Addressing Urban Air Pollution in Mumbai:

Pneumatic Hybrid Rickshaw

Aditya Balamuralikrishna | Venkatesh Chinnakonda | Colin Kelsall | Gregory Tuayev-Deane

Table of Contents
Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................................... i
Nomenclature ............................................................................................................................................... iii
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Existing Products, Prior Art and Applicable Patents ................................................................................ 3
2.1 Externally Charged Pneumatic Hybrid ............................................................................................... 3
2.2 Regenerative Pneumatic Hybrid ......................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Entirely electric powered systems ...................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Regenerative electric hybrid systems ................................................................................................. 7
2.5 Regenerative Flywheel Hybrid ........................................................................................................... 8
3. Customer Requirements and Engineering Design Specifications ........................................................... 10
3.1 Stakeholder Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 10
3.2 Customer Requirements and User Needs ......................................................................................... 12
3.3 Functions .......................................................................................................................................... 13
3.4 Constraints ........................................................................................................................................ 14
3.5 Engineering Specifications ............................................................................................................... 15
4. Market Research ..................................................................................................................................... 19
4.1 Current State of Mumbai Auto Rickshaws ....................................................................................... 19
4.2 Mumbai Auto Rickshaw Demographics ........................................................................................... 20
4.3 Stakeholder Research ....................................................................................................................... 21
4.4 Competition ...................................................................................................................................... 21
5. Design Concept Ideation ......................................................................................................................... 22
6. Preliminary Concept Selection and Justification .................................................................................... 25
7. Industrial Design ..................................................................................................................................... 27
7.1 Integration of Visual Hierarchy and Language................................................................................. 27
7.2 Future Industrial Design Choices ..................................................................................................... 28
8. Engineering Analyses and Experiments ................................................................................................. 29
8.1: Deceleration Effect of Compressor on Vehicle ............................................................................... 30
8.2: Power Required to Operate Compressor ......................................................................................... 33
8.3: Running the Compressor in Reverse to Propel the Rickshaw ......................................................... 36
9. Initial Drawing and Fabrication Package ................................................................................................ 40
9.1 Preliminary CAD .............................................................................................................................. 40
10. Prototype Development ........................................................................................................................ 44
10.1 Prototype Description and Purpose ................................................................................................ 44
10.2 Testing and Results ......................................................................................................................... 47
10.3 Prototype Design ............................................................................................................................ 49
10.2 Bill of Materials .............................................................................................................................. 52
10.5 Prototype Effectiveness .................................................................................................................. 53
11. Codes and Standards ............................................................................................................................ 54

12. Societal, Environmental and Sustainability Considerations ................................................................. 60

13. Risk Assessment, Safety and Liability .................................................................................................. 61
14. Patent Claims and Commercialization .................................................................................................. 63
Claims ..................................................................................................................................................... 63
Commercialization.................................................................................................................................. 64
15. Conclusions & Future Work ................................................................................................................. 64
11. References / Citations ........................................................................................................................... 66
Appendix A: Concepts ................................................................................................................................ 68
Appendix B: Gantt Chart ............................................................................................................................ 74
Appendix B: Fabrication Drawings ............................................................................................................ 76

Executive Summary
As the global population continues to climb, the environmental issues faced today will be
exacerbated if no action is taken. One of the major modern issues involves the increase in global greenhouse
emissions. The global average diameter of particulate matter, which contributes to greenhouse emissions is
2.5 micrometers. In contrast, India has one of the highest average PM diameters in the world ranging from
70 130 micrometers, which is drastically higher than the global average. About 50% of these emissions
are due to the transportation sector and 20% of those emissions are due to the ubiquitous auto rickshaw. To
tackle this problem, it is important to first address the sources of the emissions and the associated
technologies that have been researched and implemented in the industry to improve these conditions. After
investigating these technologies, a better understanding is achieved of the transportation sector to develop
a set of customer needs and engineering specifications. These are then used to implement a system to reduce
auto rickshaw emissions. Based on these specifications and desired functions, a proposal of concepts were
made and compared to determine the most effective system.
As the number of total vehicles on the planet has continued to climb, manufacturers and
governments have been pushing for new technologies to address the expected increase in emissions. These
technologies include hybrid and independent powertrain options through pneumatics, battery, and flywheel
systems. Battery and flywheel hybrid technologies have been used in mainstream consumer vehicles, while
pneumatic technology has been proven, but not implemented on a large scale. Comparison of these
developed technologies has revealed the advantages and disadvantages, and has helped determine specific
challenges that may arise when pursuing each type of technology as a solution.
In order to determine which type of technology might be most applicable to the audience, a
stakeholder analysis was conducted. Based on this analysis, the auto rickshaw driver was determined to be
the most influential and important for consideration when deciding and designing a particular emissions
reducing system. Auto rickshaw drivers earn an average of about 1,900 USD in major Indian cities, and are
mainly middle-aged Indian males. As a result, one of the main areas of consideration for potential
technology and system design was that it must have a short payback period. In the past decade, major cities
such as Mumbai have forced owners to convert their vehicles to CNG, which have a payback period of
about one year. This means that the proposed system must have a similar or better payback period. The fact
that most rickshaws have a lifetime of about ten years means that the selected system would have to have
the ability to retrofit into existing dimensional constraints. All of these considerations are focused around
the aspect of low cost, and can be achieved by focusing on improving fuel efficiency and as result will
reduce emissions of the overall vehicle. Improvement in fuel efficiency remains an important consideration

