Desalination Plants Technology-51108

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Saline Water Conversion Corporation

General Directorate Of Training Programs
Training Center JUBAIL
OPERATION DEPARTMENT
ENGINEER GENERAL COURSE
DESALINATION PLANTS TECHNOLOGY
"
Module #: 51108
Version 3.0
Prepared by: Hassan kamel
May 2008
SWCC TRAINING CENTER

AL-JUBAIL
MSF DESALINATION COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

OUTLINE TRAINING PLAN
COURSE NAME
MSF DESALINATION COURSE FOR

ENGINEERS
TRAINEES
Engineering Graduates
OBJECTIVE
To provide trainees with theoretical and

Practical knowledge of power plants,
Desalination units (MSF & RO) and items of
equipment which are common to power
generation and Desalination Plants.
LOCATION:
Classroom, Training center Simulators and

visits to Al-Jubail Power And Desalination
Plants.
COURSE LENGTH
145 hours
FORMAT
The course will consist of Classroom

Theoretical instruction and visits to the
various Workshop and laboratories within
the Training Center to look at different items
of Equipment and Plant Visits.
During the times that the trainee is being
instructed in the plant equipment Subjects
the instructor must arrange for the trainees
to see as much of the actual equipment as
possible. Most of the Training equipment is
located in the Workshops and so the timings
of these visits will have to be co-ordinate
with the instructors.
Lesson Plan
Page 1

AL-JUBAIL
TRAINING AIDS
Videotapes, slide & overhead Projectors,

Transparencies, Workbooks, Posters &
Models of Power and Desalination Plant
Equipment.
TRAINING EQUIPMENT :
Valves and Pipe fittings, Pumps, Bearings,

Seals, Couplings, Compressors, Filters,
Impellers, Ejectors, Heat Exchangers,
Chemical Tanks and pumps,
REFERENCE MANUALS :
Technical
Library,
Operating
and
Maintenance Instruction Manuals (OMIMS),
Operations Manuals and Operating Training
Manuals.
REMARKS
The
instruction
given
during
the
Desalination Technology Course deals with
items of Equipment that will be found on
Power Generation and Desalination Plant.
The lists of Reference Manuals, Training

Aids and Equipment shown above are only
a small selection of the actual material
available. When preparing his lesson Plants
the Instructor will itemize the exact Materials
he will be using during the lecture or
practical work. He will also list the
Reference Manual and indicate the sections
he has used in the preparation of the
lesson.
Lesson Plan
Page 2

AL-JUBAIL
MSF COURSE FOR ENGINEERS
MSF DESALINATION PLANT

MODULE NO.
SUBJECT
HOURS
51108
DESALINATION PLANT TECHNOLOGY
15
51109
MSF DESALINATION & SYSTEMS & EQUIPMENT
25
51110
SCALE & CORROSION IN MSF & Power PLANTS
20
MSF Plant Simulator Operation
85
Specific Course
TOTAL HOURS FOR MSF DESALINATION PLANT COURSE
Lesson Plan
145
Page 3

AL-JUBAIL
GENERAL COURSE FOR ENGINEERS
MODULE NO. 51108

LESSON NO.
DESALINATION PLANT TECHNOLOGY

SUBJECT/TOPIC
HOURS
MODULE TERMENOLOGY
NEED FOR DESALINATION:
1.
1. Introduction
2. Water sources
3. Water quality
4. Water demands
5. Causes of water shortage
6. Solution to the water shortage problem
7. Desalination history
8. Evolution of the desalination processes
9. Components common to all desalination plants
10. Principles of desalination processes
11. Desalting plants: Current statistical information
4 hour
VARIOUS PROCESSES OF SEA WATER

DESALINATION
2.
1.0
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.0
3.1
3.2
4.0
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
5.0
6.0
6.1
6.2
Introduction
Distillation Process
Multistage Flash Distillation
Multiple Effect Distillation
Vapor Compression Method
Membrane Processes
Reverse Osmosis Process
Electro dialysis
Freezing
Heat Of Fusion
Separation
Efficiency
Direct Freezing
Secondary Refrigerant Freezing
Separation
Ion Exchange
Solar Humidification.
Conversion Rate
Efficiency
TOTAL HOURS FOR MODULE NO. 1.DESALINATION PLANT

TECHNOLOGY
Lesson Plan
11 hours
15 hours
Page 4
Desalination Plant Technology
LESSON
1
LECTURE
Introduction for Desalination
INTRODUCTION FOR
DESALINATION
Objectives
At the end of the lesson the Trainee will be able to:
1. Water Sources
3. Water Purity Limits
5. Causes Of Water Shortage
2.Water Quality
4.Water Demands
6.Solution To the Water Shortage
Problem
7. Desalination History
8.Evolution of Desalination
Processes.
9. Components Common To All Desalination Plants
10. Principles Of Desalination Processes
11. Desalting Plants: Current Statistical Information
1.
NEED FOR DESALINATION:

1.1
INTRODUCTION
Water is the important chemical compound for the use of mankind. It

has an essential role in all organic life due to its solvent properties. It is
a precondition for improvement in health standards.
Water is closely associated with the progress man has made. Upon its
availability depends the growth of a village, a city or a country.
Since times immemorial, man has realized its importance. Therefore
his settlements often grew up near water sources (springs, lakes and
rivers). To control these sources, he often went to war.
With the passage of time, the importance of water has not diminished.
In modern times, it is a very important ingredient for agricultural and
industrial growth. It is also required for supporting growing urban
populations, which require adequate supplies of drinking water.
1.2
WATER SOURCES
Most of the available water is either present as seawater or as icebergs

in the Polar Regions. 97% of all the earth's water is in the oceans and
about 2% in glaciers and ice caps. The rest is available in lakes, rivers
and underground. Nature itself provides most of the required fresh
water by the solar distillation process. Solar energy evaporates water
Lesson 1
Page 1
from the oceans. This condenses into clouds. Water is then returned to
earth in the form of snow or rain. Rivers carry it back to the oceans.
1.3
WATER QUALITY
Water is the universal solvent Chemical materials dissolve in it to such

an extent that it often becomes unsuitable for human consumption.
Besides various chemicals, natural waters also contain pollutants from
coastal cities. The concentration of the dissolved substances whether
water can be used for drinking. The salinity (concentration) standards
are not the same in all countries in some dry areas; water of 3,000 4,000 ppm salinity is used for drinking.
The WHO standard specifies the maximum permissible concentration
for human consumption at 500 ppm. The maximum limit for chloride
ions is 250 ppm.
Water Purity Limits:
Substance
Max. Concentration
(ppm) WHO Standard
Carbon Dioxide
Carbonates ( Na & K )
Chlorides
Chlorides (Free)
Copper
Detergents
Fluorides
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
Nitrates
Phenols
Sulfates
Zinc
Na Cl (maximum )
Total Dissolved Salts
1.4
20
150
250
1
3
1
1.5
0.3
0.1
125
10
0.001
250
15
250
550
Optimum Concentration
(ppm) USPHS
Requirements
----250
0
----0.5
0
0
125
----250
0
--500
WATER DEMANDS
The Four most important uses of water are: 1.

2.
3.
4.
Drinking
Domestic
Agricultural
Industrial
Man's food chain from soil to stomach requires large volumes of water.
The minimum requirements have been estimated at 1.1 m3 per day,
Lesson 1
Page 2
assuming man can live on bread alone. The actual amount varies and
depends on the standard of living. In the USA for Example, the per
capita consumption of water is 6.6 m3 per day. This figure includes
industrial and agricultural use.
1.5
CAUSES OF WATER SHORTAGE
The annual precipitation on earth is adequate for the needs of the

earth's population. However, its distribution is not uniform in many parts
of the world (especially the Middle East), which have limited or no
water resources, rainfall is almost non existent Nature has blessed
earth with large bodies of water. These account for approximately 75%
of the earth's total surface area. Unfortunately, this water is not
uniformly distributed. Also, most of it is unfit for human consumption
without treatment. Another factor, which compounds the water
shortage problem, is the important population growth factor. In the past
fifty years, the worlds population has more than doubled. This rapid
growth is more pronounced in the water shortage areas. It is
increasingly taxing the limited water resources available. There are
many other factors, which have also contributed to the growing water
shortage. They are raising standard of living urban growth,
industrialization and expansion of irrigation agriculture pollution of
natural water reserves (by industrial waste and sewage), cultural
development and political awareness.
In some areas of the world (especially the Middle East), the value of
mineral resources was suddenly realized and their large-scale
development was undertaken. Increased income was obtained from
the sale of these minerals, especially from oil. The monetary returns
enabled the governments of these countries, in particular the oil rich
countries, to increase water supply far above what the local population
had been used to.
Water shortages are not confined to the arid lands, which comprise
more than 60 % of the earths total surface. Even in countries where
plenty of water is available, many supply and quality problems exist
and some areas experience shortages.
1.6
SOLUTION TO THE WATER SHORTAGE PROBLEM
The demand for steady, economical supply of water is constantly

increasing all around the world. Often it does not match the available
supply. It does not seem possible that supply will equal demand in the
near future. Therefore, sound water resources development and
management is and will be a constant Challenge. In many countries,
water policy will have to be an essential ingredient of economic policy.
There are many solutions to the water problem. Alternatives include
control of water consumption, conservation, improved distribution and
Lesson 1
Page 3
storage, reclamation, purification and reuse, crops that use less water,
tapping of new sources, etc.
Desalination is seriously considered only when all the other possibilities
have been ruled out for various reasons.
Seawater desalination plants have been constructed in many countries
of the world, especially in the arid Middle East, only because there
were no other available alternatives. The objective of desalination is to
provide water with salinity below 500 ppm.
The major problems associated with desalination have been very high
capital and operating costs. Over the past several years, the cost of
desalting has going down but it is still quite high. It still cannot compete
with the cost of natural fresh water, which has advantage that it
requires minimum treatment to make it potable
1.7
DESALINATION HISTORY
Mankind has known the possibility of obtaining fresh water from

