Environ Geochem Health

DOI 10.1007/s10653-016-9878-1

ORIGINAL PAPER

Radon levels in Romanian caves: an occupational exposure

survey
Alexandra Cucos Dinu . Monica I. Calugar . Bety D. Burghele .
Oana A. Dumitru . Constantin Cosma . Bogdan P. Onac

Received: 9 May 2016 / Accepted: 20 September 2016

 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016

Abstract A comprehensive radon survey has been

carried out in seven caves located in the western half
of Romanias most significant karst regions. Touristic
and non-touristic caves were investigated with the aim
to provide a reliable distribution of their radon levels
and evaluate the occupational exposure and associated
effective doses. Radon gas concentrations were measured with long-term diffusion-type detectors during
two consecutive seasons (warm and cold). All investigated caves exceed the European Union reference
level of radon gas at workplaces (300 Bq/m3). The
radon concentration in these caves ranges between 53
and 2866 Bq/m3, reflecting particular cave topography, season-related cave ventilation, and complex
tectonic and geological settings surrounding each
location. Relatively homogeneous high radon levels
occur in all investigated touristic caves and in

Taus oare and Vantului along their main galleries.

Except for Muierii, in all the other caves radon levels
are higher during the warm season, compared to the
cold one. This suggests that natural cave ventilation
largely controls the underground accumulation of
radon. The results reported here reveal that the
occupational exposure in Urs ilor, Vadu Cris ului,
Taus oare, Vantului, and Muierii caves needs to be
carefully monitored. The effective doses to workers
vary between an average of 0.25 and 4.39 mSv/year
depending on the measuring season. The highest
values were recorded in show caves, ranging from
1.15 to 6.15 mSv/year, well above the European
recommended limit, thus posing a potential health
hazard upon cave guides, cavers, and scientists.
Keywords Radon levels  CR-39 detectors  Cave 
Annual dose  Health hazard  Romania

Constantin Cosma: deceased.

A. Cucos Dinu  B. D. Burghele  O. A. Dumitru 
C. Cosma
Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering,
Babes -Bolyai University, Fantanele 30,
400294 Cluj-Napoca, Romania

O. A. Dumitru  B. P. Onac (&)

Karst Research Group, School of Geosciences, University
of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave, NES 107, Tampa,
FL 33620, USA
e-mail: bonac@usf.edu

M. I. Calugar
Department of Geology, Babes -Bolyai University,
Kogalniceanu 1, 400084 Cluj-Napoca, Romania

B. P. Onac
Emil Racovit a Institute of Speleology, Clinicilor 5,
400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania

M. I. Calugar
S.C. Daflog S.R.L., Garii 17, 551010 Medias , Sibiu,
Romania

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Environ Geochem Health

Introduction
The exposure to radon (222Rn) and its decay products
in homes and at workplaces, whether aboveground or
underground (mines, caves, etc.), represents the
greatest risk from natural ionizing radiation (Cigna
2005; Darby et al. 2006; Field et al. 2006; Cosma et al.
2009; ICRP 2010). Worldwide, several studies on
public health impact classify radon along with its
progeny, as the main environmental factor causing
bronchial tissue damage and lung cancer (IARC 1988;
Yamada 2003; Craven and Smit 2006; WHO 2009).
Generally, people are aware that outdoor air pollution
can impact their health, but they know far less about
indoors exposure to radon.
Caves are recognized as occupational environments; therefore, a large body of literature investigating radon distribution and its associated health effects
for workers and visitors exists (Kobal et al. 1986;
Eheman et al. 1991; Cigna 2005; Sainz et al. 2007;
Somlai et al. 2007; Tempfer et al. 2010; Dumitru et al.
2015a). The main radon source is the radioactive
decay of 238U or 226Ra from the rocks below the cave
or even from the host limestone (Somogyi et al. 1989;
Gillmore et al. 2000). A number of factors, including
cave morphology and meroclimate (temperature,
relative humidity, and ventilation), rock porosity and
fracture density, as well as outside meteorological
conditions (temperature, barometric pressure) control
radons concentration both within and between caves.
The interplay between these factors causes radon
concentrations in caves worldwide to vary widely
(Gillmore et al. 2000; Field 2007; Dumitru et al.
2015a, b), from 500 to 2500 Bq/m3 (Romania, Hungary, Spain, Slovenia, UK, Brazil, Poland, Russia,
South Africa, etc.) (Cigna 2005) to values up to
7000 Bq/m3 (summer) in the Palvolgy Cave, Hungary
(Somlai et al. 2011), and even up to 50,000 Bq/m3 in
Castanar de Ibor, Spain (Lario et al. 2006; AlvarezGallego et al. 2015). When accumulation of this gas
reaches high level in enclosed spaces, it could induce
significant and harmful effects. Overall, the results
reported show that radon concentration in touristic
caves does not pose health problems for visitors, but
they may cause possible hazards for cave guides,
cavers, and professionals conducting scientific
research (Gillmore et al. 2000; Field 2007).
The most recent European Union Directive for
protection from ionizing radiation (2013/59/Euratom)

