinsideasinfluencedbyMalthusianeconomicideas. Resourcecompetitionandcarrying
cap.
ArchipelagoSpeciationDifferentfromadaptiveradiation.

WEEK9

Disjunct Distributions: Geographic range divided into two separate parts. Explained by
dispersal,climactic,geologic,evolutionary.
o Climatic disjunctions: Current climate restricts distribution(moles). Changes in
vegetation(ex.Gorillasseparatedbylargedistances).Magnolia.
o Geologicdisjunctions:Platetectonics,EQs,etc.Overall,vegetationandotherthings
growmore.Examples:OstrichinAfrica,EmuinAustralia.
o Evolutionary disjunction: New similar species develop in different portions of the
range of a common ancestor. (Species of Acacia and mesquite in North and South
America)
BiogeographicrelictsOncehadalargedistribution,butnowarenarrowendemics. Canbe
groupedintooneoracombinationofseveralfactors.

ISLANDBIOGEOGRAPHY

Shapedideasandinsightsintoevolution(DARWIN)
Island species differs from the mainland. (loss of dispersability, some dwarfism and
gigantism,orlowfoodsupply/areaandweaknessincompetition.)
Speciesrichnessincreaseswithislandsize(speciesareacurve).Localtoglobalscales,and
canbeaffectedbygeography.
Whatisanisland?Fragmentedandisolatedhabitatonwaterorland.
Isolationfromthemainlandwillincreasespeciesrichness. Inaddition,amountaininthe
middleofnowhere(comparedtoamountainrange)willcontainhigherspeciesrichnessthan
thatofamtnrange.
Angiosperm (flowering plants) diversity is greatest in the neotropic realm? Simply
becauseoftheunusualaltitudefluctuationsinthearea.
Equilibriumtheoryofislandbiogeography:whereimmigrationandextinctionarethesame.