seawater for thousands of years. The earliest reference is found in the
Bible. Aristotle (2,400 years ago) had realized that water could be
obtained by distillation. Alexander of Aphrodisiacs wrote a commentary
on Aristotles Meteorological. In it he described distillation as a means
of obtaining fresh water from the sea. Other references include
descriptions by plane, Arab and Byzantine philosophers as well as
Renaissance writers.
The first modern desalination systems were used 200 years ago on
hips. They provided drinking water while at sea. Various commercial
distillation processes were developed only in the last 100 years. All
these systems were based on the thermal distillation process. The
most popular was the submerged tube design. Land based plants also
came into use gradually. The first one was installed more than 100
years ago in Aden.
In the early 1930's several small seawater desalination systems were
installed in the Middle East, Where oil had been recently discovered.
These plants had low efficiency and high maintenance. However, the
advantage of water availability in hitherto completely dry areas was
brought home and the desalination industry was founded. In the late
1940's, development of oil in the Arabian Gulf gave a push to the
desalination industry. The growth rate ever since then has been
spectacular.
Up to the 1950's the largest desalination unit ever built had an output of
less than 0.5 mgd. The worldwide capacity was about 2.2 mgd. In
1960, all the land based desalination plants in the world had a
combined daily output of barely 8.33 mgd. By 1970, the figure had
Lesson 1
Page 4
jumped to 220 mgd. In 1977, it was in region of 833 mgd. By 1980,

worldwide desalination Capacity was 1.6 bgd.
A study made by flour, for the office of water research and technology,
showed the anticipated minimum United States desalted water demand
in the year 2000. At 29 bgd and an overseas demand of 5.45 bgd. This
represents an average growth rate of 18%. Unit sizes have also been
growing. In the early sixties, a 1-mgd unit size was considered quite
large. Nowadays, most of the unit sizes are in the 5 bgd range.
The size of the largest MSF unit is 8 mgd . The massive Al-Jubail 2
complex (in Saudi Arabia) is the largest MSF plant ever built. Its
capacity is 207.9 mgd (945,000 m3/d). According to the 7th Desalting
Plants Inventory report, there were more than 2,200 land based
desalting plants (of capacity 25,00gpd or larger) in operation or under
construction throughout the world as of 30th June 1980.
According to the 8th desalting plants inventory report, more than 4,600
desalting units (of capacity 100 m3/d or larger) with a total capacity of
9,920,000 m3/d (2.62 US bgd or 2.18 imperial bgd) had been
contracted worldwide by 31st December 1984. This represents a total
capacity growth of 2,565,990 m3/d since the 1980 survey.
This is equivalent to an average annual increase of 7%. 1,697,865
m3/d, by far largest portion of the total capacity growth, was contracted
in 1980.
1.8
EVOLUTION OF THE DESALINATION PROCESSES
Though many methods have been proposed for desalting saline

waters, only a few have been developed to a stage where they may be
commercially used. The majority of commercial desalination processes
presently in use have been perfected over the past 25 years. The
applicability of any process depends on the amount of salts contained
in the available feed water and on the process economics. Distillation is
the oldest and most commonly used method of desalination. It
accounts for 75% of the worlds total desalting capacity.
In the multi effect (ME) submerged tube system, steam fed through
tubes, submerged in a pool of brine, causes brine to evaporate. The
vapors produced are condensed. The major problem with this system,
which contributed to its decline, is tube scaling. The search for a
solution to the severe scaling problem leads to the development of the
other ME process. The multi effect vertical tube Evaporator (VTE) and
the Multi Stage Flash (MSF) processes evolved from various forms of
ME evaporators used in the chemical and food industries.
The MSF process, which is the one most widely used, was developed
by professor silver in the late 1950s. Both the VTE and the MSF
process were demonstrated within a short time of each other. However,
Lesson 1
Page 5
the MSF process proved to be a runaway success after the first plant
(with a capacity of 1 mgd) was commissioned in 1960, In 1980, the
MSF process accounted for about 67.3% of the worlds total desalting
capacity. MSF desalting capacity was 5 million m3/d at that time. By
December 1984, the percentage capacity had increased to 67.6%,
which is equivalent to 6.7 million m3/d.
In 1960, the first commercially attractive reverse osmosis (RO)
membrane was developed. Since then, there has been steady
development in Membrane Technology Since 1970; there has been
very high growth in RO commercial development. The major part of this
has been for brackish water desalination.
The largest seawater reverse osmosis plant built so far is the one in
Ghar-Lapsi, Malta. It becomes fully operational in February 1983. It has
a production capacity of 20,000 m3/d for a feed with 38,900 mg/1 total
dissolved salts. The RO process accounts for 20% of land based
desalting capacity. This is equivalent to 1.98 million m3/d. in 1980; it
accounted for 20.53% of desalinated water. This means that RO has
not gained any ground in the competition with MSF. The electro dialysis
(ED) process was introduced in 1961. In 1973, the electro dialysis
reversal (EDR) process becomes commercially available. This process
produces only 7.7% of desalinated water. This is equivalent to 466,559
m3/d.
Hybrid or combination plants have also been built. They combine
different processes and utilize energy more efficiently. They are
complex plants and have not become commercially viable so far. Low
temperature plants utilize low-grade waste heat. They are usually of
the ME type with horizontal or vertical tubes.
Table below shows the desalination capacity breakup among the three
most important desalting methods:
Percent share of the desalination market
Lesson 1
Page 6
MSF
RO + NF
ME+VC
ED
OTHER
Process
Year
1966
1967
MSF
RO + NF
ME + VC
ED
Other
89 %
64 %
79 %
80 %
62 %
64 %
73 %
42 %
68 %
59 %
53 %
67 %
71 %
56 %
70 %
70 %
39 %
70 %
34 %
48 %
27 %
4%
2%
2%
22 %
36 %
42 %
53 %
20 %
1%
7%
13 %
26 %
15 %
42 %
30 %
0.0 %
0.0 %
0.0 %
8%
3%
15 %
11 %
22 %
22 %
30 %
36 %
23 %
19 %
30 %
25 %
18 %
40 %
22 %
49 %
42 %
52 %
62 %
73 %
74 %
57 %
52 %
37 %
38 %
63 %
90 %
80 %
72 %
62 %
70 %
42 %
65 %
9%
16 %
19 %
5%
25 %
11 %
10 %
22 %
6%
8%
3%
7%
5%
8%
2%
5%
4%
5%
5%
5%
15 %
24 %
12 %
12 %
15 %
7%
5%
3%
10 %
4%
9%
12 %
8%
10 %
12 %
2%
2%
20 %
2%
7%
10 %
4%
5%
12 %
3%
2%
8%
3%
4%
5%
2%
7%
17 %
3%
12 %
5%
6%
62 %
11 %
10 %
6%
3%
14 %
5%
3%
4%
3%
2%
2%
3%
1%
2%
1%
6%
0%
1%
2%
6%
1%
2%
1%
1%
0%
0%
1%
1%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
2%
2%
2%
0%
2%
2%
1%
4%
1%
1%
1%
2%
2%
3%
1%
Table 2 Proportion Of Processes All Land-Based Desalting Plants Capable

Of Producing 100(m3 /d) Unit Or More Of Fresh Water vs. CONTRACT YEAR
Lesson 1
Page 7
1.9
COMPONENTS COMMON TO ALL DESALINATION PLANTS
There are many processes for desalting saline waters. Only a few have
been developed to the point of actual use. These desalting processes
have many common plant components. These are represented
schematically in (Fig. 1.1.1).
In the first step, feed water is channeled or pumped from the source up
to the mechanical treatment section where screening take place to
remove undesirable solids. In the next step, it is sent into the
pretreatment equipment for chemical treatment. The type and extent of
treatment depends on the feed water composition. Seawater needs to
be treated quite differently from brackish or well water. Treatment also
depends on the down stream equipment and the type of process.
Treated water is then sent to the desalination plant where product
water is obtained.
Along with product water, a few more streams may be produced. The
process determines the number of these streams. The stream, which is
common to all processes, is concentrated reject brine. Other important
streams typically present are condensate and air/gases.
Desalinated product water is usually not suitable for consumption
without some form of treatment. In the post-treatment process,
chemicals are added to make it potable and non-corrosive for
distribution pipes. Aeration is also done sometimes. In the last step,
treated water is pumped to storage tanks or sent directly into the
distribution system.
Lesson 1
Page 8
Intake
Equipment
Raw Feed
Water
Gases
Chemical Storage &

Handling Equipment
Pretreatment
t
Electrical & Steam. etc
Power Plant
Gases
Desalination Plant
Pre-treatment P.W
Post-Treatment
Equipment
Post
Product Water
Handling
Equipment
Treatment Product
Reject Brine Handling

Equipment
Condensate Handling
Equipment
Product Water
Storage
Distribution Equipment
Consumers
Fig. 1-1-1 Scheme For Desalting
Lesson 1
Page 9
1.10
PRINCIPLES OF DESALINATION PROCESSES
Distillation is one of the oldest known methods of separating fresh

water from a salt solution. It is also the most developed and can be
applied for the production of large quantities of water. The phase
change of water, from liquid to vapor, is the basis of all forms of
distillation. The principle involved is quite simple. When a saline
solution is heated up to its boiling point, salt free vapors are formed.
These vapors are condensed on a cold surface to obtain distillate. The
solution, which is left behind, becomes saltier (Concentrated).
In distillation, the salinity of raw feed water is not an important factor.
Feed water salinity has the following effect on the distillation processes:
*
*
Boiling Point Elevation is increased.