as the daily fuel costs contribute to over 50% of total costs for the driver. Therefore, targeting this aspect
has been the focus of the proposed conceptual designs.
Compiling and analyzing market research, researching existing technologies, and understanding
the main stakeholder for the auto rickshaw led to the development of several conceptual designs for
consideration. These concepts include the following: a Regenerative Pneumatic Hybrid, an Externally
Charged Pneumatic Hybrid, a Regenerative Electric Hybrid, an Entirely Electric Powertrain, and a
Regenerative Flywheel Hybrid. These five concepts were initially evaluated primarily on cost and technical
feasibility. After conducting a comparative analysis of the ideas, the pneumatic solutions were determined
to be the best method of addressing the stated problem. The regenerative pneumatic hybrid, specifically,
ranked highest in the overall comparison primarily due to its low cost and ease of implementation. This
idea of a pneumatic hybrid is not entirely unique as it has been proved by Peugeot, but the application for
an auto rickshaw is completely novel and sensible. This is due to the fact that auto rickshaws spend a
majority of their lives in cities in stop and go traffic where their combustion engines are producing their
most particulate matter upon acceleration. The implementation of a regenerative pneumatic hybrid system
not only captures the otherwise wasted kinetic energy, but can also keep the engine out of inefficient
operating conditions through the supplemental propulsion of the pneumatic system.
The industrial design consideration of the system revolves around the theme of the technology and
the target audience. The team decided to name the system Vaayu, which means air in Hindi, to serve as
the basis for the branding, logos, and concept theme.
To develop the detailed design specifications of the pneumatic and mechanical system, a
thermodynamic model was developed to predict the performance of such a system. The model takes system
specifications such as tank size, compressor size, and vehicle speed, and calculates the time required to stop
the vehicle as well as the pressure profile in the tank. This model can be used to optimize the system design
for both technical feasibility and pneumatic performance.
An idealized CAD model has been made to illustrate the packaging of the pneumatic system with
the existing combustion-powered system in order to develop a perspective of the expected constraints and
roadblocks the team might face during the implementation of the retrofit in the allocated space.
The team built a working prototype of the pneumatic-hybrid powertrain and used it to validate the
theoretical model. The prototype system efficiency was calculated to be approximately 4% which has the
potential to reduce daily fuel usage by 1%, which correlates to 192,000 fewer tons of CO2 released each
year when used across India. The system also increased the initial torque by 150% when compared to the
standard CNG engine. The demonstration showed the feasibility of the technology in terms of emissions
reduction and implementation potential and the idea will be pursued for its intended application in auto
rickshaws in the city of Mumbai.

