Event Management, Vol. 17, pp.

227240
Printed in the USA. All rights reserved.
Copyright 2013 Cognizant Comm. Corp.

1525-9951/13 $60.00 + .00

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3727/152599513X13708863377836
E-ISSN 1943-4308
www.cognizantcommunication.com

AT THE NEXUS OF LEISURE AND EVENT STUDIES

IAN PATTERSON AND DONALD GETZ

School of Tourism, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland Australia

In this conceptual article we examine the interrelationships between two fields of study, specifically the
real and potential contributions of leisure studies to event studies. Furthermore, we consider the evolution of the two fields, philosophical discourses and theories associated with both. Epistemologically,
both event and leisure studies have drawn heavily from the same foundation disciplines when focusing
on motivation, experience, and benefits. Ontologically, event studies seeks to develop distinct concepts
that differentiate planned event experiences and the meanings attached to them, but there are definitely
shared areas of knowledge with leisure studies. Specific leisure philosophies, and theories are examined
as to their current and potential application within event studies, and insights are provided about how
these two closely related fields can cooperate in the future for their mutual benefit.
Key words: Leisure studies; Event studies; Theory; Philosophy; Epistemology; Ontology

Introduction
Leisure and event studies are closely related in a
number of important ways, particularly with regard
to the nature of leisure experiences and the fact that
so many planned events are clearly leisure oriented.
There is considerable potential for leisure studies,
being older and better established academically
to contribute to the advancement of event studies,
and with this in mind the primary purpose of this
article is to demonstrate how these closer ties can
be achieved.
There are three apparent ways in which leisure
studies can help advance event studies, the first
being a simple transfer of topics and methods from
a more mature field to a newer one. Such a transfer

is based on the assumption that much of the scholarly interest in events is dependent upon their status
as a leisure (and travel) phenomenona supposition that is only partially true. However, many topics that have been examined in leisure studies are
not actually theories (Harris, 2005), and with regard
to topics such as authenticity, there are parallel discourses in all fields dealing with experiences.
A second contribution is in the form of academic
knowledge about the evolution, nature, and challenges that are applied to an academic field. For
example, an important component of leisure studies
has been the philosophical discourse on the nature
and value of leisure, and it has been argued that this
depth of philosophical discourse has not yet occurred
within event studies (Getz, 2007). The third transfer

Address correspondence to Dr. Ian Patterson, Associate Professor, School of Tourism, University of Queensland,
St. Lucia 4072, Queensland, Australia.
E-mail: ian.patterson@uq.edu.au
Delivered
by Ingenta to: Clemson University

IP: 198.21.172.171 On: Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:32:48

227 use proper citation format when citing this article
Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please
including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location.

228

PATTERSON AND GETZ

process is the application of leisure theories to event

studies, and one that can have several positive outcomes: directly and quickly boosting the theoretical
underpinnings of event studies through the adoption
and modification of leisure theories, speeding up the
process of interdisciplinary theory building in event
studies by demonstrating processes and opportunities, and encouraging synergistic knowledge and
theory building between the two fields.
We begin with a brief introduction to event studies so that its overlap with leisure studies as well as
the major differences can be better demonstrated.
Similar to event studies, there is an inherent dichotomy between application on the one hand (often
called parks and recreation administration, and
including therapeutic and commercial recreation)
and more philosophical and theoretical contemplation of experiences and meanings in the leisure
studies literature. Major philosophies that have
influenced leisure studies are discussed, as many of
these also relate to planned events. We then focus
on a number of important leisure theories or constructs that have emerged from the application of
foundation disciplines, including those that have
already made a contribution or possess considerable potential for informing and developing event
studies. In the conclusion we recommend increased
cooperation on the development of interdisciplinary theory covering the overlapping aspects of leisure and event studies. Philosophical issues are also
discussed, as event studies have yet to incorporate a
discourse on its fundamental meanings and values.
Several suggestions for further research have also
been made in the concluding section.
We do not argue that leisure and business events
are the same in terms of motivation, experience
or outcomes, but that leisure theory applies to all
planned events to a lesser or greater extent. This is
because of the typical mix of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators that cuts across all planned events,
the critical importance of personal development in
event attendance (which can be met in many ways),
and the significance of key, generic factors in eventexperience design.

planned events. There is a clear and tangible core

that distinguishes event studies from all other fields,
even the closely related ones that also share an interest in one or more types of events (e.g., sport, theater), or perspectives on events (e.g., leisure, culture,
tourism). However, when the core is also conceptualized as the planned event experience and that
there are meanings attached to these experiences
and events, there is greater scope for philosophical
and theoretical development. There are also more
meaningful links to leisure and other experientially
focused fields. In order to fully understand and create knowledge about planned events (and all other
fields focused on experiences) there are a number
of elements that have to be systematically explored.
These include planning and managing events (the
supply side), antecedents to participation/attendance
(the demand side), the outcomes (from multiple perspectives), and the dynamics inherent in spatial and
temporal patterns and processes, including policy
and knowledge creation.
Similar to the argument that leisure is a field of
studies and not a discipline (Lynch & Veal, 2006),
event studies are also seen as a field that requires
theories and methodologies from a number of different disciplines. The preoccupation with event
management has been rooted in business studies
and the acceptance that event studies is a social
and political construct. Tribe (2003) concluded
that ones perspective on or object of interest in
events will help to determine which disciplines are
drawn upon. For example, an interest in the impact
of mega events on housing would draw heavily
upon sociology, urban planning, and political science. On the other hand, an interest in the nature of
festival sustainability will use management theory,
social psychology, and environmental sciences.
Ontologically, every field of study develops its
own key terms and concepts that both delimits the
field and enables pertinent dictionaries, encyclopedias, curricula, and searchable databases. Ontological mapping for leisure and event studies is a
vast task, but can proceed logically and theoretically from statements about the core phenomenon.
Through examination of the leisure event studies
nexus it is possible to contribute to the ontologiEvent Studies
cal mapping of both fields by generating a clearer
What defines a field of study is the core phenomunderstanding of how they are different and where
enon, and superficially this is seen
as
the
study
of
do they
overlap. In particular, we found that
Delivered by Ingenta to:exactly
Clemson
University
IP: 198.21.172.171 On: Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:32:48
Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article
including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location.