The allowable concentration ratio (to avoid scaling) is reduced.
However, an important factor is the latent heat of evaporation, which is

very high. If one pound of water is to be evaporated, the heat to be
added is approximately 1,000 Btu. When millions of gallons need to be
produced, the total amount of heat required (and Rejected) is
extremely high. Due to the large amount of heat required, The aim is to
increase efficiency. Producing more water for the same energy input
can do this. For example, if the heat input is 1,000 Btu, the output
should be more than 1 pound. The methods commonly used to achieve
this are the ME and MSF processes.
Among the distillation techniques, MSF is the most widely used
process. It operates on the principle that water boils at progressively
lower temperatures when it is subjected to progressively lower
pressures. When seawater is introduced into an MSF evaporator,
which is under sufficiently low pressure it boils or flashes ". The vapors
produced are condensed to obtain pure distillate.
An MSF evaporator is divided into several chambers called stages.
These stages improve the efficiency of the heat transfer process. The
process operates from a low vacuum in the first stage to a high vacuum
in the last stage. Stage to stage pressure differential is the key to
repeated flashing.
Release of pressure in small steps ensures a high degree of internal
heat recovery for each 1,000 Btu's of heat input, typically 6-20 pounds
of product water are produced.
In the ME process, the evaporators are arranged in series. Suppose
three evaporators are used and the heat input is 1,000 Btu. The
amount vaporized in the first effect is one pound.
These vapors are sent to the next effect where they function as the
heating medium. There they vaporize one pound of brine and in the
process get condensed. Vapors product in the second effect is
Lesson 1
Page 10
condensed in the third effect producing one pound one pound of vapor
there. So, in three effects approximately three Pounds of water are
produced for 1,000 Btu input.
The most important ME type is the VTE process. The main feature of
this process is that saline water falls through vertical tubes. These
tubes are heated by steam on the outside.
Steam is condensed while part of the saline water is vaporized and
sent to the next effect. This is repeated in several effects, which are at
progressively lower pressures.
This ensures boiling in successive effects at lower temperatures. All
external steam provided to the first effect is utilized. Greater the
number of effects less is the energy required for given output.
One variation of the VTE flashing film process is the rising film process.
The difference is that brine does not fall through tubes in the rising film
process.
Instead, it rises up through the tubes. Another variation of the ME
process is the horizontal tube process. In this process, which is similar
to the VTE process, the tube configuration is horizontal rather than
vertical.
Another method of distillation is vapor compression (VC). Unlike the
other distillation processes, it uses mechanical energy rather than heat
energy. It is based on a simple principle. When vapor is compressed,
its temperature and pressure increase while the volume decreases.
The VC process can be operated either in a single or multi effect
configuration. Seawater to be evaporated is spray Dover an evaporator
tube bundles. Vapors formed are sent to a compressor. Compressed
vapors are sent inside the evaporator tube bundle, where they
condense to become product water. The heat of condensation of
vapors is used top roved the energy for continued boiling of incoming
feed water.
The VC process is characterized by low energy consumption and
operation costs
Heating steam is eliminated or greatly reduced. However, energy
needs to be supplied to the motor, which drives the compressor. VC
plants have the advantage of being easily transported and installed.
However, the quality of water and maintenance costs does not match
the other forms of distillation. Also their capacity is somewhat limited.
Solar distillation has the obvious advantage of depending on energy,
which is available in unlimited quantities and is free. It based on the
principle that water evaporates from free surfaces at temperatures
considerably below its boiling point. The evaporation rate is dependent
Lesson 1
Page 11
on the water temperature and relative humidity. Solar distillation has

not developed beyond small-scale units because large areas are
required for even small amounts of production.
Its application has been restricted to supply of water for small
communities only.
Freeze separation and hydrate separation processes are based on the
phase separation of water from liquid to solid. The freezing method
involves cooling a salt solution to its freezing point. At the freezing
temperature, it deposits crystals of pure water.
However, such separation is not complete. Ice crystals need to be
physically removed from saline solution and washed before being
melted to yield the product
Freezing (like the Distillation processes) is not affected by the feed
water salinity however; the latent heat for change of phase is an
important factor (Just like in the distillation processes).
The hydrate process is based on the principle that certain substance
form hydrates which is easily decomposed. These substances are
mixed with saline water to form solid hydrates. The hydrates are then
removed and washed. Upon decomposition they yield pure water.
RO operates on the opposite principle of osmosis. Osmosis is natural
process, whereby pure water flows through a membrane from a less
concentrated to a more concentrated solution (thereby diluting the
letter). If a saline solution in contact with a semi permeable membrane
is placed under pressure, which is in excess of its osmotic pressure,
water from the solution will flow through the membrane. Water flow will
continue till the pressure created by the osmotic head equals the
osmotic pressure of the salt solution. The energy required to operate
the process varies with the osmotic pressure of the solution (Which
increases with salinity). This imposes constraints on membrane life and
performance.
Dialysis is the diffusion of dissolved salts through a membrane .In the
ED process, two types of membranes is used. One allows passage of
positive ions only and the other allows passage of negative ions only.
When current is passed through an electrolytic cell, it is carried through
the electrolyte by anions and actions flowing in opposite directions.
Two membranes, one for anions and the other for actions, interrupt ion
flow.
Water passing between the membranes is split into two streams. One
stream consists of nearly pure product water. The other stream is
highly concentrated since it includes the ions removed. The difference
between osmotic and dialysis membranes is that whereas the former
transmits relatively few dissolved ions, the latter allows only a small
Lesson 1
Page 12
amount of water transfer. Processes like ED and RO do not involve any

phase change of water. Instead, they depend upon selective
membrane properties.
They are attractive because they do not need the large amount of heat
energy required for change of phase. These processes have mostly
been used for desalting bricking waters. However, RO has now started
being used for desalting seawater, which had been the virtual
monopoly of seawater distillation. Many seawater reverse osmosis
units have been installed in the past few years. In the past, RO was
used for limited capacities only. However, large SWRO plants are now
being built. RO plants are slightly influenced by scaling up effects but
feed water salinity effects them seriously.
The piezo dialysis process is similar to the RO process. In this process
also, membranes are used. However, these membranes are
permeable to salts (both anions and cations) but not permeable to
water. So if a pressure differential exists across the membranes, salt
will flow through the membranes. Piezo dialysis differs from RO in that
it is salt (Rather than other) which goes through the membrane. In the
absence of any pressure difference, salt flow the concentrated
solutions into the dilute solution. As in osmosis, This effect can be
reduced Stopped or even reversed by application of enough pressure
on the dilute solution. This process has not been commercially
developed.
Ion exchange can be described as the removal from solution of one
type of ion and its replacement by an equivalent quantity of another ion
of the same charge. Ion exchange resins are insoluble granular
substances, having in their molecular structure acid or basic radicals.
These radicals are able to exchange (without deterioration) positive or
negative ions fixed on these radicals. In return, they get ions of the
same sign from the solution in contact with the resin. This process can
be used for desalting brackish waters (with low salt content) or for
polishing waters that have been desalted by some other process.
The solvent process depends on the preferential absorption by a liquid
for water molecules rather than salt ions. This process also has not
been developed commercially.
Lesson 1
Page 13
1.11
DESALTING PLANTS: CURRENT STATISTICAL

INFORMATION
The 8th desalting plants inventory report has quite interesting and
useful information. Some highlights are: 1.
139 manufacturers in 101 countries set up the desalting plants

surveyed.
2.
The maximum number of plants was established in Saudi

Arabia, accounting for 30 % of the total capacity as against 11.4
% in the USA.
3.
Taking the Arabian Peninsula as a whole, 60 % of all desalting

capacity is located in this region. Libya (5.4 %), Iran (3.1 %)
and the USSR 2.5 %) play a subordinate role.
4.
Sasakura has established 19 % of total capacity either as sole

entrepreneur or in partnership with others. Side m follows with
9.5 %.
5.
Ionic occupies with ED plants a 4 % portion of world market.

Fluid systems hold a 3.6 % portion with RO plants.
6.
67% of the capacity is used in municipal drinking water

production. 21% in industrial process water production. 5 % in
power station boiler feed water production.
7.
The number of units sold has declined continually in recent

years. 394 units were sold in 1978 while only 226 were sold in
1984.
8.
41 % of all units operate on the RO principle. Only 21.2 % are

MSF units. 16 % are ED units. From this it can be derived that
small capacity units primarily employ the RO and ED Processes.
9.
At 1990 for worldwide growth of desalination capacity The MSF

principle 56 % & RO 31 % & ME 5 % & ED 5 % & VC 3 %.
Total Production in the world,
11.934.678 m3/day.
Total Production of Arabic Country, 7.945.326 m3/day.66.3 %.