ii

Nomenclature
CAD
CNG
LPG
PM

Computer Aided Graphics

Compressed Natural Gas
Liquid Petroleum Gas
Particulate Matter

iii

1. Introduction
Low air quality and smog in urban areas of India and developing countries have led to an overall
lower quality of life. A solution to address this problem is to target the main source of transportation in
urban areas and provide an alternative propulsion method to lower the amount of emissions for the
respective modes of transportation. The regions experiencing this problem the most are regions with high
population density such as the country of India. Indian cities are expected to grow in population by a quarter
billion people by 2030 with its transportation industry expected to grow proportionally.
One of the most common ways of getting around in Indian cities is the auto rickshaw. Representing
about 20% of the preferred mode of transportation for the population, these vehicles present an ideal target
for improvement to produce the largest impact for reducing emissions. Most auto rickshaws use a twostroke combustion engine which contributes to a large proportion of the particulate matter (PM) in the air
of Indian cities. In fact, India has one of the highest average PM diameters in the world ranging from 70
130 micrometers while the global average is at 2.5 micrometers (S. Katie, 2016). To tackle this problem, a
system can be implemented into existing auto rickshaws to reduce the total amount of tailpipe emissions.
This system would have to have the ability to inexpensively retrofit into existing vehicles and have the
capability of reducing engine duty cycle time. The proposed designs include systems ranging from hybrid
to full electric systems. The system would supplement or replace the existing propulsion method and be
used on a daily basis by the auto rickshaw drivers. The specific target area for the initial implementation
would be in the city of Mumbai where the environment involves low speed driving and high levels of smog.
The main goal of the system would focus on lowering the overall emissions of the auto rickshaw.
This can be done by reducing the total duty cycle of the existing engine in the auto rickshaw or replacing
the existing powertrain with something that emits less or does not produce any tailpipe emissions. Based
on these desired product functions, it would be desirable to have a system that could have the ability to
propel the vehicle without the use of the existing powertrain in low speed maneuvers. This desired function
would eliminate the high particulate emissions that engines produce upon acceleration. This system would
aim to keep the engine in the most efficient part of the rev range. In addition, the system would have the
ability to capture, store, and release kinetic energy of the vehicle through this supplementary system. An
ideal system would use existing user input controls such as throttle, brake, and steering for the new system
operation to work seamlessly without any change in normal driver input.
The stakeholders for this system would include the auto rickshaw drivers, the urban Indian
population, Indian government, auto rickshaw manufacturers, and the oil and gas companies. The proposed
hybrid system would provide an opportunity for auto rickshaw owners to experience lower fuel costs and
therefore increased daily profits as over 50% of daily revenue is spent on fuel. The urban Indian population

would see an improvement in air quality and therefore improved overall health. The Indian government
could achieve its 2020 goal of conversion to Euro VI emissions standards sooner with the implementation
of a hybrid system. Auto rickshaw manufacturers will be able to easily adhere to future governmental
emissions goals through a manufacturing implementation of the hybrid system. On the other hand, oil and
gas companies would see a decline in fuel consumption resulting in decreased revenue from declining gas
sales in the transportation industry.
After investigating similar current technologies and their applications to automobiles, various
technical issues and challenges were identified. In the case of electric vehicles and electric hybrids, major
technical issues include the high cost of power dense batteries, the inefficiencies in the conversion from
mechanical to chemical energy and back, and the requirement of complex electrical control systems in order
to optimize power generation and consumption. The most relevant challenge here is the high cost of
batteries since the target market will desire the lowest payback period possible. With regard to the
pneumatic and pneumatic hybrid systems, the major technical issue is once again overcoming efficiency
issues in using air as a working fluid and the relatively low efficiency of compressors. Additionally, the
high pressure air storage tanks were a major barrier in commercialized automobiles in passing safety
standards. In fact, several companies halted production of pneumatic cars for this reason. However,
pneumatic hybrid systems have the advantage that they are lower in cost and require little electrical
implementation. The highest efficiency technology found was the flywheel hybrid system because it is
purely mechanical and all interconnecting parts are physically connected by gears or clutches. However,
the technical challenge presented is that a flywheel system may present a safety issue in such an open
vehicle as a rickshaw.
In all regenerative braking technologies, a common challenge lies in the fact that different drivers
may wish to brake at different rates. Some drivers may wish to slowly coast to a stop in which case
regenerative braking is ideal. In other cases, when rapid deceleration is desired, friction brakes are generally
preferred. Finding an ideal balance between friction brakes and regenerative braking that suits all drivers is
a major issue.
To address the issue of emissions from auto rickshaws, the team intends to develop an energy
saving and emissions reducing system able to be retrofitted onto the vehicles. Several designs were
considered for this system utilizing various energy storage and regeneration methods. The regeneration and
storage approach was considered to be the most applicable to the problem and had the largest potential
impact. Electric, pneumatic and flywheel based hybrid systems were considered as methods of energy
storage. After comparing the concepts in a concept evaluation matrix, it was determined that the
regenerative pneumatic hybrid system best addresses the problem.

Over the course of the project, the team intends to construct a working prototype of the modified
rear axle and drivetrain from an auto-rickshaw. This axle will be accelerated and decelerated externally
with an electric motor to demonstrate the braking and accelerating potential of the pneumatic system.
Ideally, this system will be able to brake with similar performance to existing friction based braking
systems, and will reduce the need for an IC engine when accelerating.

2. Existing Products, Prior Art and Applicable Patents

Many existing automotive technologies utilize non-fossil fuel sources to either completely power
vehicles or, in the case of hybrids, to supplement the conventional internal combustion engine. These
technologies involve either generating and storing the power on board the system or generating the power
externally and later transferring it to an on-board means of storage. This review will consider five different
systems which differ either by their means of power generation or power storage or both. These systems
considered are fully pneumatic, hybrid pneumatic, fully electric, hybrid electric and the hybrid flywheel
systems.