 the nexus of leisure and event studies

229

leisure concepts apply by their extension and adapsetting, service quality management, themes, and
tation to all planned events, even those normally
programs all suggest and shape desired experiences.
associated with business.
Sport management encompasses the production of
A phenomenon means a state or process known
competitive events, with an emphasis on the athlete
through the senses, in other words something that
and audiences experiences. Within the arts, planned
can be experienced. An event is a tangible pheevents are essential, but events are not the only form
nomenon bounded by space and time. When it is
of artistic expression.
over, it is gone forever and cannot be perfectly
replicated owing to variations in the interactions of
Types of Planned Events: Which Ones Fall
people, the environment, and management systems.
Into the Leisure Domain?
The essence of an event is that an experience is
sought and it is designed (or at least the experience
Events can be classified according to their form
is facilitated), which would not otherwise occur in
(which is a social construct, and therefore vardaily life. There are many styles of planned events
ies between cultures and even generations), as in
produced for many purposes, but in every case
describing the obvious differences in programming
there is intent to create or at least shape the indiand settings between festivals, competitions, meetvidual and collective experiences of the audience
ings, or trade shows. Another typological approach
or participants. Increasingly, many people desire to
relates to the function or roles of events, differenticocreate their experiences with significant others,
ating between those that are created to raise money
and event/experience designers are now becoming
or for conducting business so as to attract tourists
more aware of the expanded possibilities for design
or garner media attention. Because experiences are
and marketing that this presents. New forms are
highly personal, and therefore not directly dependent
always being created, and this in itself is of considupon the type or function of the event, it is very diffierable interest within event and leisure studies.
cult to suggest an experiential typology. What can be
Multiple perspectives associated with experiences
done is to state, in the language of service-dominant
and meanings have also to be considered. Obviously
logic (Varga & Lusch, 2004) that the value proposithere are paying customers and invited guests at most
tion of organizers will result in certain events faciliplanned events, but there are also the organizers such
tating certain types of experiences. In this context,
as staff, volunteers, sponsors and other facilitators,
event organizers understand that they create either
regulators (e.g., city officials), coproducers, exhibientertainment events or business events for quite diftors, and suppliers. We are also concerned about how
ferent purposes, but they cannot dictate, and often
meanings are attached to planned events and to the
cannot determine, what experiences their customers
personal event experience. For example, is the event
or guests actually acquire.
perceived to be a shared cultural experience or is it
One can make the argument that business events
personally self-fulfilling? We also have to examine
are totally dissimilar from leisure events, refermeanings from different perspectives. Each stakering to the intrinsic versus extrinsic motivational
holder in the process wants, expects, and receives
dichotomy and to the goals of organizers. Those in
potentially different experiences and can attach difthe leisure domain concentrate on attracting people
ferent meanings to the event.
who want to attend in order to realize benefits such
Events are also important, but are not at the core
as being entertained, having fun, relaxing, socialof closely related fields. In tourism, events are develizing, celebrating, or pursuing communitas and
oped to attract tourists and generate favorable images
self-development (Getz, 2007). But the assumption
of a destination. Increasing attention is being given
that convention delegates or trade show attendees
to event tourism as it manifests experiential marpossess only extrinsic motivations has been freketing, in contrast to the more traditional emphasis
quently disproved (Rittichainuwat & Mair, 2012).
of tangible products and places. In hospitality, events
Rittichainuwat and Mair (2012) concluded that
are an important service to be provided to clients,
consumer travel show attendance may be closely
technically involving the design of specific prodlinked with the individual leisure desires of the visiucts (food, beverages, and Delivered
gifts) and the
physical
tor, that is,
to get special deals on travel to desirable
by Ingenta to: Clemson
University
IP: 198.21.172.171 On: Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:32:48
Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article
including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location.

230

PATTERSON AND GETZ

destinations. The research literature is clear that

leisure motivations influence decisions to attend,
and the satisfaction with business events derives at
least, in part, from personal development.
In business events, the emphasis is on calculating
the return on investment for event owners and participants (Getz, 2008), whereas in the leisure domain
a typical evaluation focus for organizers is on satisfaction, or perhaps a deeper measurement of selfdevelopment (Hultsman, 1998; Madrigal, 1995).
Attendee satisfaction is central to all event evaluations, simply because planned events are always
about the experiences that people have. Importantly,
self-development through learning, meeting and
sharing with people, meeting challenges, and gaining in self-confidence or esteem, are common outcomes for both leisure and business events.
Discourses on Planned Events

development and is linked to well-established areas

of professional practice (i.e., producing, designing
and managing events, or coordinating events within
various venues and policy domains). Because this
requires an understanding of events in a business/
management context, it is often attached to business schools and tourism/hospitality programs.
Increasingly, however, event management degree
programs are incorporating elements of event studies that go beyond business and design.
The study of events within many foundation disciplines, especially those that are well established in
cultural anthropology and sociology, focuses on the
importance, roles, and effects of events on culture
and society. This is a classical discourse because
it is well established, enduring, diverse, and multidisciplinary in nature. Its ontological components
are far ranging, including the economic impacts
of event tourism, the health implications of mass
assemblies, and the role of events in personal
and group identity formation. Articles concerning
planned events are found in a number of research
journals, across many disciplines and fields, and
this literature is often unconnected to event management or event tourism discourses.

