Topic 7

Describe the structure of a muscle fibre and explain the structural and
physiological differences between fast and slow twitch muscle fibres.
Structure of a muscle fibre:
- Muscle fibres are long multinucleate cells.
- Each muscle fibre consists of many parallel myofibrils.
- Each myofibril consists of filaments: Actin (thin filament) and Myosin (thick filament).
- Each myofibril consists of a succession of sarcomeres.
- Muscle fibres have a plasma membrane known as the sarcolemma.
- The sarcoplasm (cytoplasm of muscle fibres) contains many mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum
( infolding of sarcolemma into tubular endoplasmic reticulum- controls the storage and release of
calcium ions)

Differences between fast and slow twitch muscle fibres:

- Fast twitch fibres are able to generate high force for a short time while slow twitch fibres generates
less force but for a longer time.
- Fast twitch fibres contract rapidly while slow twich fibres contract slowly.
- Fast twitch fibres contract rapidly due to the high concentration on ATPase enzyme in myosin
filaments.
- The sarcoplasmic reticulum of fast twitch fibres are adapted for both rapid release and uptake of
calcium ions which contribute to rapid contration.
- Slow twitch fibres contract slowly due to the relatively low concentration of ATPase enzyme in myosin
filaments.
- The sarcoplasmic reticulum of slow twitch fibres releases and uptake calcium ions slowly which
contributes to their slow contraction.
- Fast twitch fibres have few capillaries and mitochondria while slow twitch fibres have many capillaries
and mitochondria.
- Fast twitch fibres have little myoglobin( stores oxygen in muscles)( pale in colour) while slow twitch
fibres have a high concentration of myoglobin( dark red in colour).
- Fast twitch fibres rely on the glycolysis/lactate energy system (anaerobic energy source) while slow
twitch fibres rely on aerobic respiration in mitochondria as an energy source.
- Fast twitch fibres result in a short-term supply of ATP which is easily exhausted while slow twitch
fibres result in a long-term supply of ATP which is not easily exhausted.
- Fast twitch fibres can contract with greater force but power is quickly exhausted while slow twitch
fibres can contract repeatedly but with limited power.
- Fast twitch fibres are adapted for anaerobic respiration while slow twitch fibres are adapted for aerobic
respiration.

Explain the contraction of skeletal muscle in terms of the sliding filament theory, including the
role of actin, myosin, troponin, tropomyosin, calcium ions (Ca2+), ATP and ATPase.
- Myofibril is stimulated to contract by the arrival of an action potential from motor neurone.
- The action potential triggers the release of calcium ion from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
- Calcium ions activate the protein troponin.
- Activated troponin reacts with tropomyosin( blocking molecule) at the binding sites on the actin
molecule, exposing the binding sites.
- Myosin head ( with ADP and Pi) binds to exposed binding site on actin molecule and Pi is hydrolysed
and released.
- The power stroke occurs: ADP molecule is released from the myosin head triggering the 'rowing action'
(movement of myosin head) , pushing the actin filament along.
- The movement of the actin filament (sliding action) means the myofibril has been shortened
( contraction has occurred).
- A new molecule of ATP binds to the myosin head and ATPase (present at myosin head) calatyses the

hydrolysis of ATP into ADP and Pi.

- The now charged myosin head is detached from the binding site and straightens.
- Cycle is repeated at the binding sites further along the actin filament.

Recall the way in which muscles, tendons, the skeleton and ligaments interact to enable
movement, including antagonistic muscle pairs, extensors and flexors.
- The skeleton comprises of bones, ligaments, tendons and joints.
- Bones articulate with other bones at joints and provide anchorage for muscles.
- Ligaments hold bones together to restrict movement at joints to prevent dislocation.
- Ligaments form a protective capsule around movable joints.
- Tendons attach muscles to bones at their points of anchorage.
- Muscles cause movement by contraction.
- Skeletal muscles occur in antagonistic pairs and are anchored to bones across joints. When one muscle
contracts the other relaxes.
- Antagonistic pairs are made up of flexors and extensors: Flexors are muscles which contract to bend a
joint whilst extensors are muscles which contract to straighten a joint.
- Contractions of antagonistic muscle pairs can bring about movement at joints.(synovial joints).
- At a hinge joint, antagonistic muscle pairs can bring about flexion or extension.