2.1 Externally Charged Pneumatic Hybrid

This system utilizes externally compressed air which is then stored in tanks on-board the rickshaw and
used to propel the vehicle via various technologies outlined below:
a. Pneumatic and power-driven mixed hybrid electric vehicle (G. Zhi, 2010)
This technology uses a unique type of motor which is commonly used in heavy equipment such as
excavators and is powered hydraulically, or in this case by compressed air. A depiction of this the
axial piston motor or travel motor is shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Stages of Travel Motor Cycle

The patent outlines a way of using the travel motor as a replacement for the combustion engine.
Compressed air stored in tanks is directed in a controlled manner into the pistons of the travel
motor, causing the tilt plate to rotate, thus rotating the motor shaft. In order to control the speed of
the motor, a flow control valve is used to vary the flow rate of compressed air from storage tanks.

b. Compressed Air Engine and Power Train System (F. Michael, 2014).
This patent presents another means of obtaining locomotion from compressed air through the use
of an ordinary reciprocating IC engine or rotary engine. When the accelerator is engaged the engine
runs on compressed air as a fuel. In addition to being powered by compressed air, a mechanism is
also outlined to regenerate compressed air using a flywheel. The output shaft of the engine is
attached to a flywheel and transmission. When the accelerator is disengaged, the kinetic energy of
the flywheel provides rotational mechanical energy back through the output shaft causing the
engine to compress air. This use of an engine is also relevant to the hybrid pneumatic automobile
since these vehicles require onboard air compression.

Some commercial vehicles have used a fully pneumatic powered system. Examples of vehicles that
have successfully implemented systems driven completely by compressed air include:

a. The MDI Airpod

The Airpod engine uses two interconnected cylinders, one of which is small and the other, large.
After being released from the air tank, the air expands to a pressure of 20 bars before being fed at
constant pressure to the smaller, first cylinder. When the piston in the first cylinder reaches full
extension (BDC) the air inlet valve closes and the air is allowed to expand. As it expands, it moves
into the second, larger cylinder resulting in another expansion step and thus lowering the air
temperature again. (P. Fairley, 2009)

b. The APUQ Quasiturbine powered car.

The Quasiturbine engine is similar to a rotary or Wankel engine with the difference being that its
rotor is made of a four sided articulated geometry which deforms throughout the thermodynamic
cycle. It is therefore capable of a higher compression ratio. Also, unlike in a Wankel engine, the
contour seals have much longer lifetimes since the rotation of the rotor does not solely rely on
pressure being exerted against these seals. (V. Tim, 2006)

2.2 Regenerative Pneumatic Hybrid

This system is similar to the pneumatic system described with the only difference being that the air is
compressed on board via regenerative braking, rather than being compressed externally. Therefore,
propulsion technologies in such a system are identical to those listed above. In addition, some means
of compressing air via regenerative braking is also necessary. Current patents related to on-board
compression technologies are listed below:
a. Operating a vehicle with braking energy recovery (S. Michael, 2014)
The compression-braking process uses the engine as a compressor during braking as outlined in the
patent titled Operating a vehicle with braking energy recovery. This patent describes a means of
improving the efficiency of a compressor unit by implementing multi-stage compression instead of
single stage compression. The advantages outlined include a much smaller size requirement in for
the compressed air tank and significantly higher braking torque. Such a system uses multiple
cylinders of the internal combustion engine to sequentially compress the air to higher pressures.
This provides a much higher braking torque because more work is done by the engine per mass of
air in order to compress it and thus solves the problem usually encountered in pneumatic
regenerative systems of low brake torque. It also eliminates or significantly reduces the need for
friction brakes.
b. Recovery system for dissipated energy of an engine motor vehicle during its running conditions
(R. Giangluigi, 1996)
This patent combines two recovery methods of otherwise wasted energy. The first utilizes exhaust
gases to heat a fluid with low temperature of vaporization which is then expanded through a turbine
to power a compressor, as in a turbocharger.
In the second recovery method, a variable compression ratio compressor replaces the braking
system and adjusts the compression ratio according to the amount of braking necessary. Variable
compression is obtained by appropriate opening and closing of valves between multiple tanks.
c. Combined hydraulic and regenerative braking system (V. Rama, 1981)
This patent does not describe a method of recovering braking energy, but instead proposes a method
of controlling the compression ratio of a compressor used for regenerative braking by monitoring
the applied hydraulic pressure in the conventional brake line. Braking the vehicle is done fully
pneumatically up to a first level of brake line pressure, partially pneumatically at a higher constant
brake line pressure and partially regenerative at a linearly increasing braking force between the

latter two levels. Figure 2.2 below displays the variation of regenerative brake torque with master
cylinder pressure, which is indicative of how hard the driver presses the brake.