Getz (2007) examined the knowledge domain of

event studies and concluded that it encompassed
three major branches or discourses. In the tradition of Foucault (1970), these three discourses
represent systems or structured lines of reasoning,
ideas, and approaches to knowledge creation
including theory development and practical appliLeisure Studies
cations. Within a discourse, meanings are assigned
that are based on the researchers values, so that
Both leisure and event studies have their origins
language and concepts define and delimit what is
in real-world practice, namely, parks and recreation
legitimate or expected within the discourse.
administration and event management, and the
Event tourism is largely an instrumentalist branch
evolving need for corresponding professional and
of applied management and business and is related to
academic programs to serve this process. Furtherthe functionality of events in implementing policies
more, both fields relate to strong business sectors,
and strategies for economic development and place
including entertainment, commercial recreation,
marketing. As such, it is institutionally situated within
and tourism. This explains how departments or
business, tourism, and hospitality programs. Much of
schools of recreation or event management began,
the pertinent knowledge is of the problem-solving
both being applied in their nature. However, at some
and factual kind, with theory largely connected to
point, academics within these applied fields (includconsumer behavior and marketing. Positivism and
ing arts, sports, tourism, and hospitality) realized
quantitative methods predominate in this discourse.
that there was a need for theory, in the belief that
However, just as tourism studies encompass a wide
they were engaged in serious studies with important
range of epistemological perspectives, including critcultural, economic, and philosophical dimensions.
ical theory, so too does the study of event tourism.
It is also clear that by the time that these applied
Event management has been expanding rapidly as
fields were established, strong traditions of academic
a separate degree program, although it is frequently
study and theoretical development relating to leisure
taught as a subject or specialization within related,
and planned events already existed as distinct pheapplied fields. It is firmly based around career
nomena. As Godbey and Shim (2008) noted, leisure
Delivered by Ingenta to: Clemson University
IP: 198.21.172.171 On: Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:32:48
Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article
including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location.

 the nexus of leisure and event studies

studies emerged from European sociology departments with a major focus on free time within industrial societies. Early leisure scholars paid particular
attention to work/leisure patterns and time use (e.g.,
Lundberg, Komarovsky, & McInerny, 1934; Lynd &
Lynd, 1937), and later they examined the relationship between leisure and social class, suburbanization, impacts of technology, community life, and the
effects of work arrangements on leisure.
The parks and recreation movement had its origins
in North America in the mid 19th century, through
the encouragement of recreation programs established by the Christian churches of the time, which
emphasized wholesome and socially responsible
activities such as outdoor recreation and camping,
community sport, and supervised childrens play.
This was achieved through the provision of public
parks and open spaces, as well as recreation and
sporting facilities so as to counteract idle activity,
juvenile delinquency, drinking, and gambling (Cross,
1990). It soon became apparent that the growth of
parks and recreation services required professional
training at the college and university level. Godbey
and Shim (2008) concluded that university curricula
in leisure studies subjects began in North America
in the 1940s. It was not long before academics from
the newly emerging leisure and recreation field of
study began to apply theories from the foundation
disciplines to formulate, test, and develop possible
theories within the social sciences framework.

231

the North American approach to leisure studies, in

common with social psychology in general, has been
largely positivist and uses quantitative analysis. These
researchers also noted that there had been a growing
interest in values, beliefs, and the application of theory
to practical social problems and policy issues.
The predominance of the positivistic, instrumentalist discourse undoubtedly stemmed from the parks
and recreation origins of leisure studies, an ongoing
dependence on government agencies for grants and
job placements, and the obvious economic significance of leisure and travel to the industry. There
is also a clear and important advantage in doing
research and writing about the tangible aspects of
leisure as a free-time activity within a consumer
choice paradigm. As a result, the bulk of the leisureand recreation-related literature dealt with free-time
activities and those instrumentality associated with
public services (e.g., policies supporting therapeutic recreation or health) and business management.
Leisure researchers have commonly used largescale surveys, quasi-experiments, and time diaries to
observe and measure leisure from a quantitative perspective and to develop or test theories about How
do people use their time?, Who has leisure?, What
motivates recreationists or tourists?, and How do
consumers make decisions about their leisure?
Leisure as a social and cultural phenomenon is an
equally important discourse. It is more theoretical
and philosophical in nature; it relies on both positivistic and interpretive methodologies associated
with social psychology as well as ethnographic
Leisure Theory Applied to Event Studies
methodology tied to cultural anthropology. In this
Searle (2000) lamented that there has been a
discourse, critical theorists have also questioned the
paucity of theory development for leisure studvalues that are attached to leisure theory, policy, and
ies, with few that seek to explain leisure behavmethods, as well as querying the very existence of
ior, leisure services management, or various other
leisure as distinct from other aspects of life. Postdimensions of leisure services (p. 138). Godbey
modern and critical discourses on leisure and leiand Shim (2008) claimed that leisure theory draws
sure studies have offered further insights that have
heavily from social psychology and psychology,
applications to event studies. For example, a femiand to a lesser extent from sociology, yet only sevnist perspective has been applied to leisure studies
eral theories have been created within the actual
by Aitchison (2000), among others, who argued that
field of leisure studies.
there has been a crisis in leisure studies because
There are at least three obvious metadiscourses in
of its failure to incorporate postmodernist perspecleisure studies, the dominant one being positivism
tives and to recognize the importance of culture and
associated with management and business perspecpower in society.
tives (i.e., leisure services, commercial recreation, and
A selection of leisure theory will now be applied
tourism). According to Mannell and Kleiber (1997),
to the study of events, with examples from the
Delivered by Ingenta to: Clemson University
IP: 198.21.172.171 On: Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:32:48
Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article
including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location.

232

PATTERSON AND GETZ

e vents-specific literature. The predominant contribution is clearly made to an understanding of event

experiences as leisure and the use of methods to
examine the experience. Secondary contributions
have been to provide an understanding of event motivations and decision making, then its benefits related
to personal and social outcomes. An understanding
of management and its impact is shared between the
applied areas of business and management.
In Figure 1, a framework for understanding and
creating knowledge about planned events (from
Getz, 2007) has been developed. It can be seen that
there are three main areas in which leisure theory can
make a major contribution to event studies through:
planned event experiences and the meanings that
are attached,
personal antecedents, including motivations, constraints and choices, and

outcomes and benefits especially at the personal

level.
Planned Events and Their Leisure Experiences
Psychologists and phenomenologists in particular have been interested in exploring the nature
and meaning of the leisure experience. To a large
degree, this quest for understanding of the experience is the same for both event and tourism studies
and lies at the heart of services marketing and the
experience economy (Pine & Gilmore, 1999).
Certainly, leisure theorists are more interested in
how people describe their freely chosen and pleasurable experiences and whether or not these can be
considered leisure. But this line of theory development and related methods has very broad applications to all experience-related fields.
Researchers have generally accepted that leisure
is an experience and that there is a need to ask

Figure 1. A framework for understanding

and creating
knowledge
events. Source:
Getz (2007, p. 10).
Delivered
by Ingenta
to:about
Clemson
University

IP: 198.21.172.171 On: Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:32:48

Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article
including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location.

