MA10209 Algebra 1A

Sheet 6 Solutions v0: GCS

The course website is http://people.bath.ac.uk/masgcs/diary.html

Hand in work to your tutor by 15:15, Monday Nov 12.

1. Suppose that G is a group. Denote the group operation by juxtaposition, and the identity element
by 1.
(a) Suppose that a, b G. Prove that (ab)1 = b1 a1 .
Solution b1 a1 ab = 1 = abb1 a1 . We proved in lectures that there is a unique inverse
for each group element, so the inverse of ab is b1 a1 .
(b) Suppose that a G. Prove that (a2 )1 = (a1 )2 .
Solution (a1 )2 a2 = a1 a1 aa = a1 a = 1. Similarly a2 (a1 )2 = 1. We proved in lectures
that there is a unique inverse for each group element, so the inverse of a2 is (a1 )2 .
(c) Suppose that c, d G, that c2 d = dc2 and that cd2 = d2 c. Does it follow that cd = dc?
Solution No, this does not follow. For example, let G = S3 , and suppose that c, d S3 ;
c(1) = 2, c(2) = 1 and c(3) = 3; d(1) = 1, d(2) = 3 and d(3) = 2. Now c2 and d2 are both
the identity, so c2 d = dc2 and cd2 = d2 c. However c d(1) = 2 but d c(1) = 3 so c d 6= d c.
(d) Suppose that c, d G, that cd2 = d2 c and that cd3 = d3 c. Does it follow that cd = dc?
Solution Yes, this does follow. We have d3 c = cd3 = (cd2 )d = (d2 c)d = d2 (cd). Now
pre-multiply by (d2 )1 .
2. A subset H of a group G may form a group in its own right, borrowing the operation and
identity element from G. Prove that every subgroup of the additive group Z must be of the form
{kn | k Z} for some integer n. Your proof might begin Let H be a subgroup of Z. Either
H = {0} or N H 6= because if h H, then h H. If H 6= {0}, then choose . . . .
Solution This argument should be familiar from our discussions of the properties of gcds. Let H
be a subgroup of Z. Either H = {0} or N H 6= because if h H, then h H. If H 6= {0},
then let n be the smallest positive integer in H. Now {kn | k Z} is a subgroup of H. Now
suppose that h H. Divide h by n with smallest non-negative remainder, so h = qn + r where
q, r Z and 0 r < h. Now r = h qn H, so by minimality of n, we have r = 0. Therefore
H is a subgroup of {kn | k Z}. We have set inclusion in both directions, so H = {kn | k Z}.
3. Which of the following subsets of Q are subgroups of the additive group of rational numbers?
Justify your answers.


(a) m
|
m,
n

Z,
n
=
6
0,
gcd(6,
n)
=
1
n
Solution Suppose that m1 , m2 , n1 , n2 Z, that n1 6= 0 6= n2 , and that 6 is coprime with
both n1 and n2 . Then 6 is coprime to n1 n2 , so (m1 n2 + m2 n1 )/(n1 n2 ) is in the set, as is
(m1 )/n1 . The set contains 0 = 0/1, and is closed under both addition and the taking of
additive inverses, and so is an additive subgroup of Q.

m

| m, n Z, n 6= 0, n divides 20
Solution If q Q and there are m, n Z with n a divisor of 20 such that q = m/n, then
q = k/20 for some k Z. Conversely any rational of the form k/20 where k Z is in our set.
Our set therefore has the alternative description {k/20 | k Z}. This is visibly a subgroup,
since it is closed under addition and inversion, and contains 0 = 0/20.
m

(c) n | m, n Z, n 6= 0, |m| |n|
Solution This set contains 1 = 1/1 but does not contain 1 + 1 = 2. Therefore it is not a
subgroup.