Figure 2.2: Variation of Regenerative Braking Torque with Master Cylinder

Pressure

Examples of commercialized vehicles that utilize compressed air power in conjunction with a
conventional internal combustion engine include:

a. Peugeot/Citroen C3 Hybrid.
The compression of air in this vehicle is accomplished differently from the techniques listed in the
patents above. The car contains a nitrogen gas storage tank and within the tank is a moveable piston
which can control the compression or expansion within the tank. During braking, the wheels
energy drives a hydraulic pump that pushes hydraulic fluid into an accumulator and against the
piston in order to compress the Nitrogen gas. During acceleration, the opposite occurs where the
compressed nitrogen pushes on the piston, forcing the hydraulic fluid to power a hydraulic motor
thus powering the car.

2.3 Entirely electric powered systems

Fully electric systems are slowly becoming more common but are still faced with the challenges of
cheap and compact energy storage.

a. Ford Focus Electric.

The Focus Electric uses a 100 kW electric motor and 23 kWh capacity battery pack. The batteries
use lithium-ion technology and take 3-4 hours to charge using the 6.6 kW car charger with 220V.
Using the North American 110 V main supply may take up to 20 hours for a full charge. To maintain
optimum battery properties, the battery temperature is regulated by liquid cooling or heating.
b. Tesla Motors.
All models are currently fully electric. These cars have 2 inductive electric motors, one of which
powers the rear wheels and the other, the front wheels. The major component of the cost of this car,
as in any other electric car is the cost of efficient batteries. The batteries have a range of between
240 and 290 miles depending on the model and driving habits. This car is well known for its
incredible acceleration, attaining a 0-60 mph time of just about 3 seconds. Relative to other electric
cars, the Tesla is significantly more expensive.
Regenerative braking in the Tesla is done by using the same inductive motors. Sensors are used to
detect the amount of throttle desired by the driver and converts this into a torque command which
can be either positive (to accelerate) or negative (to decelerate). The motor controller converts the
torque command into the appropriate 3-phase voltage and current and power is either generated or
consumed accordingly. (G. Solberg, 2007)

2.4 Regenerative electric hybrid systems

This type of vehicle will combine the use of a conventional IC engine with an electric motor. Most cars
that are regarded as being green in the automotive market today belong to this class of automobile.
Common vehicles include:
a. Toyota Prius.
An electric motor and gas powered engine are run in parallel and independent of each other which
allows both motors to power the drivetrain simultaneously. During full acceleration, only the engine
is used and the electric motor is used at steady speeds. During light acceleration both the electric
and gas engine provide power in varying proportions.

In addition to these commercialized vehicles, hybrid electric systems have also already been
implemented on rickshaws. These hybrid rickshaws can be regarded as competing products for our
hybrid rickshaw proposal. Below, some of these systems are listed.

b. Surya Conversions LLC is a Kickstarter project from students at University of Colorado Boulder
who also share the goal of reducing pollution from rickshaws in urban India while increasing
profitability for rickshaw drivers. Surya Conversions focuses on creating an electric hybrid
conversion kit for auto rickshaws in India. The cost of production of this particular kit is $600 and
the company has established connections with a taxi company, Tele Rickshaw, in India which
operates rickshaws. The company has recently applied for provisional patents on its technology.

There are many related patents to these technologies one of which are listed below.

a. Hybrid vehicle formed by converting a conventional IC engine powered vehicle and

method of such conversion (G. Solberg, 2006)
This patent provides a means of retrofitting a conventionally powered vehicle with a means of
regenerative braking. Typical drivetrains consist of multiple shafts connected in a serial fashion
from the engine to the transmission and to the driving axle. This patent proposes a way of
connecting an electric motor in parallel with the drive train so that power from the motor may be
added to the drive train during vehicle acceleration or so that power may be removed from the drive
train while the vehicle is braking. The generated energy would be stored in batteries or capacitors.

2.5 Regenerative Flywheel Hybrid

This energy storage mechanism generally involves engaging a flywheel to the drive shaft during
braking or engaging the flywheel to the engine as an accessory while the engine is operating at steady
state. The rotational energy of the flywheel can then be used to assist in accelerating the vehicle or to
power accessories such as the alternator, air conditioning or power steering. Seeing that these
accessories are absent in a rickshaw, a flywheel would be intended to reaccelerate the rickshaw. Current
commercialized vehicles that use flywheel hybrid systems include
a. Volvo S60.
The flywheel in this car adds an estimated 80 HP along with a 25% improvement in fuel efficiency.
The flywheel is a 20 cm, 6 kg carbon fiber wheel which spins in a vacuum at up to 60,000 rpm.
When the driver applies the brake, the flywheel becomes engaged with the driven axle and
rotational kinetic energy is transferred from the tires to the flywheel. Upon acceleration, the

flywheel is connected back through a system of gears to the drive shaft, which accelerates the
vehicle according to the gear ratio in use. The following is an example of a patent which outlines
the use of a flywheel for energy storage
b. Many Formula One race cars.