 the nexus of leisure and event studies

233

people what is on their minds. These scholars

More recently, researchers have referred to the leifelt that a full understanding of leisure behavior
sure experience as multidimensional and charactercan only be obtained when we know and underized by a variety of experiences that can occur. For
stand what leisure means to the person, which is
example, Lee et al. (1994) referred to the transitory,
termed phenomenology. Experiential sampling is
dynamic, and complex nature of leisure experiences.
the related methodology that has become popular
To most people, leisure is generally seen as a mixin leisure research. An optimal experience or a
ture of pleasurable experiences that are associated
state of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975) was origiwith feelings of fun, enjoyment, and relaxation. As
nally based on Maslows (1968) notion of the peak
a result, leisure and event researchers heavily focus
experience (or moments of highest happiness and
on studying the feelings, attitudes, and motivations
fulfillment) and seen to be a state of high psychoof peoples leisure and event behavior, rather than
logical involvement that occurs when people are
concentrating purely on participation rates or future
able to match the challenges of their environment
leisure and event trends. In other words, the variety,
with the appropriate skills and, accordingly, to feel
frequency, and quality of the experience has become
a sense of well-being, mastery, and a heightened
more important to study as a measure of leisure and
sense of self-esteem (Csikszenmihalyi & Csikszenlife satisfaction, rather than the actual type of leisure
mihalyi, 1988). These have become commonly
activity or event that a person participates in (Smith
accepted terms that relate to the leisure experience.
& Godbey, 1991). Lee (1999) reviewed the literature
The term experience is now more commonly
and compiled a list of what researchers had found
used by leisure researchers and has replaced terms
to be the main characteristics of leisure experiences:
such as activities or patterns (Lee, Datillo, & Howenjoyment/fun, relaxation, social bonding, positive
ard, 1994; Mannell & Iso-Ahola, 1987; Tinsley &
state of mind, companionship, intimacy, novelty,
Tinsley, 1986). According to Mannell and Kleiber
escape, communion with nature, aesthetic apprecia(1997), Success is based on structuring the leisure
tion, timelessness, physical stimulation, intellectual
environment in such a way as to create or encourcultivation, creative expression, introspection, freeage predictably satisfying experiences . . . it has
dom, peace, calmness, and happiness.
become apparent that an understanding of the psyWhen applied to the study of planned events,
chological or experiential nature of leisure must be
an obvious question that needs to be asked is, Do
developed (p. 11). What a person perceives, feels,
events provide leisure experiences? There is an
learns, or remembersin a word, experiences, is
assumption made within both fields of study that
often inferred from actual behavior.
most events exist to provide leisure experiences in
Mannell and Kleiber (1997) emphasized that we
the form of entertainment, hedonism, celebration,
can examine an experience through the interplay of
games (including sport), cultural performances, and
internal psychological dispositions (e.g., perceptions,
self-development (including learning and aesthetic
feelings, emotions, beliefs, attitudes, needs, personappreciation). Event designers believe that these
ality characteristics) and situational influences that
are in the leisure realm. As well, events that are priare part of an individuals social environment (e.g.,
marily business related add the above-mentioned
other people, group norms, human artifacts, and the
leisure elements to their programs in order to make
media). To study leisure experiences, researchers
them more appealing and memorable; for example,
have attempted to understand what people are doing
convention and exhibition organizers add on tours
(the behavioral or conative dimension); moods,
and other experiences to the event package.
emotions, and feelings (the affective or evaluative
Ravenscroft and Matteucci (2002) concluded that
components); and thoughts and images (the cognifestivals have many leisure-related elements in their
tive component). Leisure research has also included
study of the San Fermin Festival in Pamplona, Spain.
psychological studies on concentration, focus of
They concluded that festivals can be understood as
attention and absorption, self-consciousness, selfcarnivalesque inversions of the every day, which
awareness and ego loss, sense of competence, sense
helps to maintain and reinforce social order. This
of freedom, arousal, activation and relaxation, intenthey argued was achieved by the creation of liminal
sity and duration.
zones inUniversity
which people engaged in deviant practices,
Delivered by Ingenta to: Clemson
IP: 198.21.172.171 On: Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:32:48
Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article
including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location.

234

PATTERSON AND GETZ

safe in the knowledge that they were not transgressand what they want from different types of events.
ing the wider social structure that they encountered
This approach appears to make the most sense for
in everyday life. This was particularly true for bull
highly involved participants who are completely
running, where descriptions of participation used a
engaged in an event, such as extreme sports or other
rhetoric of danger, injury, machismo, and adrenaline
group situations.
rush more usually associated with physical aggression and combat (Ravenscroft & Mateucci, 2003,
Personal Antecedents, Motivations, Constraints,
p.12). They found that for residents, the fiesta was
and Choices in Leisure and Event Research
primarily a cultural celebration that also included
many important leisure-related elements. The tourists
Antecedents refer to those factors that influence
were also motivated by leisure and social factors, such
or constrain participation in leisure and events as
as enjoying the nightlife and meeting new people.
well as their influence on specific choices (i.e., the
Event researchers are increasingly focusing on the
decision-making process). In a marketing frame
leisure experiences of participants. Agrusa, Maples,
these are subsumed under consumer choice theory.
Kitterlin, and Tanner (2008) studied runners in the
However, for many aspects of leisure and events,
Honolulu Marathon in 2006 and concluded that
we need to look much deeper into the social and culfirst-time competitors valued the experience as well
tural influences because not all leisure and events
as having a greater economic impact than repeat
represent commodities that are rationally chosen in
runners on Hawaiis economy. Atkinson (2008)
a free marketplace.
found that triathletes come together as a mutually
The motivations to participate in leisure at
recognized pain community who learn to relish
planned events are of considerable theoretical and
the physical and mental suffering from the sport.
practical importance. Deci and Ryan (1991) proThey ritually punish their bodies in triathlon races,
posed that intrinsically motivated behavior occurs
which can induce a liminal state. The triathlon
in the absence of any apparent external reward and
was described as physiologically exhilarating and
where people have free choice, resulting in experinovel for most competitors at first, which became
ences that are optimally challenging and feelings
more exciting when triathletes pushed their bodies
associated with the flow state. Motivation theory
harder and longer. Group runs, rides, and swims
has also been a preoccupation with event researchwere seen as social occasions where these athletes
ers, drawing heavily from the leisure and tourism
could inflict further suffering on their bodies.
literature, which have been intertwined through the
Many forms of leisure bring people together at
work of Mannell and Iso-Ahola (1987), and their
planned events in a spirit of belonging and sharseeking-escaping model. A large number of studies
ing. Turner (1974) described liminality as a state of
have examined festival and event motivation, and
social limbo associated with rites of passage during
generally these have confirmed that the seekingwhich participants play with elements of culture.
escaping theory connects directly to Maslows
In modern societies he saw the liminoid state as
(1968) needs hierarchy. Raybould, Digance, and
encompassing individualized leisure pursuits such
McCullough (1999) studied the motives of visitors
as art, sport, pastimes, and games. The liminoid
to a folk festival and found that the desire to experistate is associated with fun, revelry, and entertainence a unique and authentic festival was the most
ment that occurs in a variety of leisure and event
highly ranked dimension. Motivational statements
settings. In a model of planned event experiences,
relating to escape from the normal environment and
Getz (2007) described the attendee as entering into
the need to seek social stimulation were also ranked
a bounded time and space, marked by liminoid
highly by the majority of visitors.
experiences, echoing the words of Falassi (1987)
Leisure theorists (Crawford, Jackson, & Godbey,
who described festivals as a time out of time.
1991; Jackson, 2005) also sought to explain what
Peak or optimal experiences and flow theory
constrains people from doing what they want to do
have also direct applicability to events, but event
in their leisure. Generic categories of constraints
researchers have been slow to adapt these constructs
have been identified, such as intrapersonal (ones
to how participants describe their
event
experiences
and attitudes), interpersonal (such as a
Delivered by Ingenta to:perceptions
Clemson University
IP: 198.21.172.171 On: Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:32:48
Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article
including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location.