(b)

4. Suppose that G is a group, and that H is a subgroup of G. Define a relation on G by writing

x y whenever x1 y H.
(a) Prove that is an equivalence relation.
Solution H is a subgroup, so 1 H, so for all a G we have a1 a = 1 H, so a a
and reflexivity is established. Next suppose that a, b G and a b. Therefore a1 b H.
Now H is a group, so is closed under taking inverses. By a result in Question 1, the inverse
of a1 b is b1 (a1 )1 . However, the inverse of a1 is a, so b1 a H. Therefore b a
and symmetry is established. Finally assume that a, b, c G are such that a b and
b c. Therefore a1 b, b1 c H. Now H is a group, so is closed under multiplication, and
therefore a1 bb1 c = a1 c H. Therefore a c and transitivity is established. Now is
an equivalence relation.
(b) Suppose that g G. Prove that the equivalence class [g] of g is {gh | h H} (which is often
written using the notation gH).
Solution For every h H, we have g 1 gh = h H, so g gh. On the other hand, if g k,
then g 1 k = h for some h H, and so k = gh. Therefore [g] = gH.
(c) Suppose that a, b G. Let c = ba1 . Use c and c1 to manufacture mutually inverse maps
between [a] and [b].
Solution Define c : [a] [b] by c (x) = cx for each x [a]. We have established that
[a] = aH and [b] = bH. If h H then c (ah) = ba1 (ah) = bh [b], so this definition makes
sense. We have an analogous map c1 : [b] [a] defined using left-multiplication by c1
(which can be written ab1 ). Notice that c1 c is the identity map on [a] and c c1
is the identity map on [b]. Therefore the maps c and c1 are bijections.
(d) Suppose that |G| is finite. Prove that |H| must divide |G|. This is a theorem of Lagrange.
Solution If G is finite, all our equivalence classes have the same size, and that is the size of
[1] which is H. If there are t equivalence classes, we have t|H| = |G| and so |H| divides |G|.
5. Prove that S3 has exactly 5 subgroups.
Solution We list the elements of S3 , giving them names. Let the identity be id. Let swap 1
and 2 but fix 3. Let swap 2 and 3 but fix 1. Let swap 3 and 1 but fix 2. let send 1 to 2, 2
to 3 and 3 to 1. Let send 1 to 3, 3 to 2 and 2 to 1. Now S3 = {id, , , , , }. Here are five
subgroups: {id}, {id, }, {id, }, {id, }, {id, , } and S3 . We must show that there are no more.
It is easy to verify that the product of any two different elements of the set {, , } is an element
of the set {, }. Therefore any subgroup which contains at least two different elements from the
set {, , } must contain both the identity element, and either or . Such a subgroup therefore
contains at least four elements and so, by Lagranges theorem, must be S3 . Therefore we need
only look for subgroups which contain at most one element from the set {, , }. Suppose that
a subgroup contains one such element, and either or , then it must also contain the identity,

and either 2 = or 2 = . Once again such a subgroup must have at least 4 elements and so,
by Lagranges theorem, be S3 . We conclude that any subgroup which is not S3 must either be
{id, }, {id, }, {id, }, or alternatively it is disjoint from {, , }. Such a subgroup must either
be {id}, or it must contain either or (and therefore also 2 = or 2 = ), and so must be the
subgroup {id, , }.
6. (a) Suppose that G is a finite group and g G. Write the operation as juxtaposition and the
identity element as 1. Show that there is a natural number m such that g m = 1. Here
g 0 = 1 and inductively g r is defined to be gg r1 for every r N.
Solution The elements g, g 2 , g 3 , . . . cannot all be different because G is finite. Therefore
there are natural numbers i, j with i < j such that g i = g j . Premultiplying by (g i )1 (which
is also (g 1 )i ) we find that g ji = 1. Put m = j i.
(b) In the established set-up, suppose that n is the smallest positive integer such that g n = 1,
then {1, g, g 2 , . . . , g n1 } is a subgroup of size n.
Solution These elements mainfestly form a group, since they contain 1, and they are closed
under multiplication and inversion. We must make sure that this subgroup has size n. By
design, none of these positive powers of g is 1. Suppose that g i = g j for 1 i < j n 1.
Then once again g ji = 1 would violate the choice of n, so this does not happen, and the
size of this subgroup is n.
(c) In the established set-up, suppose that g G, and m is the smallest natural number such
that g m = 1, then m divides |G|.
Solution We know that the subgroup {1, g, g 2 , . . . , g m1 } has size m, and Lagranges theorem applies so m divides |G|.
(d) Show that the multiplicative group of non-zero complex numbers has exactly one subgroup
of size n for each natural number n.
2ki
Solution Let Cn = {e n | k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1}. Notice that Cn is a multiplicative subgroup
of the multiplicative group of non-zero complex numbers. It contains n elements and consists
of all complex numbers z which satisfy z n = 1. For this reason we may describe Cn as the
group of complex n-th roots of 1. To complete this problem, we must consider a subgroup
H of size n. Choose any h H with h 6= 1. Now by the previous part, hm = 1 for some
natural number n which divides n. Therefore hn = 1, and h is an n-th root of 1. Therefore
H Cn . However, |H| = n = |Cn | so H = Cn .
7. Suppose that p is a prime number, and that q is an integer not divisible by p. Consider gcd(p, q),
and deduce that every non-zero element of Zp has a multiplicative inverse. Prove that Zp is a
field.
Solution Suppose that [q] is a non-zero element of Zp . Therefore p does not divide q, so
gcd(p, q) = 1. Therefore there are integers , such that p + q = 1. Therefore [p + q] = [1],
so [][p] + [][q] = [1]. Now [p] = [0], so [][q] = [1]. Now Zp is a ring in which the additive and
multiplicative identities are different. Moreover if a, b are not zero, but ab = 0, then multiplying
by [a]1 [b]1 we would discover that 1 = 0 which is not the case. Therefore Zp is an integral
domain, and its non-zero elements are multiplicatively invertible, so it is a field. Notice that the
argument we have given is perfectly general. So to check that a ring is a field, it is enough to
establish that 1 6= 0, and the non-identity elements are all invertible. Our argument shows that
such a structure must be an integral domain. Notice that the non-zero elements of a field form a
group under multiplication.
8. Suppose that the positive integer n > 1 is composite (i.e. it is not a prime number). Prove that