Describe the overall reaction of aerobic respiration

The splitting of the respiratory substrate ( glucose) by oxidation to release carbon dioxide as a waste
product and reuniting of hydrogen with atmospheric oxygen ( forming water) with the release of a large
amount of energy.
Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon dioxide + water + energy

Describe how to investigate rate of respiration practically.

- Place 5g of organisms into the chamber/ tube of a simple respirometer and replace the bung.
- Place excess soda lime in perforated metal cage suspended above organisms to absorb carbon dioxide.
- Introduce a drop of dye into the glass capillary tube (1cm cube scale).
- Open the screw clip/ three-way tap and move the dye to the end of the scale on the glass tube, furthest
away from the chamber.
- Mark the starting position of the drop of dye on the capillary tube and record.
- Isolate the respirometer from the atmosphere by closing the screw clip and start the stop clock.
- Mark the position of the dye at 1 minute intervals for 5 minutes and record.
- A the end of the 5 minutes open the screw clip.
- Measure the distance travelled by the liquid each minute.
- Convert the distance moved into volume. This is equivalent to the volume of oxygen used by the
organisms.
- Record results in a suitable table
- Calculate the mean rate of oxygen uptake( rate of respiration) during the 5 minutes.

Recall how phosphorylation of ADP requires energy and how hydrolysis of ATP provides an
accessible supply of energy for biological processes.
- Phosphorylation is the reaction by which ADP reacts with pi to form ATP. This is an endothermic
reaction as energy is required and a bond is formed. The energy required comes from the breakdown of
glucose.
- When energy is needed, the third phosphate bond of ATP can be broken by hydrolysis reaction. This is

catalysed by ATPase. ATP is hydrolysed into ADP + Pi. This provides an immediate supply of energy for
biological processes.

Describe the roles of glycolysis in aerobic and anaerobic respiration, including the
phosphorylation of hexoses, the production of ATP, reduced coenzyme and pyruvate acid
(details of intermediate stages and compounds are not required).
- Glucose is obtained from its storage molecule glycogen
- Glucose is phosphorylated by reaction with ATP to form a hexose phosphate then phosphorylated again
to form a hexose biphosphate ( fructose biphosphate). 2ATP are used in phosphorylation.
- Lysis( splitting) of the fructose biphosphate occurs and 2 triose phosphates ( 2 molecules of a 3-carbon
sugar) are formed.
- Oxidation of the 2 triose phosphates occurs twice by the removal of hydrogen to form 2 pyruvate.
- A dehydrogenase causes the release of 2electrons and 2hydrogen molecules by each triose phosphate.
- 2NAD (coenzyme) accepts the (4)hydrogen ions and is reduced into 2NADH + H.
- Transfer of hydrogen ions during oxidation releases energy.
- The energy is used for phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP.
- ATP formation occurs twice during oxidation and 4ATP is formed.
- Per molecule of glucose, 2 molecules of ATP were used and 4 molecules of ATP are formed so there is
a net gain of 2ATP.
- The NADH molecules are taken to the matrix of the mitochondria( glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm)
where the hydrogen is used in the Kreb's cycle.