 the nexus of leisure and event studies

235

lack of leisure partners), and structural (time, money,

demographics, motivations, and preferences for
supply, and accessibility). Constraint theory has only
overseas golf tourism destination attributes. Burr
been touched upon in the events research literature.
and Scott (2004) applied the recreational specialExamples include N. S. Kim and Chalip (2004)
ization framework to attendees at a bird festival.
regarding travel to attend the World Cup; Milner,
The authors found that only a small fraction of visiJago, and Deery (2004) studied why people did
tors can be described as being highly specialized
not attend festivals during the last 5 years, whereas
or serious about bird watching. Most visitors were
Trail, Robinson, and Kim (2008) applied structural
likely to combine bird watching with other leisure
constraints theory to the impact on sport fan attenactivities, and who also enjoyed the entertaindance, which was found to be significant by gender.
ment, the artisans, educational activities, and even
Constraints have also been examined in the context
learning about other animals (Burr & Scott, 2004,
of triathletes by Lamont and Kennelly (2011) and
p. 35). Kerins, Scott, and Shafer (2007) employed
Lamont, Kennelly, and Wilson (2012).
specialization to segment distinct styles of particiInvolvement is another stimulus that motivates leipation in an ultimate Frisbee event. A combination
sure behavior. Havitz and Dimanche (1999) defined
of attitudes, behaviors, and interests that characterinvolvement as an unobservable state of motivaize peoples involvement in leisure activities were
tion, arousal or interest toward a recreational activexamined, leading to the potential for attendees to
ity or associated product (p. 123). Involvement is
self-classify their style as casual, active, or serious.
invoked by a stimulus or situation and has the approCommitment is a further social-psychological conpriate drive properties that motivate related behavstruct used to explain consistent behavior. In the conior. Kyle and Chick (2002) concluded that leisure
text of leisure it has been defined by S.-S. Kim, Scott,
involvement is best conceptualized as a multidimenand Crompton (1997) as those personal and behavsional construct with several different dimensions.
ioral mechanisms that bind individuals to consistent
Laurent and Kapferers (1985) involvement propatterns of leisure behavior (p. 323). These authors
file is a 15-item, multidimensional scale that has
sought to explore commitment in terms of dedication,
been widely used and adapted. Brown, Havitz, and
inner conviction, centrality, costs, and social considGetz (2007) adapted it to wine tourism, and there is a
erations. According to the same researchers, involvegreat deal of scope for using this approach to explore
ment is likely to be an antecedent of commitment and
the connections between any lifestyle dimension or
might be at the root of serious leisure.
leisure interest and its related travel and event behavStebbins (1982, 1992, 2001, 2007) conceptualior. One pertinent application of ego involvement to
ized serious leisure as closely related to commitevent studies has been made by researchers examinment, specialization and involvement constructs.
ing runners. McGehee, Yoon, and Cardenas (2003)
Serious leisure was defined by Stebbins (1992) as
determined that highly involved recreational runners
the steady pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist, or career
traveled more on overnight trips to participate in
volunteer activity that captivates its participants
events, compared to the medium-involved, using a
with its complexity and many challenges. It [serious
unidimensional ego involvement scale.
leisure] is profound, long-lasting, and is invariably
Another related theory or framework is recbased on substantial skill, knowledge, or experireation specialization, which was described by
ence, if not on a combination of these three (p. 53).
Bryan (1977, 2000) as a continuum of behavior
It is like pursuing a career, but without remunerafrom the general to the particular, reflected by
tion. Serious leisure participants typically become
equipment and skills used in the sport, and activmembers of a vast social world, a complex mosaic of
ity setting preferences (Bryan, 1977, p. 175). That
groups, events, networks, organizations, and social
is, as experience in an activity increases, it is theorelationships. The rewards of serious leisure include
rized that people will progress from more general
fulfilling ones human potential, expressing ones
to specialized behavior and related patterns of conskills and knowledge, having cherished experiences,
sumption. S.-S. Kim, Kim, and Ritchie (2008) used
and developing a valued identity (p. 53).
the concept of specialization to segment and better
The serious leisure construct has been applied
understand Korean overseasDelivered
golf holiday
tourists
to
serious
sport tourism by several authors such
by Ingenta to: Clemson
University
IP: 198.21.172.171 On: Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:32:48
Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article
including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location.