123

establishes a reference level for the annual average

radon activity concentration in air at workplaces of
300 Bq/m3. In case of concentrations higher than this
level the Member State shall require this situation to
be notified. The current recommendations issued by
International Commission on Radiological Protection
(ICRP) suggest an annual average dose limit of
20 mSv/year for the occupational and 1 mSv/year
for the public. In cases where the exposure of workers
is liable to exceed an effective dose of 6 mSv/year or a
corresponding time-integrated radon exposure value,
the site should be managed as a planned exposure
situation, the application of dose limits should be
followed, and the operational protection requirements
should be determined (2013/59/Euratom; Gruber et al.
2014). This request also extends to all show caves, and
recommends cave managers or agencies granting
permission for activities in non-touristic caves, to
notify their employees, cavers, and scientists if high
levels of radon occur.
Romanias karst regions host over 12,000 caves
(Vlaicu pers. comm.), many of great interest to cavers
and scientists alike. Although the number of show
caves is still low (17), there is a tendency nowadays to
make more caves (or part of them) accessible for
tourism. To date, only two preliminary studies based
on short-term radon measurements were conducted in
Urs ilor (Bears) and Muierii (Womans) caves (BicanBris an et al. 2013, 2016). These papers report elevated
Rn levels and an increased associated risk for guides
and workers. Since there is no specific legislation in
Romania about radiation dose, it is needless to say that
none of the show caves has yet implemented any
thorough protocols for monitoring indoor air quality.
Our research provides the first comprehensive
survey of radon levels distribution in some of Romanias most representative caves, thus aligning to the
European legislation requirements. The overarching
goal of our work was to conduct systematic measurements of radon concentration and to explain its
variability in both space (intra-cave) and time (seasonal). This study represents one step further in
addressing public health issue related to radon gas
exposure in caves (currently neglected in Romania),
by documenting areas characterized by excessive
concentrations. The data presented here bring a wealth
of valuable information regarding seasonal trends and
other influencing factors (i.e., local geology, specific
ventilation, and morphology), which are not usually

Environ Geochem Health

provided by traditional screening or short-term measurements. Furthermore, our results will serve the
Romanian authorities to reinforce the health standards
associated with radon exposure in cave environments,
to limit the working hours in hot-spot areas, and to
recommend adequate reference levels into our countrys legislation.

Materials and methods

Cave settings
Several criteria were used when selecting the caves for
this study. Among them, it was our priority to include
both non-touristic and show caves (developed for mass
tourism). Next, we choose cavities documented to
have particular aerodynamic exchanges with the
exterior (cave ventilation). To better accommodate
this last requirement, caves having both horizontal
(single or multi-level passages) and steeply descending galleries were selected. Considering that the radon
levels depend on the U and Ra concentration in the
bedrock and that rock characteristics (e.g., porosity,
degree of fracturing) control Rn entry, we opted for
caves developed in a variety of structural and geological settings. Consequently, the investigated caves are
scattered in some of the most significant karst regions
of western Romania (Fig. 1). Two of the monitored
show caves (Urs ilor and Muierii) are the most visited
caves of Romania, totalizing about 250.000 visitors/
year.

stable year around (Racovit a and Craciun 1970).

During summer, warm outside air enters the cave
along its ceiling, cools down, and exits at the floor
level; in winter, the direction of air circulation
reverses.
Urs ilor (Bears) Cave
Urs ilor is Romanias most famous and visited karst
cave, attracting in average *200.000 visitors every
year. The cave is carved in slightly metamorphosed
limestones of Upper Jurassic age and consists of
1500 m of large and well-decorated galleries and
chambers spread on two distinct levels (Rusu 1981).
Conglomerates, sandstones, and shales of Permian
age known to host important concentrations of
uranium occur in the proximity of the cave (Matyasi
1998).
Because Urs ilor has two artificial entrances
(Fig. 2b) equipped with doors that completely seal
the cave, when these are closed there is no underground airflow. However, when doors open, the
ventilation is permanent unidirectional. In the cold
season air enters the cave at the floor level through the
lower entrance, pushing the warm air out at the ceiling
level through the upper artificial entrance (tourist
exit). During warm season the convection cell
reverses. The mean annual cave temperature is
*9.8 C, and its relative humidity remains years
around between 98 and 100 % (Racovit a et al.
20022003).
Muierii (Womans) Cave

Vadu Cris ului Cave

The entrance in Vadu Cris ului Cave opens in the
central section of the scenic Cris ul Repede Gorge, in
the northern part of Padurea Craiului Mountains
(Fig. 1). The cave passages develop in massive Lower
Cretaceous limestones on two main levels cumulating
a total length of 1510 m (Fig. 2a). Along the lower
passage an underground stream flows, whereas the
upper level is dry (Rusu 1988). The cave was opened
for tourism as early as 1969 and fitted with metal
ladders, bridges, and a lighting system.
Because the cave is horizontal and has only one
entrance, its ventilation regime is permanent bidirectional and it only influences the first 100 m from the
entrance; beyond this point the cave climate remains