For Saudi Arabia Total Production from total World Production
29.1%.
10.
Lesson 1
Nearly 60% of all units are processing brackish water and 37%
seawater.
Page 14
11.
Measured by the number of units, ionic takes a clear lead the

world market. Ionic supplies ED units only. Sidem supplied 222
units using thermal processes. Krupp sold 215 units (also
operating on thermal processes).
12.
The field of manufacturers supplies only RO units with 181 units.
13.
The largest capacity of RO units is installed in the USA. Apart

from this only Saudi Arabia plays a role with 24.2 % .In Kuwait
or in the United Arab Emirates; RO units are rare although these
countries account for a large desalting capacity.
14.
Among the 30 most important companies 16 are domiciled in the

USA,3 in Japan, 4 in Great Britain, 2 in Germany, 2 in the
Nether lands, 2 in France and 1 in Italy.
Lesson 1
Page 15
Process
Capacity Percentage
in relation to
M3/h
All Processes
MSF
6705889
67.6 %
RO
1982522
20.0 %
ED
466559
4.7 %
VTE
287420
2.9 %
VC
205838
2.1 %
HTE
107759
1.1 %
ST
97457
1.0 %
44018
0.41 %
Hybrid
22657
0.27 %
Capacity Percentages in (M m3 /d) relation to all processes CAPACITY

Of all land-based desalting plants capable of producing 100 m3/unit or
more fresh water daily VS PROCESS.
Process
Capacity
M3/h
RO
MSF
ED
VC
ST
VTE
F
HTE
1908
977
748
411
205
177
94
89
Percentage
in relation to
All processes
41.3 %
21.2 %
16.2 %
8.9 %
4.4 %
3.8 %
2.0 %
1.9 %
+------------------------------+---------------------0
1000
Number of UNITS of all land-based desalting plants capable of

producing 100 m3 / unit or fresher water daily VS PROCESS.
15
Lesson 1
23% of all units are installed or under construction in the USA,

18.9% in Saudi Arabia. The next to follow is Libya with only 6 %
although desalting plants were installed in 101 countries, 52.1 %
of them are concentrated in only 4 countries.
Page 16
16.
Plants larger than 4,000 m3/day generate 74% of the total

capacity.
17.
MSF units rated at more than 4,000-m3/day hold 84.5 % portion

of the world market as compared to 67.6% of all plants. RO
plants account for 11.2% all other processes play a secondary
role. Hence, it follows that there is a growing tendency to use
MSF for large capacity plants.
18.
88.3 % of the major plants are processing seawater and only 11

% brackish water.
19.
Saudi Arabia ranks first in the worldwide distribution of MSF

units. The USA accounts for only 0.8 % of the total capacity,
whereas the Arabian Peninsula accounts for 74.3 %.
Lesson 1
Page 17
Various Processes Of Desalination
LESSON
2
LECTURE
VARIOUS PROCESSES OF
DESALINATION
Objectives
At the end of the lesson the Trainee will be able to:
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
1.
Distillation
Membrane
Freezing
Ion Exchange
Solar Humidification
INTRODUCTION
Seawater is an aqueous solution, of which 95.5 ~ 96.5 percent is water
and the remaining 4.5 ~ 3.5 percent is various types of dissolved
minerals such as salts. Seawater desalination means the removal of
fresh water from seawater. And the method used for this process is
called the sea water (saline water) desalination or saline water
conversion, to remove fresh water from sea water, processes like the
distillation process, crystallization process, reverse osmosis process,
solvent extraction Process, electro dialysis process and ion exchange
resin process, are well known.
The distillation process and the crystallization process separate out the
water content in seawater by making use of a phase change of water.
While the reverse osmosis process and the electro dialysis processes
separate out the water content by means of pressure difference and
potential difference by making use of specially made membranes
(Reverse osmosis membranes and ion exchange membranes), which
are known generally as membrane process. Various processes of
Seawater Desalination is listed in Fig.1.2.1.
One of appropriate processes is selected after feasibility study for the
plant's location, quality of saline water, purpose of product water,
operation period etc.
Meanwhile from the huge increase of water demand for human life and
industries every nation and country is obliged to supply the cheap fresh
water in spite of cost increase of energy resources. Research &
Development of desalination method, new additive, combination etc.
Have being conducted to increase the efficiency of the plant at several
countries.
Desalting Processes
Lesson 2
Page 1
Ion
Solar
2.
DISTILLATION PROCESS
In the distillation process, seawater is heated to evaporate the water
content and the generated vapor is condensed to obtain fresh water.
This process produces fresh water of better quality as compared with
the crystallization process or the membrane process.
Sea water boils at 100.5C or over under 1 atmospheric pressure but
boils and evaporates below 100C when the pressure of the evaporator
is reduced as shown in (Fig. 1.2.2 ) Evaporation of water requires
evaporation heat which is retained by the generated vapor as latent
heat.
When the vapor is condensed, it releases latent heat, which can heat
(preheat) sea water or evaporate the water.
The distillation process is divided into mainly three methods, multiple
effect distillation, multi stage flash distillation and vapor compression
distillation.
The distillation process has been used for many years as a means of
concentrating solutions and is a technique with many proven results. In
the case of multiple effect distillation, in particular, a three effect
evaporator was already installed in Europe some 120 years ago and
the vapor compression evaporator was adopted in Europe around 1910
and was applied to various industries in Switzerland and other
countries. A test plant for concentration of seawater using this
evaporator was conducted also in Japan in the last half of the 1920s.
Multistage flash evaporation distillation is a new technique applied to
saline water conversion, which was proposed by Silver of Great Britain
in the 1950s when the research and development of saline water
conversion was actively promoted.
The problems common to all types of the distillation process are scale
deposition and corrosion of equipment caused by dissolved gas in
seawater. For this reason, prevention of scale deposition and corrosion
is essential technology in the design of a saline water conversion plant
using the distillation process. The saline water conversion plant using
the distillation process will be explained briefly in the following.
Lesson 2
Page 2
Fig. 1.2.2 Vapor Pressure Curve Of Sea Water
2.1
MULTISTAGE FLASH DISTILLATION
When the heated seawater is led to a vessel under reduced pressure,

part of the water content of seawater takes evaporation heat from the
seawater and then boils violently, thereby reducing the temperature of
the seawater. This phenomenon (of adiabatic expansion) is called flash
evaporation.
Fig. 1.2.3. is a simple diagram of a desalination plant using the
multistage flash distillation. The plant consists of only three stages, but
a plant for land use normally consists of several tens of stages. Each
stage is divided into the evaporation room and the condensation room.
The seawater supplied by pump is led through heat transfer tubes in
the condensation room and is heated successively by vapor generated
in each evaporation room.
Lesson 2
Page 3
Then the seawater is further heated in the brine heater and is led to the
first stage evaporation room. Each stage is maintained under a
specified vacuum condition by means of a vacuum device such as
steam ejector, vacuum pump etc. and pressure difference is
maintained in each evaporation room by brine passing through orifices
provided between stages.
DRIVING Steam
FLASH
CHAMBER
HEAT RECOVERY SECTION
ADJUSTABLE
ORIFICE
VENTING SYSTEM
BRINE
HEATER
HEATING STEAM
CONDENSATE
PUMP
FLASH BOX
BLOW DOWN
PUMP
FROM INTERMEDIATE
STAGE
HEAT REJECTION SECTION
BRINE RECYCLE
PUMP
DEAERATOR
PRODUCT WATER
PUMP
FROM INTAKE
MAKE-UP WATER
Antifoam
ANTISCALE
SODIUM SULPHITE
Fig. 1.2.3 Schematic Diagram Of Multi Stage Flash Distillation Process
Lesson 2
Page 4
Fig. 1.2.4 Simplified block diagram of typical MSF Desalination Plant
Lesson 2
Page 5
Multi Stage Flash Plant
Lesson 2
Page 6
2.2
MULTIPLE EFFECT DISTILLATION
2.2.1 PRINCIPLE
The multiple effect method is a process in which several evaporators
for concentration of solution are connected in series and are
designated as the first effect and the second effect evaporator and so
on from the high temperature side.
In this process, only the first effect evaporator uses steam from the
boiler and the second effect evaporator and the subsequent
evaporators use steam produced by the previous evaporators. in this
manner, evaporation repeats corresponding to the number of
evaporators to concentrate the solution to higher levels with high
thermal efficiency or produce fresh water from the evaporated water
vapor. A plant used in this process is called the multiple effect
distillation plant. In this process, each effect evaporator reduces its
pressure below saturation pressure relating to the temperature of brine,
and the evaporator of the lowest temperature is connected to a
condenser and a vacuum device.
Multi-Effect Stack (MES) is a desalination plant to which a multi-effect
evaporation concept is ingeniously applied, providing maximum
quantities of fresh water with minimum heat consumption.
The principle of its operation is shown in Fig 1.2.5. A portion of the
seawater, gaining heat in condensing duty at the bottom Effect, is
pumped into the plant through pre-heaters located in each Effect,
which progressively raise its temperature before it is sprayed onto the
tubes in the First Effect.
The other portion is discharged overboard. Feed water supplied by a
feed pump, after being preheated through incorporated pre-heaters, is
sprayed onto outer surfaces of evaporating tubes in the First Effect. A
portion of the feed is evaporated by heating steam which is delivered
into the evaporating tubes from an external source.
The remaining feed is collected on the bottom of the First Effect and
then sprayed onto outer surfaces of evaporating tubes. In the Second
Effect, where a further portion of the feed is evaporated again, being
heated with the vapor which was generated in the First Effect and
delivered into the evaporating tubes through a mist eliminator section.
The vapor itself condenses into fresh water to become product of the
plant.
This cycle is repeated in each succeeding Effect until the last one.
Vapor generated in the last Effect is condensed in a heat rejection
condenser.
Lesson 2
Page 7
Naturally, the Effects are operated at successively lower temperatures.