236

PATTERSON AND GETZ

as Shipway and Jones (2008) who employed the

concepts of serious leisure and social identification
to examine the experiences of serious participants
traveling to participate in the 2007 Flora London
Marathon. Mackellar (2009) identified serious participants at the Australian Wintersun Festival.
She categorized nine domains that described and
explained the behaviors of participants, including specialized travel, lifestyle, identity reinforcement, pride, fanaticism, social interaction, fixated
consumption, competition, and skill development.
Bendle and Patterson (2008) applied serious leisure
to career volunteers in arts organizations, declaring
that they could be regarded as serious leisure participants as they develop and coordinate resources,
provide continuing calendars of activities, and
organize events for the benefit of their members
and the public (p. 284).

More recently, event researchers have begun to

examine personal and societal benefits, including
identity formation and the creation of social and cultural capital. Misener and Mason (2006) concluded
that the hosting of sporting events offers opportunities for generating social capital and community
development through building community networks
related to events. Arai and Pedlar (2003) believed
that public celebrations and other community gatherings engendered social capital through enhanced
social cohesion, trust, mutuality, cooperation, and
openness. They concluded that participation in
communities of celebration involves people coming together in the areas of sports, festivals, hobbies,
volunteering, and the arts, and finding commonalities in these leisure activities as well as for the public good.
Sharpe (2008) focused on how the leisure context of a community music festival shaped the
approach, style, and efficacy of the attempt to
Outcomes and Benefits in Leisure
foster social changein other words, leisure and
and Event Research
events as political tools. Doherty (2009) used
A prevailing philosophical position that exists
social exchange theory to examine event volunis that recreation and leisure are basic human
teers and concluded that the intention to volunteer
needs (Maslow, 1968) that justify the provision
in the future was strongly influenced by those who
of public leisure services. Concomitantly, leisure
experienced positive benefits from the event, such
generates numerous benefits for individuals that
as social enrichment, feelings of contributing to the
can lead to broader societal benefits. The Acadcommunity, and having a positive life experience.
emy of Leisure Sciences (n.d.) categorized these
Several other studies have shown how leisurebenefits into economic, physiological, environoriented events are important in revitalizing and
mental, psychological, and social. In recent years
transforming local communities into thriving tourist
a great deal of attention has been focused on
destinations. For example, Di Giovine (2009) noted
the links between leisure, physical activity, and
the emergence of Hoi An as a sleepy port town in
health.
central Viet Nam that became one of the countrys
Associated with the work of Driver, Brown,
most popular tourist destinations by implementing a
and Peterson (1991), benefits-based management
monthly Lantern Festival that contributes to . . .
stresses the provision of services that delivers
an experience of communitas that transcends genbenefits desired by consumers. Certainly benerations as well as social status (p. 225). Roemer
efits exist in marketing terms, as consumers are
(2007) also found that residents of a major Japanese
obviously willing to pay for many tangible and
religious festival, Kytos Gion Festival, yielded a
experiential benefits, but are there also benefits
strong sense of community, and this was connected
that justify public investment and subsidies? In
with several forms of lasting social support and a
this vein, Getz (2007) examined the various jusstrong sense of belonging. Chalip (2006) urged that
tifications for public sector intervention in the
event organizers and host communities needed to
events sector, noting that economic arguments
foster social interaction and promote feelings of
have become dominant. That is, events are mostly
celebration, which are two key elements necessary
viewed as instruments of economic policy, with
for the creation of liminality. Liminality suggests
social, cultural, and urban development/renewal
that events can create a safe space for otherwise
policy being subordinate.
matters
to be symbolized, considered, and
Delivered by Ingenta to:sensitive
Clemson
University
IP: 198.21.172.171 On: Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:32:48
Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article
including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location.

 the nexus of leisure and event studies

debated. By cultivating celebration and camaraderie at events, they can also enrich the social lives of
communities.
Summary and Conclusions
This article has examined similarities and differences between the fields of leisure and event studies, with an emphasis on how leisure theory can
inform the developing field of event studies. Table 1
summarizes this comparison, concluding that the
core phenomena of both fields of study profoundly
overlap. Both focus on the experience and its related
meanings (from multiple perspectives, including
personal and societal). Although not all events
are planned as leisure experiences, such as those
that are associated with extrinsic motivation (i.e.,
business, political, or scientific events), they still
provide leisure opportunities, and organizers must
aim to make them attractive and satisfying. Nevertheless, within leisure studies the planned event
will undoubtedly remain a minor concern, one of
many activities or experiencescapes worthy of
consideration by leisure policy makers and parks/
recreation practitioners.

237

Epistemologically, the two fields share a strong

social science foundation, with sociology and
social psychology being the main disciplines of
importance to leisure studies. Event studies also
draw heavily upon cultural anthropology for its
theory and methodology, and on economics and
business for the event management discourse.
Event studies will benefit greatly from the application of various experience sampling methods
that have been developed by leisure researchers. A
strong philosophical base to event studies has yet
to emerge, whereas it appears to be fundamental in
leisure studies, generating multiple discourses and
different paradigms for research and application.
Much of this can be simply adapted to event studies, particularly with regard to the idea (or ideologically based position) that leisure and planned
events meet basic human needs. Governments
at all levels have come to view special events as
social and cultural instruments, so a public service philosophy of event provision is essential. As
with leisure, the service principles are as follows:
Events are essential, they have demonstrable benefits, and there are appropriate roles for the private, public, and nonprofit sectors.

Table 1
A Comparative Analysis of the Differences Between Leisure and Event Studies
Leisure Studies
Core phenomenon

Applied fields
Epistemology

Shared ontology (key knowledge areas)

Event Studies

Leisure as a personal and social

phenomenon (leisure is variously
defined as free time, behavior, or
experience)

Planned events, and the related

experiences and meanings attached
(multiple forms of planned events
are widely recognized, not all of
which are considered to be leisure
oriented)
Parks and recreation, therapeutic, and
Event management
commercial recreation management
Event tourism
Sociology and social psychology are
Business and economics inform the
the main foundation disciplines for
applied fields
theory
The study of events occurs in numerMultiple philosophies of leisure
ous fields and disciplines
are extant, with emphasis placed
Philosophy is not well developed;
on benefits and factors affecting
similar to leisure, there are varying
participation
perspectives on factors shaping
provision, participation and
outcomes of events
Factors affecting participation (policy; cultural and social;
motivations and constraints)
The nature of the experience; meanings attached
Outcomes (personal, social, cultural and economic benefits;
impact assessment)
Planning and management of private, public and nonprofit services/businesses
Spatial and temporal analysis of the phenomena

Delivered by Ingenta to: Clemson University

IP: 198.21.172.171 On: Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:32:48
Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article
including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location.