A patent which demonstrates an alternative implementation method of a regenerative flywheel is

described below.
a. Flywheel hybrid system (A. Serkh, 2013)
This describes a flywheel hybrid system that is selectively clutched to an IC engine accessory belt
drive system. Through the use of a dual clutch system, the flywheel and internal combustion engine
can be selectively engaged and disengaged. The system is shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.5: Schematic of Flywheel Hybrid System Outlined in Patent US13248277

Item 200 represents the flywheel and items 600, 700 and 800 are engine accessories such as the
alternator, air conditioning and power steering pump. Clutches 1 and 2 are labeled as 400 and 500.
When the flywheel is to be charged, both clutches are engaged and once the flywheel reaches a
target speed it is used to power the accessories by disengaging clutch 1 and engaging clutch 2. If
the flywheel is idle, the engine is solely used to power the accessory devices by only engaging
clutch 1.

3. Customer Requirements and Engineering Design Specifications

Having assessed the nature of the problem and the products currently on the market to increase the
fuel efficiency of rickshaws, the stakeholders being affected by this problem can now be identified and their
influence and importance to the project can be gauged. By considering the ways in which different groups
of people are affected by this problem, the needs of the customers and users can be found and can be used
to build functions and constraints which translate into quantitative specifications for use in the engineering
design of the solution of the project.

3.1 Stakeholder Analysis

The stakeholders affected by the problem of highly polluting auto-rickshaws are listed below in
Table 3.1, along with their interests and the effects they would experience from an ideal solution, and a
ranking from 1-5 for their importance and influence in the project with 5 being the highest rank in those
factors. A focus index was also created by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of the rankings,
to give an idea of which stakeholders needs have to be considered the most in the design of the solution.
Table 3.1: Stakeholder Analysis
Stakeholder
Auto
Rickshaw
drivers

Urban Indian
population

Indian
government

Auto Rickshaw
manufacturers

Oil & Gas

Companies

Interests
-

Fuel costs
Air quality
Profits
Vehicle
performance
- Air quality
health risk
- Fare prices

- Bharat VI
emissions
standards
- Urban smog
- Profit margins
- Powertrain
efficiency
regulations
- Manufacturing
costs
- Fuel
consumption

Impact/Effect

Importance

Influence

- Lower fuel costs

- Less airborne emissions
- Improved ability to climb
hills

Focus
Index
7.1

- Lowered risk for asthma

and other airborne related
illnesses
- Lower prices in fares dues
to lower annual fuel costs
- Improved air quality
- Reduced smog in urban
India
- Improvement in quality of
life
- Increased initial costs for
system
- Readjusted pricing strategy
- Easing the conversion to
country emissions
standards
- Lowered petrol/diesel
consumption
- Lowered profits

4.1

5.0

3.6

2.2

10

The stakeholders were also placed on a stakeholder matrix to illustrate their importance and
influence in the project, shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Stakeholder matrix showing relative importance and influence

From the Focus Index in Table 3.1, it is clear that the stakeholder most affected by this project is
the Auto Rickshaw drivers as they rank highest in importance and in influence, due to their ability to control
which changes they would like to make on their vehicles and how much money theyre willing to spend on
improving their rickshaws. The second most important stakeholder is the Indian Government, due to their
interest in cutting emissions enough to meet their goals of across-the-board emission and pollution cuts,
and the resulting quality of life improvements from the mass implementation of a successful system due to
a reduction in urban smog. Close behind the government are the urban Indian population who use and travel
alongside rickshaws every day. A successful solution would increase the quality of the air they breathe and
could possibly even lead to lower fare-prices from lower costs of operation for rickshaw drivers. The two
stakeholders deemed least important were Auto rickshaw manufacturers and Oil & Gas companies, with
the latter ranked last. These stakeholders may not benefit greatly from a successful solution because of the
profits they may lose from the lowered consumption of gas and the increased longevity of rickshaw
powertrains from reduced use of the compressed natural gas engines in rickshaws, meaning that less

11

maintenance would be needed and fewer rickshaws would need to be bought every year as less rickshaws
are breaking down.