This is accomplished by maintaining the effects at successively lower
pressure or higher vacuum by means of an air ejector.
Heat input supplied in the form of heating steam is utilized for
evaporation over and over again in the Effects. Thus a maximum
quantity of fresh water is produced with minimum heat
consumption.(Refer To Fig. (1.2.6 To 1.2.10).
2.2.2 ADVANTAGES OF MULTI EFFECT DESALINATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Lesson 2
Since brine is outside the tubes, it is possible to visually monitor

scale and corrosion by strategically placing a few inspection
ports.
Steam enters the tube bundle at one end and distillate flows out
through the other. Therefore, non condensable gases are driven
positively and un-directionally out of the heat transfer zone.
Evaporation takes place over the entire heat transfer area. Heat
transfer coefficients are high. Vapors are released gently and
entrainment it minimum. Demisters are not necessary for
potable quality product. Non violent boiling ensures that the
protective film (covering most metal surfaces in contact with
seawater) is neither dissolved nor removed.
Operation (start-up, shutdown and load variation) is easy. Can
be made virtually automatic with single pushbutton start-up and
shutdown.
The design is very stable when operated at low loads.
Production capacity can be adjusted in a wide range (from
extremely low of about 30% to maximum capacity)
Tube surface required is less compared to the MSF process.
Therefore, it has lower capital costs.
only a few low capacity pumps (feed water, blow down and
distillate) are required. Power consumption is about one-third
that required in MSF plants.
Once through brine circulation. Brine flowing inside the plant is
only about 25% compared with MSF . Smaller water inventory
and less number of effects plus the fact that brine is on the
outside of tubes gives less hydraulic resistance. Pumping
energy is 30% - 40% of that of an equivalent MSF plant.
Page 8
Fig. 1.2.5 Simple Single Stage Distillation
Fig. 1.2.6 Simple Single Stage With Make-up Feed Distillation
Lesson 2
Page 9
Fig. 1.2.7 Simple Dual Effect Distillation

Lesson 2
Page 10
Fig. 1.2.8 Temperature Profile for constant inter-effect temperature

difference model of the MEB process
Lesson 2
Page 11
Fig. 1-2- 9 Multiple Effect (ME) Distillation Process
Evaporators for process solutions

and liquid waste concentration
Lesson 2
Page 12
Fig. 1-2-10 PRINCIPLE OF MED PROCESS - 4

EFFECT PLANT
1 Steam Supply
2 NCG Removal
3 Cooling Water Out
4 Feed and Cooling
Water In
5 Distillate Out
6 Brine Out
Lesson 2
Page 13
2.3
VAPOR COMPRESSION METHOD
2.3.1 PRINCIPLE
Vapors produced by evaporation from saline water are superheated
because of the boiling point elevation. Therefore, they will condense at
a lower temperature than the boiling point of the solution. If the vapors
are compressed to a higher pressure, their temperature will increase
due to the energy input. If the pressure and temperature rise is
adequate, the recompressed vapors can be effectively utilized as a
heat source for evaporating the same saline solution. When vapors are
returned to the evaporator tube bundle, they are condensed after giving
up their latent heat. In this way, additional vapors are obtained.
The latent heats of evaporating and condensing fluids are very nearly
equal. Therefore, the energy required to keep the process in operation
is only that needed to offset the boiling point elevation on the
evaporating side and to provide a small differential to ensure the
desired flow of heat. Usual temperature difference is 4 to 5 oC in order
to minimize energy consumption. Because of this, high performance
ratios are obtained from this process.
2.3.2 PROCESS
(refer to fig. 1.2.11) Most VC plants operate near the atmospheric
boiling point and the feed needs to be heated up to this temperature
before evaporation is possible. Preheating of sea water feed is done by
extracting heat from the brine and distillate streams in liquid - liquid
heat exchangers. These heat exchangers can recover about 90% of
the available heat. However, they are very costly and large as well.
This a major drawback which has restricted the use of this process.
The outgoing distillate and blow down streams are discharged a few
degrees above the incoming sea water temperature. Preheated feed
water is further heated by thermal rejection from compressor. The
heated feed is mixed with recirculating brine and then sent to an
evaporator.
The evaporator can be of any type (like falling film).Most use horizontal
tubes similar to high temperature multi effect. Brine is sprayed over the
evaporator tube bundle inside which steam is introduced. Vapors are
produced. The un-evaporated brine is collected in the first effect
evaporator sump and then recirculated to the second effect. Each kg of
condensing steam produces slightly less than one kg of vapors from
the brine.
The flashed vapors from the first effect are passed through
entertainment separators into the second effect (as a typical ME
process). There they are used as the heating medium. Condensed
Lesson 2
Page 14
vapors are collected as distillate product at the bottom of the steam

chest, pumped through a heat exchanger, cooled and sent to storage.
Brine passing through the second effect tubes is heated by condensing
steam from the first effect and vaporized partially. The remaining brine
is recycled to the next effect and so are the vapors (which become the
heating medium for the next effect).
This continues till the last effect is reached. The vapors in the last
effect (or the first if there is only one effect) are sent to the vapor
compressor. After compression, some vapors are sent to the feed preheater and the rest to the evaporator first effect (where they are used
as the heating medium). No final condenser or cooling water is
required.
If the blow down flow is large or the distillate/blow down temperatures
high, heat losses will be high and the compressor will not be able to
input adequate energy. In such a situation, steam or electric heaters
can supply the required heat.
This will cause the energy consumption and product water cost to rise.
Heat also needs to be supplied to the system( only at startup) for
increasing the feed water temperature up to the boiling point. Once
boiling has started, it is maintained by the external power supply and
no additional heat is required.
A fraction of the concentrated brine in the last effect is withdrawn as
blow down and discharged after preheated the feed. The amount of
blow down controls the recirculating brine concentration. To reduce
chemicals consumption, amount of blow down and feed water
requirements, a portion of the brine recycled.
In a typical VC plant, about half the incoming feed is removed by
evaporation. Based on a 3.5% concentration of salts in the feed, the
final concentration will be 7%( if blow down is continuously removed
while sea water is continuously added). Even this concentration level
requires scale prevention measures. To prevent scaling by CaCO3 and
mg(OH)2, anti-scale compounds like (Belgard or Belgard EV 2000) are
added to the feed water. At periodic intervals, acid cleaning is used to
return the unit to the clean condition by removing scales. For low
temperature units ( below 70 oC ), feed pretreatment primarily consists
of additing Antifoam.
Lesson 2
Page 15
2.3.3 ADVANTAGES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Simplicity. Compact construction.

Can be operated with no recirculation.
Low pumping power.
No cooling water required.
Low capital costs.
High performance ratio/unit of installed heat transfer surface area.
Stable operation.
Low operating labor cost.
Lower operating costs than single purpose MSF plants (though not
lower than dual purpose MSF.
2.3.4 DIS- ADVANTAGES

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Lesson 2
The item most liable to fail is the compressor. The reliability of

the unit is directly dependent on it. It is prone to failure because
it generally runs at high speeds at close tolerances. Salt buildup
is a problem because brine is carried over with the vapors. This
can accumulate on the rotors or in the casing. If demisters are
used, they eliminate the problem but at the same time reduce
the vapor pressure at entry to the compressors.
At lower operating temperatures, the vapor specific volume
increases. Hence, the compressor load increases. At higher
temperatures, scaling problems increase.
The plant is more likely to be destabilized as a result of any
change in the operating conditions. The fluctuations do not have
a tendency to be damped out. Also, the changes have a direct
effect on the specific energy requirement.
Capacity can be increased by increasing the number of effects.
However, the difference in saturation temperature across the
compressor increases . This increases the energy consumption
of the compressor and as a result, the performance ratio is
decreased.
Small vapor compression plants are cheaper with lower water
costs than small MSF plants. While VC plants have a lower cost
than MSF on equal unit capacity basis, this advantage is nullified
if two VC units are installed to give an output of one MSF unit.
For other processes, costs can be decreased by increasing the
unit size. In the case of VC, an increase in the number of effects
improves the costs slightly.
Page 16
10.
Fig. 1.2.10 Schematic Diagram of Vapor Compression Flow Diagram
Lesson 2
Page 17
3.
MEMBRANE
3.1
PROCESSES
The membrane process is a method which separates, concentrates,

and desalts the saline water by making use of the difference of osmotic
(permeation) ability of substances through a membrane.
The membrane process is further divided into dialysis and osmosis.
With the dialysis process, ions or solute are transmitted through a
membrane, while with the osmosis process, a solvent, especially water,
is transmitted through a membrane.
The chemical name for ordinary table salt is sodium chloride. Sodium
chloride is also the salt most commonly found in sea water. In chemical
notation, sodium chloride is designated as NaCl, where Na is the
chemical symbol for the element sodium, and CL the symbol for the
element chlorine.
When sodium chloride crystals are placed in water, the chemical bond
between the two elements is weakened, and the sodium and chlorine
are readily separated.
When sodium and chlorine are separated from one another in solution,
the resulting particles are called ions.
When a substance moves through a membrane, it requires some force
or other. This force is called the driving force. Except for cases where
accurate theoretical analysis is required, the following five phenomena
may be considered as driving forces; electrolytic charge difference,
pressure difference, density difference, temperature difference and
chemical reaction.
The reverse osmosis process uses pressure difference for driving
force, while the electro dialysis process utilizes a electrolytic charge
difference for driving force. The general principle of electrolysis is
illustrated in fig. 1.2.12 If two electrodes of some metal are placed into
a beaker of distilled water, and one electrode is connected to the
positive terminal of a battery and the other to the negative terminal,
practically no electric current will flow. The reason for this is that pure
distilled water is an excellent insulator.
Lesson 2
Page 18
Fig. 1.2.11 An Electro Dialysis Stack & Electro Dialysis Process Diagram
Lesson 2
Page 19
However, when sodium chloride salt is placed in the water, the