Muierii Cave is situated in the southwestern part of

Parang Mountains (South Carpathians), at 2 km north
of Baia de Fier Village (Fig. 1). It represents a former
meander of the Galbenu Creek, which penetrated a
narrow strip of Upper Jurassic limestones along a
NNW-SSE-oriented fault (Bleahu et al. 1976). The
crystalline basement of the Parang Mountains in its
southern part is represented by the Getic Nappe
formed by Precambrian amphibolites, quarto-feldspathic gneisses, paragneiss, and mica-schists (Balintoni 1997).
Presently, the cave spreads on 4 levels and reaches
almost 4 km in length (Fig. 2c) of which *600 m are
open to visitors (Orghidan et al. 1984). Muierii has
two main entrances located at comparable elevations

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Environ Geochem Health

Uk ra i ne

g a
ry

N
EA
OC
IC
NT

AT

LA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

1 4

7
2

a
ov
ld

80km

Cluj-Napoca

6
,

S e

raine
Uk

r b

Bucharest

B u l
a
g a r i
Fig. 1 Location map indicating the investigated sites within Romania. Show caves: 1 Vadu Cris ului, 2 Urs ilor, 3 Muierii. Nontouristic caves: 4 Vantului, 5 Despicatura, 6 Scaris oara, 7 Taus oare (inset: location of Romania in Europe)

SW

NE
3

100 m

Entrance

Fig. 2 Location of the CR39 detectors in the show

caves: a Vadu Cris ului
(simplified from Racovit a
and Craciun 1970), b Urs ilor
(modified from Rusu 1981),
c Muierii (simplified from
Bleahu et al. 1976)

3
4
2

Bo

Exit

11

n
Ca

dl

es

Pa

g
sa

Emil Racovi

sa

ne

Pa

ssa

ge

77

ge

50 m

Entrance

Entrance

c
2

Exit
3

40 m

Bears Gallery
(lower level)

that serve as access and exit points for tourists. The

cave also has few higher elevations, not traversable
openings. Local, thermally induced air currents

123

establish between each of the main entrance and

nearby upper level openings. Thus, instead of an
expected unidirectional ventilation, the so-called

Environ Geochem Health

chimney effect produces several convection cells

through which during summer, the warm air is drawn
into the cave and blown out through the lower altitude
entrances. The opposite process is common during
cold months.
Vantului (Wind) Cave
Vantului Cave is located in the central-northern part
of Padurea Craiului Mountains (Fig. 1), in the
middle section of the Cris ul Repede Gorge,
upstream from S uncuius Village. The cave develops
within a white-greyish massive reef limestone unit
(180 m thick) of middle Triassic age, which is
sandwiched between dolomites and quartzite sandstones, the latter rich in sulfides (Valenas and
Iurkiewiecz 19801981; Onac 2002). Vantului Cave
is considered Romanias longest underground system with a total length of its passages exceeding
50 km (Szilagyi et al. 2007). The labyrinthic
network of galleries is arranged at different elevations along four main levels (Valenas and Iurkiewiecz 19801981) (Fig. 3a).
The ventilation of this cave is unidirectional (Onac
and Racovit a 1992), meaning it has at least two
entrances situated at different elevations. The only
known accessible entrance is located at the lowest
altitude; thus, winter ventilation has an ascendant
character, whereas in summer, the cold air (*9 C) is
blown out, hence the caves name.
Despicatura Cave
Despicatura Cave is a short (105 m), Y-shaped
horizontal cavity developed in Upper Jurassic-Lower
Cretaceous limestones (Fig. 3b), along a secondary
fracture associated with the Hercules Fault (Povara
et al. 1972). The cave is located at the northern limit
of the Baile Herculane Spa, near the Old Roman
Baths, and hosts two hot springs. The thermal
activity in this region is related to the presence of
Cerna Granite in the basement (Povara et al. 2008),
which is also responsible for the high radioactivity
([200 nCi/l NTP) recorded in some of the springs
(Cosma et al. 1996). The radon flows measured in
the Herculane area vary between 13 and 195 Bq/m2/
s (Cosma and Jurcut 1996). Having only one
entrance, the ventilation of Despicatura Cave is
permanent bidirectional.