Describe the role of the Krebs cycle in the complete oxidation of glucose and formation of
carbon dioxide (CO2), ATP, reduced NAD and reduced FAD (names of other compounds are
not required) and that respiration is a many-stepped process with each step controlled and
catalysed by a specific intracellular enzyme.
Link reaction:
- Pyruvate is decarboxylated by the removal of carbon dioxide and, at the same time, oxidised by the
removal of hydrogen to form an acetyl group.
- Reduced NAD is also formed.
- The acetyl group combines with coenzyme A, forming acetyl coenzyme A.
Krebs cycle:
- acetyle coenzyme A reacts with a 4-carbon organic acid (OAA) to produce a 6-carbon compound
( citrate) and coenzyme A.
- Coenzyme A is recycled for another link reaction.
- Citrate is decarboxylated and carbon dioxide is formed as a waste product.
- Hydrogen is also removed and reduces NAD to form NADH.
- This results in a 5-carbon acid.
- The 5-carbon acid is decaboxylised and carbon dioxide is released again.
- A molecule of ATP is formed.
- 3 molecules of hydrogen are released and reduces 2 NAD and 1 FAD to form 2 reduced NAD and 1
reduced FAD.
- This leaves a 4-carbon acid (OAA) which binds to a new acetyl group from coenzyme A and the cycle
is repeated.
- In total, 3NADH and 1FADH take hydrogen atoms to be used in the electron transport chain.

Describe the synthesis of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation associated with the electron

transport chain in mitochondria, including the role of chemiosmosis and ATPase.

Electron transport chain:
- Reduced NAD and FAD are oxidised to release hydrogen ions and high energy electrons.
- The electrons are transported through electron carriers and release energy when passing between
carriers.
- The energy is used to actively pump hydrogen ions from the matrix into the intermembrane space of
the mitochondrion.
- Accumulation of hydrogen ions inside the intermembrane space creates an electrochemical gradient.
- As the inner membrane is impermeable to ions, protons move down concentration gradient through
ATPase enzyme (chemiosmosis).
- The movement of hydrogen ions through ATPase catalyses ATP synthesis.
- Electrons and protons then react with oxygen to form water.

Explain the fate of lactate after a period of anaerobic respiration in animals.

In anaerobic respiration, Pyruvate is reduced to form Lactate/Lactic acid and NAD is formed. Once
aerobic respiration continues lactate is converted back into Pyruvate.

Understand that cardiac muscle is myogenic and describe the normal electrical activity of the
heart, including the roles of the sinoatrial node (SAN), the atrioventricular node (AVN) and the
bundle of His, and how the use of electrocardiograms (ECGs) can aid the diagnosis of
cardiovascular disease (CVD) and other heart conditions.
Cardiac muscle is myogenic, meaning that the impulse which causes the muscles to contract is generated
by the muscle (the heart) itself rather than sent from the brain.
Electrical activity of the heart:
- The sinoatrial node (SAN/ natural pacemaker) sends an electrical impulse to the muscles in the atrial
walls via muscle fibres, triggering atrial systole (atria constrict and push blood into ventricles).
- A band of non-conducting collagen tissues prevent the impulse from travelling straight to the
ventricles)
- After a short delay, the impulse travels to the atrioventricular node ( at the base of right atrium) which
passes it through the Bundle of His before it travels into the Purkinje fibres.
- Purkinje fibres contract to cause ventricular systole ( walls of ventricles contract and push blood into
the arteries).
- After each contraction, cardiac muscle has a period of insensitivity to stimulation, known as the
refractory period.
Electrocardiograms:
-This is a machine which records the electrical activity of the heart by detecting electrical currents at the
body surface ( currents conducted though body fluids).
- It shows the waves of depolarisation during atrial systole, ventricular systole and diastole.
- If something disrupts the hearts normal conduction pathways, changes will occur in the pattern
recorded during the ECG which can be used for diagnosis of cardiovascular disease.