resulting solution of ions is an excellent conductor of electricity, and the
current flow can be appreciable.
The amount of current, which flows, depends markedly on the amount
of salt in the solution and on the temperature of the water.
Not at all solutions are good conductors of electricity. For example,
sugar solutions are not electrically conducting.
A solution, which conducts an electric current, is called an electrolyte.
The chemical decomposition of an electrolyte by the passage of an
electric current is known as electrolysis.
The vessel, which holds the electrolyte and the electrodes, is called an
electrolytic cell.
An electrolytic cell consists of a positive and a negative electrode, and
a solution containing positive and negative ions.
Since like electrical charges repel and unlike charges attach, the
negative ions migrate toward the positive electrode, which is called the
anode, and the positive ions migrate toward the negative electrode, or
cathode.
The performance of a membrane can be expressed by the flow flux,
which indicates the transmission speed of a substance through a
membrane, and by the selectivity of material to be rejected.
To express the flow flux of the dialysis process, the quantity of
substances per unit time and unit area may be used, and for practical
application, Kg/m2 day may be considered. The flow flux of the
osmosis process is expressed by the volume per unit time and unit
area, and m3/m2 day is used for practical purposes.
The selectivity is expressed by the transport number of cation, in the
cation exchange membrane in the case of the electrodialysis process
and by the rejection rate of salt in the case of the reverse osmosis
process.
The membrane process is best suited to desalination of brackish water
and seawater, and the ion exchange resin method is suitable for
desalination of salt water of less than 500 ppm, which is more dilute
than brackish water. Brackish water is water which is more dilute than
sea-water, but which is unsuitable to drink without any treatment.
Lesson 2
Page 20
3.2
ADVANTAGES
1.
Is necessary to use several desalting stages in series. Number

of stages may vary from 1-20.
Polarity reversal increases the life of the membranes
substantially , it also makes the process self cleaning.
Therefore, there is no need for continuous feed treatment by
acid or polyphosphate. The continuous change from a basic to
an acidic environment minimizes scale forming tendencies.
an ED plant has to be fed clean feed water and pretreatment
has been regarded as the best way to control scaling and
fouling.
It used direct current electric supply for transporting ions through
the membranes. Conversion of alternating current to direct
current is accomplished by rectifiers.
Membranes are thin, flat, plastic, having low permeability for
water but high ionic conductivity.
The power consumption depends on the resistance of the
electricity path.
In any cell pair, the membranes are separated by a spacer.
These spacers provides the flow path for water in the cell.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
3.3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Lesson 2
DIS- ADVANTAGES
ED has very high inputs energy requirements (DC) power
supplied to operate the ED stack. And energy required to pump
the solutions through the equipment.
leaks can develop through the membranes
ED is a desalination process which is suitable for only desalting
brackish waters in the 1,000 5,000 ppm range
It is an economic choice in areas where cheap electricity is
available.
At the moment, ED does not appear to be well suited for
desalinating high salinity sea water.
Page 21
3.4
REVERSE OSMOSIS PROCESS
When pure water and a salt solution are on opposite sides of a semi
permeable membrane, the pure water diffuses through the membrane
and dilutes the salt solution. This phenomenon is known as the process
of osmosis. The pure water flows through the membrane as though a
pressure were being applied to it.
The effective driving force causing the flow is called osmotic pressure.
The magnitude of the osmotic pressure depends on the characteristics
of the membrane, the temperature of the water and on the
concentration of the salt solution. By excreting pressure on the salt
solution, the osmosis process can be reversed.
When the pressure on the salt solution is greater than the osmotic
pressure, fresh water diffuses through the membrane in the opposite
direction to normal osmotic flow.
The principle of reverse osmosis is illustrated in Fig. 1.2.13 & 1.2.14
and Fig. 1.2.15 It can readily be seen how this principle can be applied
in the conversion of saline water. A diagram of the reverse osmosis
process is shown in Fig. No. 1.2.13 The salt water is first pumped
through a filter where the solid particles that would damage the
membranes are removed. The salt water is then raised to operating
pressure by a second pump and then introduced into the desalination
unit.
Lesson 2
Page 22
Normal
Osmosis
REVERSE
OSMOSIS
Osmotic Osmotic
Equilibriu Pressure
Pure
Water
Saline
Water
Pure Water
SEMI-PERMEABLE
MEMBERANE
Pure
Water
Saline
Water
Pure
Water
Saline
Water
Pure Water
Pure Water
SEMI-PERMEABLE
MEMBERANE
SEMI-PERMEABLE
MEMBERANE
Fig. 1.2.13 Principles Of Reverse Osmosis
Fig. 1.2.14 Schematic Diagram of the reverse Osmosis

(The Hollow Fine Fiber System
Lesson 2
Page 23
Fig. 1.2.15 A Large Seawater Reverse Osmosis Plant
Lesson 2
Page 24
3.5
ADVANTAGES
Some of the important advantages of the reverse osmosis process are:

1.
2.
3.
3.6
Low energy consumption. Since no change of phase is involved,

the only energy combusted is the electrical energy needed to
drive the pumps.
The processing equipment is relatively simple, resulting in low
Equipment costs.
The operation of the process at normal temperatures minimizes
scale and corrosion problems.
ELECTRODIALYSIS
An electro dialysis conversion assembly is essentially an electrolytic

cell which contains two different types of ion selective membranes.
One of the membrane types allows passage of positive ions, or cations,
and the other allows passage of the negative ions or anions. The
electric current imposed on the electrolytic cell provides the driving
force for the ions. A basic electrodialysis cell is shown in Fig. 1.2.16
The cation permeable membrane allows passage of the positive
sodium ions, and the anion-permeable membrane allows passage of
the negative chlorine ions, yielding fresh water between the
membranes.
The amount of electric current required in the unit depends on the
amount of salt to be removed. Therefore, the cost of the energy
consumed in the process depends on the concentration of salt in the
feed water. The relationship between electric current requirements and
salt content is the main reason that electrodialysis is favored for
brackish water instead of Sea Water.
However, if the cost of membranes and processing equipment can be
reduced sufficiently, electrodialysis may become economically feasible
for sea water conversion, particularly in areas where electric energy is
available at low costs. Research is currently being conducted to
investigate the feasibility of operating the electrodialysis process at
elevated temperatures.
High temperatures result in low electrical resistance of the electrolyte
and, therefore, in lower electric power requirements. High temperature
operation shows promise of reducing power requirements sufficiently to
make electrodialysis attractive for seawater conversion.
Lesson 2
Page 25
NEGATIVE
POSITIVE
SALT WATER
MEMBRANES
CHLOLIDE
IONS
SODIUM
IONS
BRINE
FRESH WATER
Fig. 1.2.16 An Electrolytic Cell
Lesson 2
Page 26
The application of electrodialysis to brackish water presents a problem

not usually associated with seawater conversion.
The chemical analysis of seawater is relatively constant, whereas that
of brackish water varies greatly. Variations in the mineral content of the
brackish water require that an electrodialysis unit be very versatile. For
example, the pretreatment needed, scale forming tendencies, limits in
brine concentration, and number of stages required are influenced by
the amount and type of constituents present.
Lesson 2
Page 27
4.
FREEZING
When salt water freezes, fresh water ice crystals form, and the salt
remains in solution in the unfrozen water. As in distillation, saline water
conversion by freezing is a two step operation requiring both cooling
and heating. In any freezing process, the salt water is cooled until ice is
formed. The ice is separated from the brine and then melted to produce
the product water of the process.
This section discusses some of the important general principles and
processing factors, which are considerations in all of the freezing
processes.
4.1
HEAT OF FUSION
Transferring heat from the water to a lower temperature medium with

which it is in contact cools water. When water is cooled, its temperature
drops until the freezing point is reached.
After the freezing point is reached, the temperature remains constant
even though cooling continues until freezing is completed.
The amount of heat energy which must be removed from water at
freezing temperature, in order to convert it into ice, is called the latent
heat of fusion of water or, simple, heat of fusion.
One of the primary reason for interest in freezing as a saline water
conversion method is that the heat of fusion of water is less than onesixth of the heat of vaporization and scale and corrosion problems are
minimized.
4.2
SEPARATION
One of the major problems encountered in the freezing processes is in