Scaris oara Ice Cave

Scaris oara Ice Cave (SIC) is located in the central part
of the Bihor Mountains at an elevation of 1165 m
(Fig. 1). It is a steeply descending cave formed in
Upper Jurassic limestones (Bucur and Onac 2000).
SIC hosts worlds oldest and largest underground ice
deposit (Pers oiu Trtu 2011), making it an international tourist destination. To access the ice block, one
has to climb down (along metal stairs) a 48-m-deep
shaft. From here, the touristic path circles around the
Great Hall and has a nice viewing balcony toward the
Church Room. The access into the deeper parts of the
cave surrounding the *24.5-m-thick ice block (Small
and Great reserves) is restricted to scientists. The
Great Reserve includes the Maxim Pop Gallery, the
Cathedral, and the Coman Passage (Fig. 3c).
Due to its particular morphology, SIC is characterized by seasonal bidirectional ventilation, in which the
active phase is limited to the winter season (Racovit a
and Onac 2000). During this period, the outside cold
dense air sinks into the cave pushing out the warmer
air. In summer, the surfacecave exchange stops
because the less dense, warm air cannot replace the
cold one accumulated deeper in the cave.
Izvorul Taus oarelor Cave (hereafter Taus oare)
Taus oare Cave is located in the SW part of the Rodnei
Mountains at an elevation of 950 m (Fig. 1), and it
represents a typical example of tectonically controlled
speleogenesis (Fig. 3d), since the majority of galleries
are formed along main joints and faults (Silvestru
1984). The cave develops in pure to sandy Eocene
limestone interbedded with thin layers of black
bituminous shales, unit that overlies the crystalline
basement of Rodnei Mountains. Sandstones and a
highly weathered rhyolite body outcrop proximal to
the cave (Viehmann and S erban 1987). The uranium
(238U) content measured in stalagmites from Balls
Room reaches 2600 ppm, thus indicating high concentrations in limestone and/or surrounding rocks
(Dragus in pers. comm.).
The total length of the cave exceeds 8 km, and its
passages are mostly descending (deepest point: 329 m
below the cave entrance; Tomus pers. comm.). Due to
the cave configuration and topography, the ventilation
regime is not fully understood. During winter, air
movements of varying strength are perceptible within

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Environ Geochem Health

the cave, especially near the entrance and along most

narrow passages. In the summer, however, the aerodynamic exchanges with exterior cease almost completely. The airflow is weaker this time of the year
because the difference between outside and inside air
density is small. The mean air temperature in the inner
parts of Taus oare Cave is 5.8 and 8 C for the cold and
warm season, respectively (Onac et al. 2001).

the comparison between samples was made with t test,

applied to the natural logarithm of the radon concentration. The validity of distribution model was checked
with the ShapiroWilk test. The significance level was
chosen at a = 0.05. The coefficient of variation (CV)
was calculated to evaluate the variability of radon
levels between different measured sectors in each
cave, as the ratio of standard deviation (SD) to the
average of radon concentration (AM).

Radon measurement technique and data analysis

Assessment of the radiological hazards
The airborne alpha radiations from radon were measured in galleries and main chambers of seven caves
using 87 CR-39 passive detectors (RSKS type;
RadoSys Hungary), in agreement with validated
procedures proposed by HPA Radiation Protection
Division (Miles and Howarth 2008). The widespread
use of CR-39 passive detectors has two major
advantages: they are relatively inexpensive and
provide accurate results when the average effective
radon concentration is measured over longer periods
of time.
To provide results at requisite precision and
accuracy, a quality assurance program along with
good laboratory practices was implemented. This is
based on the metrology certification of detectors and
periodical international intercomparisons to calibrate
the instruments (Sainz et al. 2009; Burghele and
Cosma 2013; Cosma et al. 2015; Papp et al. 2016). The
measuring technique and processing of results follow
the protocol described in our prior studies (Sainz et al.
2009; Cucos et al. 2012; Cosma et al. 2013; Dumitru
et al. 2015a).
Considering the large seasonal fluctuations emphasized for caves worldwide (Field 2007; Sainz et al.
2007; Dumitru et al. 2015a, b), long-term radon
measurements were performed during the representative seasons of Romanian climate. In order to give an
accurate assessment of the seasonal average radon
concentration and to calculate the corresponding
effective dose received by public and workers, the
detectors were deployed in two consecutive periods:
warm (July to early November 2012) and cold
(November 2012April 2013). To record the background level needed to correct cave values, four
similar sensors were exposed outside over the same
time period.
The statistical analysis has been performed with
GraphPad Prism 5.0 (GraphPad, San Diego, USA) and

123

To accurately evaluate the potential health risks for the

caves personnel and scientists over each investigated
season, long-term radon measurements were combined with information regarding working hours in
show caves or time spent by cavers, researchers, or
rangers in non-touristic caves. The effective doses
received by inhaling radon and its daughter products
have been estimated based on data collected for each
cave, by applying the equation of Papachristodoulou
et al. (2004):
ERn CRn  F  t  d  u

where ERn = effective dose (mSv/year); CRn = the

average radon concentration inside the cave air (Bq/
m3); F = the average radon equilibrium factor
between radon and the decay products, F = 0.57
calculated by Cigna (2005) based on a large number of
data for caves worldwide; t represents the time spent
inside (h/y); d = dose conversion factor of 1.4 for
workers (mSv/mJ h/m3) (ICRP 1993), and u is the unit
factor of 5.6 9 10-6 [(mJ/m3)/Bq/m3].
Given that the experimental work was less than
1 year (4.5 months during the warm period and
5.5 months in the cold season), the annual effective
dose received by public and workers could be
estimated by extrapolating the results to an annual
cycle. To avoid possible errors in the annual estimates,
the effective doses were calculated by taking into
account the time spent inside the cave by permanent
professionals (i.e., guides and cavers) during each
season.
Using the available information on the number of
tourists per year for each show cave, the duration of
each visit, group size, and number of hours per year
spent underground by guides, a weighted average of
650 and 480 h/year/guide for Urs ilor and Muierii/
Vadu Cris ului, respectively, was assumed. For all non-

Fig. 3 Distribution of the

radon detectors in each of
the non-touristic caves:
a Vantului (modified from
Szilagyi et al. 2007),
b Despicatura (modified
from Povara et al. 1972),
c Scaris oara (modified from
Racovit a and Onac 2000),
d Taus oare (modified from
Papiu 2007)

Entrance

Environ Geochem Health

a
1

3
st

1 level

2nd level
middle level

200 m
Entrance

11
3

8m
2

Shaft

N
?