Zn is not a field.
Solution Suppose that n is composite, so there are natural numbers u and v, both bigger than
1, such that n = uv. Now [u][v] = [n] = [0], but [u] 6= [0] 6= [v]. Therefore Zn is not an integral
domain.
9. Suppose that R is an integral domain and that R is a finite set. For each non-zero element r R,
define a map r : R R by r (s) = rs for each s R.
(a) Prove that each r is injective.
Solution Suppose that s, t R and r (s) = r (t). Then rs = rt. We have established a
cancellation property in integral domains. Since r 6= 0 we have s = t, so r is injective.
(b) Deduce that each r is surjective.
Solution A injective map from a finite set to itself must be bijective.
(c) Deduce that each r R has a multiplicative inverse.
Solution Since each map r is surjective, there must be s R such that r (s) = 1, so
rs = 1.
(d) Deduce that every finite integral domain is a field.
Solution We have done it, since we shown that every finite integral domain has the property
that its non-zero elements have multiplicative inverses.
10. (Harder) Suppose that In = {1, 2, . . . , n}, and Sn denotes the symmetric group consisting of all
bijections f : In In . We suppose that n > 1. A transposition is any t Sn such that t is not
the identity, but t fixes n 2 elements of the domain. Suppose that g Sn . Prove that g is the
composition of at most n transpositions.
Solution Not yet, but here is a solution to Problem 10 of Sheet 4. Using the Fibonacci sequence
defined in Question 9, prove that
gcd(Fm , Fn ) = Fgcd(m,n)
for all m, n N.
There are all sorts of identities relating Fibonacci numbers. This one is quite well known:
Fm+n = Fm+1 Fn + Fm Fn1

()

for all integers m, n 0. We address the main result by induction on m + n. The result holds by
inspection when m = n = 1, because
gcd(F1 , F1 ) = gcd(1, 1) = 1 = F1 = Fgcd(1,1) .
Assume that m + n > 2. The result holds by inspection when m = n, and without loss of
generality we may assume that m > n.
Replace m by m n in () to obtain Fm = Fmn+1 Fn + Fmn Fn1 . Recall that Fn1 is coprime
to Fn (Sheet 4, Problem 9), so any integer which is a common divisor of Fm and Fn must divide
Fmn (we are invoking the result of Problem 5(a)). Conversely any integer which is a common
divisor of Fn and Fmn will divide Fm . Therefore the pairs (Fm , Fn ) and (Fmn , Fn ) have the
same common divisors, and hence the same gcds. Now by induction gcd(Fmn , Fn ) = Fgcd(mn,n) .
However, the pairs (m, n) and (m n, n) have the same common divisors and hence the same
gcds. Therefore
gcd(Fm , Fn ) = Fgcd(m,n) .