separating the ice crystals from the brine. During freezing in enclosed
compartment, the ice forms around the remaining brine.
As shown in Fig 1.2.17. ice cubes made by freezing salt water contain
an unfrozen brine in the center of the cube.
Separation requires cutting or scraping the ice around the outside of
the cube. Since some of the ice, which is scraped off, has been in
contact with the brine, it must be washed with fresh water before it is
melted. In the freezing processes currently under investigation, the ice
is not formed in cubes, but rather as small crystals without entrapped
brine. One method of separating the crystals from the brine is to
compacted the crystals and scrape the top surface of the compacted
mass.
Lesson 2
Page 28
Fig. No. 1.2.15 Ice Cube with unfrozen Brine inside
Fig. 1.2.17 Ice Cube with unfrozen Brine inside
Lesson 2
Page 29
4.3
DIRECT FREEZING
In the direct freezing process, the latent heat of fusion is given up when
the saline water is introduced into a chamber which is at a very low
pressure.
The name of the process is based on the fact that no cooling medium
or heat-transfer surfaces are used to accomplish freezing. When the
saline water is subjected to the low pressure, a portion of the water
vaporizes, reducing the temperature of the remaining brine below its
freezing point.
The process is illustrated in Fig. (1.2.18) The saline water enters the
vacuum freezing chamber where approximately one-half of the water is
frozen into ice crystals. The mixture of ice crystals and brine, which is
called a slurry, is pumped to the bottom of a separation column. The
ice crystals float to the top of the slurry, forming a porous bed of ice.
The pressure of the brine flowing through the porous ice bed compacts
the bed and forces it to the top of the column.
The rising ice bed is washed with a small amount of fresh water
obtained in the conversion process. The water used for washing is
limited to five percent of the total product water. After washing, the ice
is separated by a mechanical scraper and the separated ice enters a
melt tank.
When the saline water enters the freezer, approximately one seventh
of the water flashes to a vapor. The vapor is drawn off at the top of the
freezer and is absorbed by a concentrated solution of lithium bromide.
The dilute lithium bromide is pumped from the absorber to a generator
where stream is used to re-concentrate the solution by distillation. The
condensate from the generator becomes a part of the product water.
The brine being discharged and the product fresh water are used to
pre-cool the incoming salt water. Exchanging heat in this manner
increases the efficiency of the process. By pre-cooling the incoming
water, its temperature is reduced to
37 o F before it enters the freezer.
The rate of saline water conversion which is obtained by this process is
governed primarily by the production rate of the separation column.
The capacity of the separation column depends in part on the size of
the ice crystals produced in the freezer. Tests have shown that a
relative high freezing temperature results in the largest ice crystals and
higher rates of separation. The high temperature, however, requires
more feed water and increases the process losses and energy
requirements.
A freezing temperature of about 25 o F gives the best balanced
between these two factors. Increased recirculation of the ice-brine
Lesson 2
Page 30
slurry in the freezer also results in larger ice particles and higher
separation rates. This advantage is offset by the increased pumping
power required.
Another limitation on conversion rate is in the size of the conversion
equipment. Cost studies made of production-size plants using the
direct freezing process indicate that a practical size for factory
assembly and shipment of major components is about 150,000 gallons
per day. The largest single unit with field fabrication considered feasible
is about 500,000 gallons per day.
Lesson 2
Page 31
AIR OUT
SEAWATER
DEARATOR
HEAT
EXCHANGER
FRESH
WATER
WASTE
BRINE
SEAWATER
BRINE
FRESH WATER
Air Removal
REFRIGERATION
UNIT
VAPOR
ICE-BRINE MIX
HYDROCONVERTER
ICE
ICE
BED
Fresh Wash
Water Inlet
ICE
BED
COUNTERWASHER
ICE
BRINE SLURRY
SCREENS
Page 32
Lesson 2

Fig.1.2.18 Vacuum Freezing Vapor Compression Process
4.4
SECONDARY REFRIGERANT FREEZING
The secondary refrigerant freezing process differs from the direct

freezing process principally in the method in which freezing is
accomplished. A refrigerant such as butane, which vaporizes at a very
low temperature, is used in the freezing step the refrigerant is liquefied
and then allowed to vaporize whi1 in direct contact with the saline
water.
The process is illustrated in the schematic diagram shown in Fig.1.2.19
Saline water and liquid butane are introduced into a freezing chamber.
The butane vaporizes as it accepts heat from the water. This exchange
of that causes some of the water to freeze into fresh water ice crystals.
The ice-brine slurry is then pumped to a washer melter. Brine is filtered
from the slurry and some of it is recycled to the freezer.
A portion of the brine is discharged after passing through a heat
exchanger where it is used to pre-cool the incoming salt water. Washed
ice is cut off at the top of the washer and directed into the melter.
Butane vapor from the freezer is compressed in the primary
compressor and then introduced into the melter. When the compressed
vapor comes into contact with the ice, it receives heat from the ice,
causing the butane to condense and the ice to melt providing product
water.
The condensed butane and the product water flow together to a
decanting unit where the two immiscible liquids are separated. The
liquid butane is then returned to the freezer as part of the refrigerant
used in the continuous processing of saline water. Butane vapor in
excess of that required in the melter is compressed by the secondary
compressor and condensed in the auxiliary condenser. Either incoming
sea water or the product fresh water may be used as the cooling
medium in the auxiliary condenser. The liquid butane leaving the
auxiliary condenser is recycled to the freezer.
4.5
SEPARATION
A number of ice scraping and cutting devices have been tested in

freezing process demonstration plants. In the direct freezing process, a
rotary scraper was first tested. The rotary scraper was replaced by an
endless chain, conveyor-type unit which gave improved results. In the
secondary refrigerant freezing process, testing was focused on cutting
of the washed ice by an oscillating pendulum cutter. The pendulum
cutter was designed for large scale separation operations.
A centrifugal separator has also been tested for use in large scale
operations.
The centrifugal separation unit also incorporates a means of washing
the ice crystals free of brine.
Lesson 2
Page 33
Principal features of this process are growth of large ice crystals,

facilitating the separation and washing operations, and direct contact
heat exchange providing high heat-transfer efficiency and low
equipment cost. The low processing temperatures also minimize scale
and corrosion problems.
4.6
ADVANTAGES
1.
6.
The primary advantage is transfer of less energy. Theoretically,

the heat of vaporization is about seven times the latent heat of
fusion. This indicates that the freeze distillation processes
should require far less energy than the hot distillation processes.
In reality, it does not work out that way. In distillation, excess
heat can be dissipated to the surroundings easily.
The freeze separation processes work at below ambient
temperatures. The temperature at which heat must be removed
to form ice is below the freezing point of pure water, hence,
energy added to the plant has to be got rid of with a heat pump.
This involves substantial extra energy. This reduces the
advantage of these processes.
They operate at low temperatures, scaling and corrosion of
process equipment is reduced. Except for dearation,
pretreatment is generally unnecessary
they have better resistance to fouling by organic
Lesson 2
Page 34
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sea Water
Fresh Water
Rotating
Knife Blade
Filter
Screen
Waste
Brine
Ice Brine
Slurry
Melter
Slurry
Fresh Water Product
Butane
Condenser
Fresh Water
Brine
Sea Water
Liquid Butane
Primary
Compressor
Secondary
Compressor
FREEZER
Water &
Butane
De-Canter
Butane Liquid
Butane Vapor
Page 35
Lesson 2

Fig. 1-2-19 SECONDARY REFRIGERANT FREEZING
5.
ION EXCHANGE
An ion exchanger is a porous bed of certain materials which have the
ability to exchange ions with those in a solution which contacts the bed.
Ion exchangers may undergo exchange with either cations or anions.
In the former case, the process is referred to as "cation exchange", and
in the latter case, as "anion exchange". When a solution containing
compatible positive ions is passed through a cation exchanger, the
positive ions from the solution are exchanged with positive ions from
the bed material. The anions from the in coming solution remain
entrapped in the exchanger, and those from the bed materials leave
with the outgoing solution. A similar exchange occurs in flow through
an anion exchanger.
Numerous substances of both natural and synthetic origin possess ion
exchanging properties. The materials of interest in saline water
conversion are synthetic resins. The synthetic resins are generally
plastics which can be chemically modified to alter ion exchanging
properties.
In the ion exchange conversion process, both cation and anion
exchangers are used. The ion exchange beds are placed in series, and
the saline solution passes first through the cation exchanger, and then
through the anion exchanger. An example of the ion exchange process
is illustrated in Fig No 1.2.20 The cation exchanger is an acidic resin
which exchanges hydrogen ions for the positive ions in the incoming
solution.
Lesson 2
Page 36
Fig. 1.2.20 Sodium And Chlorine ions at the top of the conversion unit
Lesson 2
Page 37
The anion exchanger is a material which exchanges the OH ion for the
negative ion in the solution. The OH ion is called the hydroxide ion. The
hydroxide ion is made up of 1 atom of oxygen and 1 of hydrogen, but
has the chemical behavior of a single atom. In the arrangement shown
in Fig 1.2.20 a saline solution containing sodium and chlorine ions
enters at the top of the conversion unit. When the solution contacts the
cation exchanger, the sodium ion is exchanged for the hydrogen ion,
and the chlorine ions pass through unaffected. Thus, the sodium
chloride solution is converted into a solution of hydrogen and chlorine
ions, which is actually a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid.
As the acid solution flows through the anion exchanger, the chlorine
ions are exchanged for hydroxide ions. When the hydroxide ions are
released, they combine with the hydrogen ions forming molecules of
pure water.
As the conversion process continues, the resins are progressively
weakened until finally they lose their ability to exchange ions.
When this point is reached, the conversion process must be halted
while the resins are regenerated. Regeneration is accomplished by
washing the resin beds with chemicals which restore the exchangers
with the original ion exchange properties.
Regeneration- costs have limited ion exchange to only certain
applications. The ion exchange process is generally considered to have
potential in conversion of brackish water with relatively low salt content.
The process can also be used to obtain small amounts of fresh water
from sea water in cases where energy sources are not available.
Emergency kits for life rates are one example of this application.
Lesson 2
Page 38
6.
SOLAR HUMIDIFICATION
The solar humidification process makes use of the fact that water will
evaporate from a free surface, even though the water is at a
temperature below its boiling point. The rate of evaporation of the
water depends largely on two factors: the temperature of the water
and the relative humidity in the space above the free surface of the
water. The conversion process takes place in an apparatus called a
solar still. The operation of a solar still is illustrated in Fig 1.2.21. A
solar still utilizes the same principles which keep a greenhouse warm
on winter days. The sun's rays pass through the glass or transparent
plastic top without giving up any significant amount of energy. The
sun's energy is absorbed by the still.
The temperature of the water in contact with the heated black surface
increases, and therefore the water tends to evaporate at a greater rate.
Since the glass or plastic top of the solar still is not heated by the sun's
rays, the temperature of the top remains lower than that of the vapor.
Because of this temperature difference, the water vapor which comes
in contact with the top condenses and runs down into the collecting
trough. As some of the vapor is removed from the space above the
water surface by condensation, the relative humidity decreases,
tending to increase the rate of evaporation.
6.1
CONVERSION RATE
The obvious advantage of this process is that the energy required for
conversions is "free". However the disadvantages are equally obvious.
The conversion rate depends on the intensity of the sun's rays which
varies according to geographical location, time of year, and according
to the extent of cloudiness, fog, or haze.
Even under the ideal solar transmission conditions, only about half litter
of fresh water can be obtained each day for each square foot of
surface which absorbs the solar energy.
Since the rate of evaporation increases with increasing temperature,
the evaporation rate depends on the depth of the water being heated
by the absorbing surface. Since the rate of evaporation depends also
on relative humidity, the conversion rate is highest when the
temperature of the glass or plastic top is lowest, because at low
temperature condensation occurs more rapidly.
Lesson 2
Page 39
6.2
ADVANTAGE
1.
The process is simple and basically self operating with little or