238

PATTERSON AND GETZ

In terms of ontology, there are many overlapping

satisfaction and self-development are fundamenareas of knowledge including specific concepts and
tal. Many business events base their appeal both
terms. Ignoring planning and management, both of
on intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, given the
which draw heavily from economics and business
necessity to engage attendees, entertain them, and
studies, these commonalities relate to antecedents,
satisfy self-development goals. The apparent diviexperience, and outcomes. Motivational research
sion between business and leisure events is rather
and theory have been proved to be essential for both
superficial when it comes to the individual attendee
fields, and event researchers have largely confirmed
and the social nature of all planned events.
that seeking-escaping and intrinsic motivators apply
Both the fields of leisure and event studies are now,
to many event decisions. Constraints theory and conmore than ever, focused on the experiential realm.
straint negotiation have yet to make a solid impact in
This binds them together in ways that are profoundly
the event studies literature. Regarding outcomes, the
shaping experience design and event management.
accumulated knowledge and theory on leisure benefits should be adapted to event studies, in particular
References
to advance efforts to legitimize the notion that many
Academy of Leisure Sciences. (n.d.). White Paper No. 7:
events fall within public service. There is a need for
The benefits of leisure. Retrieved from http://www.
further research and theory development pertaining
fritidsvetarna.com/1_Kultur_och_fritid/7_Benefits_of_
Leisure.pdf
to the fundamentals of planned events in society,
Agrusa, J., Maples, G., Kitterlin, M., & Tanner, J. (2008).
their role in shaping and reinforcing identity and culSensation seeking, culture, and the valuation of experiture, and to provide explanations about why people
ential services. Event Management, 11, 121128.
find a variety of event experiences to be special and
Aitchison, C. (2000). Poststructural feminist theories of
compelling.
representing others: A response to the crisis in leisure
studies discourse. Leisure Studies, 19, 127144.
Leisure and event studies are very closely related,
Arai, S., & Pedlar, A. (2003). Moving beyond individualboth epistemologically and ontologically. The appliism in leisure theory: A critical analysis of concepts of
cation of leisure philosophy and theory has strongly
community and social engagement. Leisure Studies, 22,
influenced event studies, with considerable potential
118.
for additional applications. Although the younger
Atkinson, M. (2008). Triathlon, suffering and exciting significance. Leisure Studies, 27, 165180.
field stands to gain most from this process, there
Bendle, L., & Patterson, I. R. (2009). Mixed serious leisure
is no reason why a maturing event studies cannot
and grassroots organizational capacity: A study of amainform and help to further advance leisure studies in
teur artist groups in a regional Australian city. Leisure
the future. Priorities for interdisciplinary research
Sciences, 31, 272286.
should include the following three areas: experiBrown, G., Havitz, M., & Getz, D. (2006). Relationships between wine involvement and wine-related
ences: how event designers suggest, constrain or
tourism. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing,
facilitate desired experiences (ranging from hedo21, 3146.
nism to personal development); antecedents: examBryan, H. (1977). Leisure value system and recreational
ining cultural differences in the meanings attached
specialization: The case of trout fishermen. Journal of
to planned events and their perceived attractiveness,
Leisure Research, 9, 174187.
Bryan, H. (2000). Recreational specialization revisited.
applying constraints theory and negotiation to event
Journal of Leisure Research, 31, 1821.
studies; and outcomes: improving the theoretical
Burr, S. W., & Scott, D. (2004). Application of the recreunderstanding of the benefits of attending events and
ational specialization framework to understanding visitors
the effects of events on society and culture.
to the Great Salt Lake bird festival. Event Management,
We have also argued that the event form and
9, 2737.
Chalip, L. (2006). Towards social leverage of sport events.
purpose are of importance, but that personal motiJournal of Sport & Tourism, 11, 109127.
vations for attending do not detract from the fact
Cross, G. (1990) A social history of leisure since 1600. State
that all event organizers must seek to understand
College, PA: Venture.
the experiences of guests and customers from a leiCrawford, D., Jackson, E., & Godbey, G. (1991). A hierarsure perspective. Whether business events, or those
chical model of leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 13,
309320.
more obviously in the leisure domain, personal
Delivered by Ingenta to: Clemson University
IP: 198.21.172.171 On: Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:32:48
Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article
including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location.

 the nexus of leisure and event studies

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety:
The experience of play in work and leisure. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Csikszenmihalyi, M., & Csikszenmihalyi, I. (Eds.). (1988).
Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in
consciousness. Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge Press.
Di Giovine, M. (2009). Revitalization and counterrevitalization: Tourism, heritage, and the Lantern
Festival as catalysts for regeneration in Hoi An, Viet
Nam. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure
& Events, 1, 208230.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). A motivational approach
to the self: Integration in personality. In R. A. Dienstbier
(Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Vol. 38. Perspectives on motivation (pp. 237288). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Doherty, A. (2009). The volunteer legacy of a major sport
event. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure
and Events, 1, 185207.
Driver, B. L., Brown, P. J., & Peterson, G. L. (1991). Benefits of leisure. State College, PA: Venture.
Falassi, A. (Ed.). (1987). Time out of time: Essays on the
festival. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico
Press.
Foucault, M. (1970). The order of things: Archaeology of the
human sciences. New York: Pantheon.
Getz, D. (2007). Event studies: Theory, research and
policy for planned events. Oxford, UK: ButterworthHeinemann.
Getz, D. (2008). Event tourism: Definition, evolution, and
research. Tourism Management, 29, 403428.
Godbey, G., & Shim, J. (2008). The development of leisure studies in North America: Implications for China.
Research Journal of Zhejiang University (Humanities &
Social Sciences), 38(4), 2129.
Harris, D. (2005). Key concepts in leisure studies. London:
Sage.
Havitz, M. E., & Dimanche, F. (1999). Leisure involvement
revisited: Drive properties and paradoxes. Journal of
Leisure Research, 31, 122149.
Hultsman, W. Z. (1998). The multi-day, competitive leisure
event: Examining satisfaction over time. Journal of Leisure Research, 30(4), 472497.
Jackson, E. L. (2005). Leisure constraint research: Overview
of a developing theme in leisure studies. In Jackson, E.
(Ed.), Constraints to leisure (pp. 319). State College,
PA: Venture.
Kerins, A. J., Scott, D., & Shafer, C. S. (2007). Evaluating
the efficacy of a self-classification measure of recreation
specialization in the context of ultimate Frisbee. Journal
of Park & Recreation Administration, 25, 122.
Kim, S.-S., Kim, J. H., & Ritchie, B. W. (2008) Segmenting
overseas golf tourists by the concept of specialization.
Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 25, 199217.
Kim, S.-S., Scott, D., & Crompton, J. (1997). An exploration
of the relationships among social psychological involvement, behavioral involvement, commitment, and future

239

intentions in the context of birdwatching. Journal of Leisure Research, 29, 320341.