3.2 Customer Requirements and User Needs

From the stakeholder analysis and by considering what the most important stakeholders would want
from a solution, a set of basic customer requirements were created to serve as a basis on which to build a
solution. Due to the difficulty of being able to communicate with an actual auto rickshaw driver, the
requirements were determined based on the issues in the current design of auto rickshaw powertrains and
as passengers who have experienced the issues with highly polluting auto rickshaws first-hand. The
requirements are listed below:
1.

Lower emissions

2.

Improved fuel efficiency

3.

Improved acceleration and hill climb abilities

4.

Unchanged or improved handling performance

5.

Easily retrofitted to existing rickshaws

6.

Low cost of implementation and maintenance

7.

No extremely expensive components

8.

Safety of passengers/operator

These requirements encompass all facets of the design and consider all stakeholders, with more attention
being given to the top three stakeholders. In addition to this set of requirements, a more concise list of user
needs was created with the focus entirely placed on the drivers of the auto rickshaws and the Indian
government, as they are ultimately the ones who will decide whether or not the system will be implemented
en masse and they also stand to benefit most significantly from a solution, especially when considering
monetary effects. The two user needs identified are:
-

Increase in fuel efficiency

Reduction in emissions

The increase in fuel efficiency was isolated as it considers both the personal cost to the driver and the
environmental cost to the government and Indian citizens. The driver spends less money on gas every week,
and the government can meet better energy standards because less fuel is being used. The other need,
reduction in emissions, takes into account the rickshaw drivers who have to be on the road in an exposed
cabin for most of the day breathing in highly polluted air and the government who would benefit from being
able to meet higher levels of emissions standards which would boost their reputation on the global stage
and pave the way for further sustainable development. The positive effects on air quality would also affect

12

the urban Indian population by lowering risks of asthma and respiratory disorders, which would lead to a
higher standard of living and lowered costs on healthcare by the government and by the population.
Based on the teams first-hand knowledge of the Indian transportation market and the standard of
living of Auto-rickshaw drivers in India, it is clear that a very important metric in the design of this solution
will be the final price of a solution, and how quickly that price can be offset by the benefits of the solution.
In the past, a government-mandated implementation of CNG powertrains in auto rickshaws were associated
with a payback period of roughly 1 year due to the system costing around $300 and savings on fuel being
around $1 a day (Business Standard, 2005). Should another system be made available to further reduce the
operating costs of an auto rickshaw, the payback period of the system would need to be better than, if not
similar to the CNG system, to best incentivize drivers to buy and implement it. The payback period is
considered as a constraint, and is discussed further on in this section.

3.3 Functions
Using customer requirements and the needs of drivers, the engineering functions were found using
a function tree, shown in Figure 3.2.
Improve Auto
Rickshaw
performance

Improve
environmenta
l impact

Improve Fuel
Economy

Reuse Lost
Energy

Capture
braking
energy

Convert braking
energy into
storable energy

Store
captured
energy

Transmit storable
energy to storage
system

Reduce noise

Reduce
tailpipe
emissions

Interface with
existing
powertrain

Modulate
engine input
to powertrain

Modulate
regeneration
system input
to powertrain

Release
stored energy

Transmit
stored energy
to propulsion
system

Convert stored
energy to
propulsion energy

Figure 3.2: Function Tree showing braches and final functions

Starting from the basic function of Improve Auto Rickshaw Performance, branches were made to
consider functions concerning the drivers ability to regenerate energy from his vehicle, the desired

13

environmental impact of the system and the method of interfacing with the current rickshaw design. The
environmental functions are listed below:
-

Reduce noise

Reduce tailpipe emissions

In addition to these, the engineering functions at the end of each branch are:
-

Convert braking energy into storable energy

Transmit storable energy to storage system

Store Captured Energy

Convert stored energy to propulsion energy

Transmit stored energy to propulsion system

Modulate engine input to power train

Modulate regeneration system input to power train

The functions descending from the Reuse lost energy branch are those which will drive the design
process; creating a regenerative system to provide the rickshaw with an extra source of power will be the
bulk of the engineering design and will take the most consideration, and will have the highest need to be
fulfilled. The other two engineering functions descending from the Interface with existing powertrain
branch will dictate the ability of the system to be integrated into a rickshaw with no negative consequences
on ability or safety, and will be carefully considered throughout the design process in order to keep the
regenerative powertrain system feasible and practical. The two environmental functions listed earlier exist
to keep a focus on reducing pollution, which would benefit every stakeholder in the project. They will be
used as a means of keeping the environmental impact of the system positive and not focused only on the
energy benefits from a regenerative drivetrain, but also on having a beneficial impact as a holistic system.
Having ascertained all these functions, it should be possible to define performance metrics for how well
each function should be performed. However, due to the extremely important constraint of cost, the desired
metrics can only feasibly be found once a payback period has been defined and the other relevant constraints
are discussed.