M.

Great Hall

Little Reserve

Ice block

S
Great Reserve

Po

pP

as

50 m

Cathedral
sa

ge

Co

3
4
2

ma

nP

ass

age

6
7

Entrance
11
2

d
700 Gallery
4

50 m
6

Gypsum Passage

Balls Room

Table Room

touristic caves a cumulated period of 180 h/year/worker was considered by cumulating 15 working hours
monthly, except for the investigated part of Scaris oara
for which a maximum of 250 h/year was chosen with

175 h during the warm period and 75 h during the cold

period. The reason for this difference is because longterm research studies are more common in SIC
compared to the other non-touristic sites.

123

Environ Geochem Health

Design of survey and measurement campaigns

Results and discussions

To provide reliable results for the pattern of radon

concentration, 47 locations within 7 caves were
carefully selected according to the accessibility,
specific morphology, and configuration of each cave.
Except for Despicatura that could only accommodate
4 detectors (Fig. 3b), in all the other caves, 6 to 8 sites
were investigated as described below. In Vadu
Cris ului and Urs ilor the radon detectors were installed
along the touristic footpath, at various distances from
the main entrance (Fig. 2a, b). Seven stations were
chosen in Muierii (Fig. 2c), six in the main touristic
gallery and one within the Bears Gallery (lower level),
where only professionals are allowed to enter. In
Vantului Cave the measuring points were selected
within 800 m from the entrance along the most visited
passages (Fig. 3a). Although Scaris oara Ice Cave has
a touristic section on top of the ice block (Great Hall;
Fig. 3c), the seven detectors were deployed outside
the touristic part, along the Maxim Pop Gallery,
Cathedral, and in the Coman Passage (Fig. 3c).
Taus oare, the deepest of all investigated caves, hosted
eight detectors spread from its entrance down to
-200 m along the main visiting pathway (700
Gallery, Table Room, Gypsum Passage; Fig. 3d).

The Rn results for each cave are listed in Table 1 and

illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4. These data are further
analyzed and discussed in detail, in order to evaluate
and better understand the factors that control radon
distribution.
Radon levels in show caves
Vadu Cris ului Cave
The radon concentrations in Vadu Cris ului Cave vary
significantly between 151 and 1442 Bq/m3, but the
differences between the seasons are muted (Fig. 4).
The radon values are lower within 150 m from the
cave entrance, where the bidirectional convection cell
is operating. Regardless of the season, the airflow in
this sector is strong enough to flush out some of the
radon and prevent higher accumulations of this gas.
Further inside the cave, a stable meroclimate is
established, meaning the thermo-circulation is negligible, and thus, radon accumulates and remains high
throughout the year. A particular situation occurs in
station 4 where values for the warm season are lower
than those of the cold period. An explanation could be

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of radon gas concentrations in 7 representative Romanian caves

GMa
(Bq/m3)

SDb
(Bq/m3)

CVc
(%)

Effective
dose
(mSv/y)

703

423

48

1.88

694

448

52

1.86

1501

168

11

4.39

Season

Show
caves

Vadu
Cris ului

Warm

875

164

1235

Cold

866

151

1442

Urs ilor

Warm

1510

1290

1760

Cold

651

497

888

643

108

17

1.89

Muierii

Warm

534

248

1416

456

368

69

1.15

Cold

1857

1383

2866

1778

589

32

3.98

Vantului

Warm

2063

1929

2136

2062

65

1.66

Cold

603

410

866

587

141

23

0.48

Warm

401

336

455

398

49

12

0.32

Despicatura

Cold

315

276

339

314

24

0.25

Scaris oara

Warm
Cold

6
6

914
616

789
413

1058
856

909
593

89
163

10
26

1.02
0.69

Taus oare

Warm

2376

1182

2738

2312

461

19

1.91

Cold

654

53

1250

490

367

56

0.53

GM geometric mean

SD standard deviation

CV coefficient of variation (=SD/AM 9 100 %)

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Average
Rn conc.
(Bq/m3)

Maximum
value
(Bq/m3)

Cave

Nontouristic
caves

Number of
detectors

Minimum
value
(Bq/m3)

Type

Environ Geochem Health

the stable microclimate and the limited air movement

in this passage. The relatively high levels of radon in
the inner part of the cave may pose health hazard, even
if exposure times are limited.