Explain how variations in ventilation and cardiac output enable rapid delivery of oxygen to

tissues and the removal of carbon dioxide from them, including how the heart rate and
ventilation rate are controlled and the roles of the cardiovascular control centre and the
ventilation centre.
- Ventilation rate = the rate at which someone breathes (often measured as the volume of air breathed per
minute/ the minute ventilation)
= tidal volume x breaths per minute
- Tidal volume= volume of air breathed in or out of the lungs in one breath.
- As ventilation increases, more oxygen is present in the lungs which creates a greater oxygen
concentration gradient between the alveoli and the blood.
- This greater concentration gradient means the rate of diffusion of oxygen into the blood increases.
- Also, as ventilation increases, more carbon dioxide is released when exhaling creating a steeper
concentration gradient between the blood and alveoli.
- This greater concentration gradient means the rate of diffusion of carbon dioxide from the blood into
the alveoli increases.
- As cardiac output increases, more blood is pumped around the body in each cycle, meaning more
oxygen reaches tissues and more carbon dioxide is removed.

Ventilation centre:
- Chemoreceptors in blood vessels(which are hydrogen ion receptors) detect change in pH/ carbon
dioxide concentration in the blood (Carbon dioxide is acidic in solution).
- Chemoreceptors send impulses to the respiratory centre (inspiratory centre) in the medulla which then
sends impulses to the intercostal muscles and diaphragm.
- An increase in carbon dioxide in the blood causes an increase in ventilation (intercostal muscles and
diaphragm increase in contraction rates).
- Ventilation can also be voluntarily controlled.

Cardiovascular control centre:

- Stretch receptors in lungs(capillaries which are sensitibe to bp) detect changes in blood pressure and
sends impulses to the cardiovascular centre.
- The cardiovascular centre sends impulses to the sino-atrial node (SAN) via the vagus nerve( to lower
heart rate) or the sympathetic nerve( to speed up heart rate).
- Adrenaline, which is secreted by the adrenal glands and carried in the blood, causes the SAN to
increase the heart rate.

Describe how to investigate the effects of exercise on tidal volume and breathing rate using
data from spirometer traces.
- Set up a spirometer with an enclosed chamber containing air, lying over water
- As a person breathes in and out through the mouthpiece, the movement of the lid should be recorded by
a pen on chart attached to a revolving drum
- By counting the number of ups and downs on the trace recorded we can calculate breathing rate in
breaths per minute.
- We can calculate ventilation rate by measuring mean average volume of air breathed in with each
breath (tidal volume) and multiplying this by the number of breaths taken in per minute.

Explain the principle of negative feedback in maintaining systems within narrow limits.

- If receptors detect an increase in the normal state of the body system, it triggers events that cause a
decrease in reaction.
- Equally, if receptors detect a decrease in the normal state of the body system, it triggers events that
cause an increase in reaction.
1. Receptors detect a change in the normal state of a body system.
2. This sends an electrical impulse to the relevant part of the brain e.g. hypothalamus if there is a change
in body temperature.
3. The brain sends an electrical impulse to the relevant effector muscle which reacts.
4. The change is counteracted.
5. Returns to normal state of body system.

Discuss the concept of homeostasis and its importance in maintaining the body in a state of
dynamic equilibrium during exercise, including the role of the hypothalamus and the
mechanisms of thermoregulation.
- Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment by negative feedback.
- If receptors detect an increase in the normal state of the body system, it triggers events that cause a
decrease in reaction.
- Equally, if receptors detect a decrease in the normal state of the body system, it triggers events that
cause an increase in reaction.
- important because a lot of cells have optimum levels and internal conditions must be maintained so
enzymes are not denatured.

Thermoregulation:
- Thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect a change in temperature of blood, the hypothalamus also
receives signals from receptors in the skin.
When this rise is detected, the hypothalamus sends nerve impulses via the autonimic nervous system
( unconscious /involuntary control) to various effectors which respond by:
- Arterioles dilate( vasodilation) so that a greater volume of blood can flow to the surface of the skin and
heat is lost by radiation through the skin.
- Sweat glands receive more blood which increases sweat production- the sweat travels to the surface of
the skin and evaporates, taking heat with it.
- Hair erector muscles attached to hair relax, meaning they lie flat against the skin and so trap less airthis allow heat to radiate from the skin more easily.
When a decrease in temperature is detected:
- Arterioles constrict( vasoconstriction) which greatly reduces the volume of blood travelling close to the
skin, this reduces the amount of heat lost through radiation .
- Sweat glands secrete little or no sweat.
- Hair erector muscles contract causing hairs to stand up, this traps a layer of air in the hairs which
reduces the heat lost through the skin by radiation.
- Certain muscles contract and relax very rapidly (shivering) which generates extra heat and increases
blood temperature.