no moving equipment. Only the initial investment for the energy
collection system has to be considered.
capital costs and amortization rates are directly dependent on
the output and efficiency.
there are two methods for desalting by solar distillation. The first
method is called the direct method. Solar energy is used directly
to heat saline water, causing its evaporation, the vapors formed
are condensed to obtain the product.
The second method is called the indirect method, Solar energy
is converted into another form of energy .
2.
3.
4.
Lesson 2
Page 40
Fig. 1-2-21 Flow Diagram Of Solar Desalination

Lesson 2
Page 41
Desalination Technology
MSF Terminology
WATER SOURCES: Most of the available water is either present as seawater or

as icebergs in the Polar Regions. 97% of all the earth's water is in the oceans
and about 2% in glaciers and ice caps
WATER QUALITY Water is the universal solvent Chemical materials dissolve in
it to such an extent that it often becomes unsuitable for human consumption
WHO
World Health Organization
WATER DEMANDSThe Four most important uses of water are: 1)

Drinking
2)
Domestic
3)
Agricultural
4)
Industrial
UNSATURATED SOLUTION: Solution which contains less amount of the solute
than required to saturate it at known (specific) temperature.
ME
Multi Effect Desalination Processes
VTE
The multi effect vertical tube Evaporator
MSF
the Multi Stage Flash processes
RO
reverse osmosis processes
ED
. The electro dialysis process
EDR
the electro dialysis reversal process
VC
vapor compression
B.P.E
Boiling Point Elevation
Boiling Point (b.p) :The increase in boiling point temperature of a solution with
respect to the boiling point of the pure liquid at the same pressure
(CR) CONCENTRATION RATIO The ratio of total dissolved solids in recycle brine
to that of seawater.
ACR : Actual Concentration Ratio
BOILING: The brisk change from the liquid to the vapor state.
BRACKISH WATER: Water with total dissolved solids content greater than that
recommended by the public health service as suitable for drinking but less than
sea water
Terminology
Page 1
MSF Terminology
DESALINATION : Process of obtaining fresh water (salt free water) from salty
water (brackish water or seawater).
DESAL. Abbreviation for desalination. Means a desalination unit, plant.
DENSITY: Mass per unit volume.
DEMINERALIZATION: A process of water purification, in which almost all
dissolved the solids and gases (except oxygen and nitrogen) are removed from
raw water; it is capable of producing the purest water known. In the de-gasifier
(usually included) gases are also removed, vented out.
DISINFECTION: The art of killing the larger portion of micro-organisms in a
substance.
H.T.A.
High Temperature Additive. Like Belgard.
L.T.A.
Low Temperature Additive
PRE-TREATMENT: The process such as chlorination, clarification, coagulation,

acidification and de-aeration that may be employed on the feed water to a
desalting unit to minimize algae growth, scaling and corrosion.
POTABLE WATER: Water suitable for drinking and domestic use.
PROTECTION: Device that protects equipment from damage in case of fault or
abnormal operation. It trips (stops) the equipment to prevent from damage.
A mean of safe guarding or disconnecting apparatus in the event of a fault
developing.
PRODUCT WATER: The water produced from the desalination plant after the
salts have been removed.
pH :1) A measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in water.
2) A measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. A value of seven is neutral;
low numbers are acid, large numbers are alkaline. Strictly speaking, pH is
the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration to the base 10.
PPM : (Parts per million) The number of weight or volume units of a minor
constituent present with each one million units of the major constituent of a
solution or mixture. The results of most water analyses were formerly expressed
by ppm, but more recently the term has been replaced by the ratio of milligrams
per liter.
SATURATED WATER: Water at the saturation temperature that is not boiling.
Terminology
Page 2
MSF Terminology
SATURATION CONDITIONS: Steam or water at the boiling temperature for the

existing pressure.
SATURATION POINT: The point (in terms of pressure and temperature) at which
a vapor such as steam, condenses to a liquid, such as water.
SATURATION TEMPERATURE: The temperature at which boiling occurs 100C
at 1 bar (1atmospheric pressure) for water.
SOLUBILITY: The extent to which a substance (solute) mixes with a liquid
(solvent) to form a homogeneous solution. The concentration of a saturated
solution at a given temperature. Generally increases with increase in temperature.
T.D.S.
Total Dissolved Solids.
T.B.T.
Top Brine Temperature. or Brine Heater outlet Brine Temperature,.
BBT
Bottom Brine Temperature; or Last Stage brine Temperature.
FREEZING: When salt water freezes, fresh water ice crystals form, and the salt
remains in solution in the unfrozen water. As in distillation, saline water
conversion by freezing is a two step operation requiring both cooling and heating
HEAT OF FUSION: Transferring heat from the water to a lower temperature
medium with which it is in contact cools water. When water is cooled, its
temperature drops until the freezing point is reached
SEPARATION: One of the major problems encountered in the freezing
processes is in separating the ice crystals from the brine. During freezing in
enclosed compartment, the ice forms around the remaining brine.
DIRECT FREEZING: In the direct freezing process, the latent heat of fusion is
given up when the saline water is introduced into a chamber which is at a very
low pressure.
SECONDARY REFRIGERANT FREEZING: The method in which freezing is
accomplished. A refrigerant such as butane, which vaporizes at a very low
temperature, is used in the freezing step the refrigerant is liquefied and then
allowed to vaporize whi1 in direct contact with the saline water.
ION EXCHANGE: An ion exchanger is a porous bed of certain materials which
have the ability to exchange ions with those in a solution which contacts the bed.
Terminology
Page 3

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Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Saline Water Conversion Corporation

DESALINATION PLANTS TECHNOLOGY

SWCC TRAINING CENTER

MSF DESALINATION COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

MSF DESALINATION COURSE FOR

To provide trainees with theoretical and

Classroom, Training center Simulators and

The course will consist of Classroom

SWCC TRAINING CENTER

Videotapes, slide & overhead Projectors,

Valves and Pipe fittings, Pumps, Bearings,

The lists of Reference Manuals, Training

SWCC TRAINING CENTER

MSF COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

MSF DESALINATION PLANT

DESALINATION PLANT TECHNOLOGY

MSF DESALINATION & SYSTEMS & EQUIPMENT

SCALE & CORROSION IN MSF & Power PLANTS

MSF Plant Simulator Operation

TOTAL HOURS FOR MSF DESALINATION PLANT COURSE

SWCC TRAINING CENTER

GENERAL COURSE FOR ENGINEERS

MODULE NO. 51108

DESALINATION PLANT TECHNOLOGY

VARIOUS PROCESSES OF SEA WATER

TOTAL HOURS FOR MODULE NO. 1.DESALINATION PLANT

Desalination Plant Technology

Introduction for Desalination

NEED FOR DESALINATION:

Water is the important chemical compound for the use of mankind. It

Most of the available water is either present as seawater or as icebergs

Desalination Plant Technology

Introduction for Desalination

Water is the universal solvent Chemical materials dissolve in it to such

The Four most important uses of water are: 1.

Desalination Plant Technology

Introduction for Desalination

CAUSES OF WATER SHORTAGE

The annual precipitation on earth is adequate for the needs of the

SOLUTION TO THE WATER SHORTAGE PROBLEM

The demand for steady, economical supply of water is constantly

Desalination Plant Technology

Introduction for Desalination

Mankind has known the possibility of obtaining fresh water from

Desalination Plant Technology

Introduction for Desalination

jumped to 220 mgd. In 1977, it was in region of 833 mgd. By 1980,

EVOLUTION OF THE DESALINATION PROCESSES

Though many methods have been proposed for desalting saline

Desalination Plant Technology

Introduction for Desalination

Desalination Plant Technology

Introduction for Desalination

Table 2 Proportion Of Processes All Land-Based Desalting Plants Capable

Desalination Plant Technology

Introduction for Desalination

COMPONENTS COMMON TO ALL DESALINATION PLANTS

Desalination Plant Technology

Introduction for Desalination

Chemical Storage &

Reject Brine Handling

Fig. 1-1-1 Scheme For Desalting

Desalination Plant Technology