Radon levels in non-touristic caves that operate

adventure tours

Urs ilor Cave

The distribution of radon concentrations in Vantului

Cave is homogeneous (CV = 3 %, see Table 1), with
levels constantly above 2000 Bq/m3 in all stations
during the warm season (Fig. 4). This pattern is
expected as the air flows from the inner part of the cave
and is well homogenized. The highest radon concentrations corresponding to the warm season were
measured at two distinct locations (stations 3 and 5,
Fig. 3a). Detector 3 was placed on the floor of a culde-sac room (used as camping site by cavers)
suspended *4 m above the underground river level.
Apparently, this location outside the main airflow path
that follows the river passage promotes accumulation
of Rn in summer time. The other station (5) was in the
upper part of a narrow, poorly ventilated meandering
gallery.
The radon concentration shows a slight increase
with distance from the entrance during the cold
seasons (Fig. 4). This trend reflects the ventilation
regime, since during winter, cold fresh air blows
inward and pushes the warm Rn-rich air toward deeper
parts of the cave.

The radon concentrations ranging between 497 and

1760 Bq/m3 (Table 1; Fig. 4) show seasonal uniform
distribution with moderate variations throughout the
cave. In both seasons, Rn values show a general
increasing trend with distance from the entrance. The
unidirectional ventilation of the cave maintains lower
concentrations nearby entrances, but instead favors the
build up of Rn beyond its influence zone.
As expected, the highest exposures correspond to the
warm season in stations 7 and 8 (Fig. 2b). These are
located at the end of the Emil Racovit a Passage, which
has been shown to lie in the stability cave meroclimate
zone (Racovit a et al. 20022003). The mean radon
concentrations during the warm season were 2.4 times
higher than in the cold period (Table 1), difference that
is statistically significant (t test, one tail, p \ 0.001).
Knowing that Urs ilor is Romanias most visited
cave, an associated health risk may occur for cave
guides and attendants due to the cumulative exposure.
As a consequence, protective actions should be
considered.

Vantului Cave

Despicatura Cave
Muierii Cave
The radon concentrations along the touristic trail of
Muierii Cave vary slightly during the warm season and
remained high (between 1383 and 2866 Bq/m3) in the
cold period (Fig. 4). The highest radon level was
measured during the winter time in a semi-confined
side passage near the entrance (station 1, Fig. 2c). The
warm season outlier value of 1416 Bq/m3 comes from
Bears Gallery, a non-touristic, poorly ventilated part
of the cave (station 6, Fig. 2c).
The reversed seasonal pattern (higher values in
winter compared to summer) could be explained by the
chimney-type ventilation and the location of the
convection cells within the cave (see cave description),
which cause a more efficient airflow during the warm
season. To better characterize the potential health risk
pointed out by our results, a larger data set is necessary
to decipher the seasonal trends in Muierii Cave.

Regardless of the season, the radon levels are low,

ranging between 276 and 455 Bq/m3 (Fig. 4;
Table 1). For each station, the highest value corresponds to the warm period. These values are somehow
surprising since the limestone unit is above the Cerna
granite and the cave develops along a fault line. This
implies very efficient cave ventilation and consequently no health hazard to exposed workers.
Scaris oara Ice Cave
The seasonal radon distribution results within Scaris oara Ice Cave are plotted in Fig. 5a. The concentrations show a homogenous distribution in the warm
period, whereas in the cold season values are far more
scattered. The particular seasonal descending bidirectional ventilation of the cave explains the disparity
between seasons.

123

Environ Geochem Health

Distance from cave entrance (m)
300

400

500

600

Vadu Cri ului

400
0
100

200

300

400

500

600

Taus oare Cave

1400

Ur ilor

1000
600
200
100

200

300

400

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0

Muierii

The radon concentrations in Taus oare Cave vary

significantly depending on measuring seasons. During
the warm period, consistently high values uniformly
distributed along the main visiting pathway, were
measured whereas the cold season shows a larger
variability (Fig. 5b). A reasonable explanation for
higher radon levels deeper in the cave may reside in its
Distance from cave entrance (m)

a
100

200

300

400

500

600

2200
-3)

1200

400

700

1150
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

350

-55
-65

-75
-85

550

450

350

400

150

Despic tura

200

250

300

350

Distance from cave entrance (m)

350
300

250
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Distance from cave entrance (m)

warm season

cold season

150

300

450

600

750

900

3000
2500
2000

1500
2

Fig. 4 Seasonal variation of radon concentration in touristic

and non-touristic caves

-50

1000

1500

-100
8

1200

Radon levels display an increasing trend toward the

deeper parts of the cave. The most elevated values
were recorded during the warm season in areas
characterized by stable meroclimatic conditions (stations 37, Fig. 3c). During winter period when cave
ventilation is active, the cold fresh air descends and
drives out the warm, less dense cave air. This airflow is
responsible for lowering the Rn levels throughout the
cave. Even so, in the lower parts of the cave (below

123

-95
-105

750

500
)

300

950

200

-3

250

1000

600

Rn concentration

200

1200

800

1700

-3
)

Rn concentration

-3

150

Depth from cave

entrance (m)

-3

1800

-3)

70 m from entrance), the values are still high (especially in stations 3 and 5). The accumulation of radon
at these depths is favored by the morphology of
galleries and less efficient ventilation. Based on these
results, potentially harmful effects for exposed cavers
and scientists may occur in both seasons, along the
Maxim Pop and Coman passages (stations 37).