Explain how genes can be switched on and off by DNA transcription factors including

hormones.
- Transcription factors, such as hormones like Thyroxine, bind to RNA polymerase.
- RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region.
- Transcription factors either increase or decrease the ability of RNA Polymerase to bind to the DNA and
catalyse the synthesis of a complimentary mRNA strand.
- This may increase the transcription of a particular gene, known as up-regulating, or decrease it, known
as down-regulating.

Analyse and interpret data on possible disadvantages of exercising too much (wear and tear on
joints, suppression of the immune system) and exercising too little (increased risk of obesity,
coronary heart disease (CHD) and diabetes), recognising correlation and causal relationships
Correlation As one variable changes, another changes
Causal relationship One variable effects a change in another variable

Too little exercise

Too much exercise

Increases risk of obesity ( metabolic rate remains low

so fuels such as glucose and fatty acids are not used
which increases risk of type 2 diabetes increases the
amount of fatty deposits)

Joints may become abnormally worn ( by wearing

away of cartilage)

Increases risk of type 2 diabetes

Muscle fibres mechanically damaged by heavy

exercise leading to reduced non-specific immune
response.

Increases risk of CVD (increases blood pressure and

LDL:HDL ratio- which can lead to atherosclerosis)

Less effective immune system

- less cytokines releases
- less activation of specific B and T killer cells
- less chance of destroying pathogens.
-reduced helper T-cell activity
- reduced antibody production.

Explain how medical technology, including the use of keyhole surgery and prostheses, is
enabling those with injuries and disabilities to participate in sports, e.g. cruciate ligaments
repair using keyhole surgery and knee joint replacement using prosthetics.
Modern imaging techniques such as MRI and CT scans are able to diagnoses injuries accurately and
quickly.
Keyhole surgery:
- A fibre optic tube with a small camera and light is inserted into incision to illuminate the site and
observe the damage.
- Small surgical instruments are used to repair the damage.
- Less recovery time than with normal surgery.
Prosthesis:
- Damaged body part can be completely replaced.

- Frees patient from pain and restores mobility.

- Prosthetics are unaffected by bodily fluids.

Outline two ethical positions relating to whether the use of performance-enhancing substances
by athletes is acceptable.
Against:
- They can lead to early death or health problems of an athlete for example due to heart attack later on
in life or liver damage
- They have a competitive advantage over those who do not use performance-enhancing drugs making
competition unfair
For:
- There is no ban on nutritional substance such as vitamins so where do we draw the line on what is
allowed and not allowed
- It is impossible for all drugs to be detected it is too difficult for regulators to keep up with making
new tests quickly enough to regulate the use of performance enhancing drugs
Ethical absolutists- believe it is either never acceptable or always acceptable to use performance
enhancing drugs
Ethical relativists - take into account different people and circumstances and believe it is wrong to use
performance enhancing rugs but in some cases it may be acceptable
Anabolic steroids: (works from inside)
- these bind to receptors on a molecule which takes it directly to the nucleus of a cell.
- They act as transcription factors and bind to the promotor region of a gene which allows RNA
Polymerase to start transcription- as a result more protein synthesis takes place in cells (for example
testosterone increases protein synthesis in muscle cells)
Peptide hormones: ( works on cell surface with receptors- transcription factor is created then enters cell)
- bind with receptors on the cell surface membrane which starts a process that results in the activation of
a transcription factor within the nucleus and causes a cascade of reactions (for example erythropoietin
stimulates production of red blood cells which means the blood can carry more oxygen)