Kim, N. S., & Chalip, L. (2004). Why travel to the FIFA
World Cup? Effects of motives, background, interest,
and constraints. Tourism Management, 25, 695707.
Kyle, G., & Chick, G. (2002). The social nature of leisure
involvement. Journal of Leisure Research, 34, 426448.
Lamont, M., & Kennelly, M. (2011). I cant do everything!
Competing priorities as constraints in triathlon event
travel careers. Tourism Review International, 14(2),
8597.
Lamont, M., Kennelly, M., & Wilson, E. (2012). Competing
priorities as constraints in event travel careers. Tourism
Management, 33(5), 10681079.
Laurent, G., & Kapferer, J. N. (1985). Measuring consumer
involvement profiles. Journal of Marketing Research,
22, 4153.
Lee, Y. (1999). How do individuals experience leisure?
Parks & Recreation, 34, 4046.
Lee, Y., Dattilo, J., & Howard, D. (1994). The complex and
dynamic nature of leisure experience. Journal of Leisure
Research, 26, 195211.
Lundberg, G. A., Komarovsky, M., & McInerny, M. A.
(1934). Leisure: A suburban study. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Lynch, R., & Veal, A. J. (2006). Australian leisure (3rd ed.).
Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson Longman.
Lynd, R. S., & Lynd, H. (1937). Middletown in transition:
A study in cultural conflicts. San Diego, CA: HarcourtBrace.
Mackellar, J. (2009). Dabblers, fans, and fanatics: Exploring behavioural segmentation at a special-interest event.
Journal of Vacation Marketing, 15, 524.
Madrigal, R. (1995). Cognitive and affective determinants
of fan satisfaction with sporting event attendance. Journal of Leisure Research, 27(3), 205227.
Mannell, R., & Iso-Ahola, S. (1987). The psychological
nature of leisure and tourism experience. Annals of Tourism Research, 14, 314331.
Mannell, R., & Kleiber, D. (1997). A social psychology of
leisure. Chapel Hill, PA: Venture.
Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being
(2nd ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
McGehee, N. G., Yoon, Y., & Cardenas, D. (2003). Involvement and travel for recreational runners in North Carolina. Journal of Sport Management, 17, 305324.
Milner, L. M., Jago, L., & Deery, M. (2004). Profiling the
special event attendee: An initial investigation. Event
Management, 8, 141150.
Misener, L., & Mason, D. S. (2006). Creating community
networks: Can sporting events offer meaningful sources
of social capital? Managing Leisure, 11, 3956.
Pine, J., & Gilmore, J. (1999). The experience economy.
Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Ravenscroft, N., & Mateucci, X. (2002). The festival as carnivalesque: Social governance and control at Pamplonas
San Fermin fiesta. Tourism Culture & Communication,
4, 115.

Delivered by Ingenta to: Clemson University

IP: 198.21.172.171 On: Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:32:48
Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article
including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location.

240

PATTERSON AND GETZ

Raybould, M., Digance, J., & McCullough, (1999). Fire and

festival: Authenticity and visitor motivation at an Australian folk festival. Pacific Tourism Review, 3, 201212.
Rittichainuwat, B., & Mair, J. (2012). Consumer motivations for attending travel shows. Tourism Management,
33(5), 12361244.
Roemer, M. (2007). Ritual participation and social support
in a major Japanese festival. Journal for the Scientific
Study of Religion, 46, 185200.
Searle, M. (2000). Is leisure theory needed for leisure studies? Journal of Leisure Research, 32, 138143.
Sharpe, E. (2008). Festivals and social change: Interactions
of pleasure and politics at a community music festival.
Leisure Sciences, 30, 217234.
Shipway, R., & Jones, I. (2008). The great suburban Everest:
An insiders perspective on experiences at the 2007 Flora
London Marathon. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 13, 6178.
Smith, S. L., & Godbey, G. C. (1991). Leisure, recreation
and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 18, 85100.
Stebbins, R. A. (1982). Serious leisure: A conceptual statement. Pacific Sociological Review, 25, 251272.
Stebbins, R. A. (1992). Amateurs, professionals, and serious
leisure. Montreal, QC, Canada: McGill-Queens University Press.

Stebbins, R. A. (2001). New directions in the theory and

research of serious leisure (Mellen Studies in Sociology,
28). Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen.
Stebbins, R. A. (2007). Serious leisure: A perspective for
our time. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
Tinsley, H. E., & Tinsley, D. J. (1986). A theory of the attributes, benefits, and causes of leisure experience. Leisure
Sciences, 8, 145.
Trail, G. T., Robinson, M. J., & Kim, Y. K. (2008). Sport
consumer behavior: A test for group differences on
structural constraints. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 17,
190200.
Tribe, J. (2003). Delivering higher quality: A comparison of
lecturers perceptions and QAA subject review in tourism. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism
Education, 2, 2747.
Turner, V. (1974). Liminal to liminoid, in play, flow and ritual: An essay in comparative symbology. In E. Norbeck
(Ed.), Rice University Studies: Vol. 60. The anthropological study of human play (pp. 5392). Houston, TX: Rice
University.
Varga, S. L., & Lusch, R. F. (2004). Evolving to a new
dominant logic for marketing. Journal of Marketing, 68,
117.

Delivered by Ingenta to: Clemson University

IP: 198.21.172.171 On: Sat, 31 Dec 2016 18:32:48
Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article
including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location.