900

-150

Depth from cave

entrance (m)

800

Rn concentration

200

1200

Rn concentration

100

1600
-3

Rn concentration

-200

600
300
0
0

150

300

450

600

750

900

Distance from cave entrance (m)

Summer

Winter

Station #

Fig. 5 Radon distribution during the warm and cold seasons

along the adventure tour paths in Scaris oara (a) and Taus oare
(b). The vertical elevation is also shown in brown

Environ Geochem Health

particular descending topography and the absence of

significant natural ventilation during the warm season.
In addition, the high density of fractures along which
cave developed probably favors a fairly good migration of radon from the basement rocks into the cave.
The lowest radon concentrations for both seasons
were measured near the cave entrance (station 1).
However, the summer-corresponding value is 1000
times larger, clearly documenting the lack of any
inward airflow. The unexpected high Rn levels
recorded in stations 3, 4, 7, and 8 (Figs. 3d, 5b) in
the cold season suggest weaker ventilation along those
sections.
Radon variations in Romanian caves
and influencing factors
The variability of radon concentrations within the
surveyed underground galleries is the result of the
interplay between the complex geological settings,
cave morphological particularities, and type of ventilation. The latter one is especially important since it
directly affects the radon transport and accumulation
in caves. The summary of radon gas concentrations
integrated for two consecutive seasons in all investigated caves is presented in Table 1.
Cave radon levels range from 53 to 2866 Bq/m3,
values that largely depend on the measuring season
and the specific meroclimate of each cave. Regardless
of these factors, the average radon concentrations (in
both seasons) exceed the reference level of 300 Bq/m3
in all investigated caves. The difference between the
averages of radon concentrations in the two periods is
statistically significant (p \ 0.001).
The highest mean radon concentrations documented by both the average and geometric mean
(GM), occur in Urs ilor, Muierii, Vantului, and
Taus oare caves. While in all caves the highest
exposures correspond to the warm period, a seasonal
reversed pattern was observed in Muierii Cave
(Table 1), with a large heterogeneous variation
(CV = 69 %). This tendency can be attributed to the
elevated natural airflow movement, associated with
the structure of the cave. The seasonal radon concentrations measured in Muierii and Urs ilor caves are
comparable with the average levels of radon previously reported by Bican-Bris an et al. (2013, 2016).
The coefficient of variation (CV) measured within the
same cave is as high as 37 % in Muierii and Taus oare,

indicating a large variability between the stations.

Homogeneous and relatively homogeneous results
(CV \ 20 %) were documented in Urs ilor and
Despicatura in both measuring seasons, as well as in
Scaris oara, Vantului, and Taus oare during the warm
period, when uniform high values were recorded in all
stations.
A particular situation was observed in Vadu
Cris ului Cave, with radon values virtually similar
throughout the year. This pattern can be related to the
specific morphology and cave configuration, which
allows the installation of a stable meroclimate beyond
100 m from the entrance (locations 36, Fig. 2a) in
measured galleries.
The most probable sources of radon inside our
investigated caves are the rocks below the carbonate
units, if not the limestones themselves. Although
limestone has very low uranium content, 222Rn in
caves can reach significant levels due to poor ventilation (Thinova et al. 2005). Considering the petrographic settings of all seven caves, elevated radon
levels could also be associated with the presence of
igneous and metamorphic rocks in the basement. For
example, the high values in Urs ilor Cave are clearly
related to the Permian age uranium-rich sedimentary
rocks found in the close proximity (Matyasi 1998).
Therefore, local geology and lack of ventilation are the
most significant variables that control the source and
behavior of radon inside caves.
Assessment of radiation dose
The current European legislation requires dose evaluation in workplaces with elevated radon levels;
workers with annual dose higher than 1 mSv/year
are defined as occupationally exposed to radiation
(2013/59/Euratom; Gruber et al. 2014). In the absence
of any official records for working hours, an estimate
of lower and upper values for exposure to radon was
attempted by taking into account the averages for the
warm and the cold periods listed in Table 1. Our
results indicate that the effective dose seasonally
received by workers exceeds this threshold in 5 out of
7 investigated caves (61 % of the all measured points),
i.e., all of the show caves and two of the non-touristic
caves.
The highest concentrations of radon were measured
in Taus oare and Vantului, but since only adventure
tours are offered, the time spent underground is

123

Environ Geochem Health

limited, and thus, the occupational exposure is

insignificant.
The effective dose received by tour guides or
researchers within Urs ilor Cave can reach up to
5.11 mSv/year in some sectors (in the height of tourist
season), but drops to 2.58 mSv/year during winter. In
certain parts of Muierii Cave, the occupational effective dose could be even higher (6.15 mSv/year), but
fortunately this happens during the cold season, when
very few tourists visit the cave. In Vadu Cris ului,
however, the effective doses can reach up to 3 mSv/
year in stations 46, while at the entrance the values
drop below 1 mSv/year (locations 13) throughout the
year. Nevertheless, in neither of these caves the radon
level poses a risk for tourists since the time spent
underground is short.
Usually, in cases of high levels of radon, the first
recommendation for mitigation is to increase the
ventilation. Artificial ventilation turned on during the
working hours significantly reduces radon concentration in mines and other underground workplaces
(Gruber et al. 2014). Although some show caves use
this method (Dumitru et al. 2015a), it is not applicable
in any of the non-touristic caves. Consequently, the
only way to comply with the regulations for professional exposure, without modifying caves natural
environment, is to limit the exposure time of the
workers (Cigna 2005). This can be achieved by either
reducing working hours per year or decreasing the
time spent in those sectors where excessive exposure
to radon may occur. Regardless which of these options
is selected, wearing personal radon dosimeters should
become compulsory to all cave personnel (Gillmore
et al. 2011).
Following this survey, listed below are some
specific recommendations and guidance to implement
efficient radiation protection programs in all caves with
elevated radon levels. These are intended for Natural
Park administrators, cave managers, and agencies
granting permission for activities in both touristic
and non-touristic caves. Furthermore, our recommendations will also serve the Romanian authorities to set
the laws, regulations, and administrative provisions
that should bring into force to comply with the
European Directive by February 6, 2018.

Urs ilor Cave: It is recommended to enhance the air

circulation by maintaining the entrance and exit
doors partly opened during the working hours. In

123

addition, guide programs and other professional

activities should be time-limited during both
seasons (less than 29 h/month throughout the cold
period and 12 h/month during the warm season).
As the highest values were measured in stations 4,
7, and 8, the guides should limit their explanations
in these locations. It is also recommended performing any research or maintenance works during
winter, when the radon level is lower.
Muierii Cave: The professionals (guides and
cavers) should limit the working time spent in
areas with excessive radon exposure (locations 13
and 5 of the touristic trail and 6 in the non-touristic
sector) at maximum 11 h/month during the cold
season.
Vadu Cris ului: Time-limitation measures are
required for personnel exposed at maximum
11 h/month during the cold season and avoiding
stops in locations 46 on the tourist trail.

To prevent serious health issues in Taus oare and

Vantului, where summer radon levels are well above
1700 Bq/m3, the professional exposure during this
period should be limited to 7 and 9 h/month,
respectively.

Conclusions
This study reports the first comprehensive radon
survey in seven representative caves scattered across
Romania. The results indicate that seasonal average
radon concentrations (between 315 and 2376 Bq/m3)
exceed the reference level in workplaces in all
investigated caves. Most caves have moderate-toraised radon gas levels in summer, whereas during
winter the values drop significantly. There are two
exceptions, one being the high readings during the
cold season in Muierii Cave, and the almost identical
values regardless of season from Vadu Crisului. The
observed seasonal trends reflect the relationship
between particular cave patterns and the type of
ventilation operating within them. Most likely the
radon sources are related to the type of rocks
underneath the caves.
The health implications for tourists are considered
insignificant since their visits are occasional and the
cave tours last maximum 1 hour. However, the risk of
radon exposure for guides, cavers, and scientists is

Environ Geochem Health

shown by this study to be high in all touristic caves, as

well as in Taus oare, Vantului, and Scaris oara throughout the year. Our results indicate that the occupational
effective doses received by workers who frequently
enter in 6 of the investigated caves exceed the
surveillance level of 1 mSv in a year. In Muierii
Cave, the occupational effective dose could be even
higher (6.15 mSv/year). Therefore, health and safety
programs should be implemented in the near future for
these caves.
Further efforts, based on reducing the working
hours for guides and cavers, or excluding visits in the
most affected areas, should be considered. Such
actions aim optimizing protection and reducing any
exposures that are anyway above the reference level.
We expect that our results and specific recommendations will serve the administrative staffs of the
surveyed caves and the Romanian authorities to set
up proper regulation for cave staff to avoid health risks
and remain below the Action Level (300 Bq/m3).
Acknowledgments The research was supported by the
Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research under
the project Radon map (residential, geogenic, water) for
center, west and north-west regions from Romania RAMARO,
PN-II-PCCA-PT-73/2012. The Speleological Heritage
Committee is thanked for granting permission to perform
research in Scaris oara, Vantului, and Taus oare caves. The
Administrations of the Apuseni and Domogled-Valea Cernei
Natural Parks issued the permits to access Scaris oara, Urs ilor,
and Despicatura caves, respectively. We wish to thank the
Mayor of Baia de Fier who supported our study in Muierii Cave.
Thanks are also due to Dr. I. Povara, C. Theodorescu, C.
Ciubotarescu, C. Moldovan, C. Ispas, D. Chiriac, M. Mihes , and
CSA Cluj-Napoca for assisting us during the field campaigns.

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