3.4 Constraints
While the functions have defined the goals that the system must meet, the constraints associated
with the costs and usage of the system provide limits to how easily and effectively the system can be
implemented and the performance that can be expected with a system with such constraints. For example,
if the system costs an auto rickshaw driver two years of his salary and 10 years to pay back, they would be
very unwilling to buy the system because they cannot provide that much cash up front and other components

14

in the rickshaw may fail in that time meaning that the driver would have lost more from the system than he
gained. The constraints would also consider the costs of maintenance, using the knowledge that auto
rickshaw drivers perform simple maintenance fixes by themselves or with the help of other drivers without
going to a mechanic because of the relatively high price of hiring someone else to do a simple task, and the
potential loss of a days revenue from fares while waiting for the rickshaw to be fixed. The following list
of constraints take into account how the driver of an auto rickshaw would want the system to behave and
benefit him and the passengers who pay for his service:
-

Payback period should be less than 1 year

System must have a low initial cost

System should be easy to install

System should be easy to use

System should be easy to fix

System should not negatively impact acceleration

System must be safe to use

These constraints will work in tandem with functions to provide feasible specifications to be met by the
final design. Constraints regarding payback period and the low initial cost will provide the most important
and overarching limitations to the design, and will ensure that the project remains useful to its end users
and customers, the auto rickshaw drivers.

3.5 Engineering Specifications

Using the functions and constraints while keeping in mind the original customer requirements,
specifications can be formed to create a quantitative set of parameters for the design of the system. By going
through the possible areas in which specifications can be developed and by assessing the constraints and
functions that are most important in the context of the problem, metrics for the performance of the system
can be made. Keeping in mind that the system should have a low initial cost and a short payback period,
the system would need to be designed in a way that is simple and cheap, but also highly efficient and
noticeably impactful to the driver.
In order to best organize the specifications that the final system must attempt to fulfill, a
specification sheet was made using the categories provided in Introductory Mechanical Design (2011),
which consider such categories as Forces, Maintenance and Safety. For each specification which is
created, its classification as a demand or want is established, along with the member of the group
responsible for trying to meet the specification, a source for the specification, and a quantitative goal if
currently applicable. The first version of the specification sheet is shown in Table 3.2 in its entirety, with

15

many specifications lacking quantitative definitions because of the yet undecided best method to solve the
problem. For example, specification 9 in the Energy group specifies the amount of energy which will be
released to the driving axle by the added system, but currently doesnt have a number attached to it because
of the limitations in different types of proposed solutions to the system. Various methods of providing
energy to the axle will realistically have different levels of success in this specification if a goal were to be
set now, but may detract from other specifications such as payback period of less than 1 year shown in
specification 32, because of the increased costs associated with a more powerful powertrain. This means
that once the ideation process has been completed using a rough assessment of the type of power delivery
available to different types of powertrains and a type of solution chosen, the specification can be revisited
and fairly assessed. Another example of specifications which have yet to be made clear are those in the
Production category. Again, the level of complexity and number of parts that can realistically be expected
to be a part of a system depend on the type of system chosen, and is unnecessarily restricting so early in the
design process, so were without numerical goals for the time-being, only to be assessed further on.

[This space has been intentionally left blank]

16

Table 3.2: Specification Sheet

Specification
For: A Hybrid Propulsion System
No.

D/W

Requirements

Issued: 02/10/2016
Responsible

Source
Customer
Requirement

Collects, stores and releases energy to wheels

Geometry
1

Fits in Bajaj RE rickshaw (<2 ft x 2 ft x 2 ft)

Venkatesh
Chinnakonda

Testimonials

Kinematics
2

Decelerate rickshaw (>1 m/s2)

Colin Kelsall

Accelerate rickshaw (>1 m/s2)

Colin Kelsall

Preliminary
Calculations
Preliminary
Calculations

Forces
4

Withstands torque from rotating axle (180 Nm)

Colin Kelsall

Applies torque to driving axle

Colin Kelsall

Mass of less than 50 Kg

Colin Kelsall

Bajaj RE
Technical Spec.

Preliminary
Calculations

Energy
7

Captures energy from deceleration (>50%)

Stores energy (>42 KJ)

Releases energy to driving axle

Venkatesh
Chinnakonda
Venkatesh
Chinnakonda
Venkatesh
Chinnakonda

Preliminary
Calculations
Preliminary
Calculations

Material
10

Withstands torque from rotating axle (180 Nm)

Colin Kelsall

Bajaj RE
Technical Spec.

Signals
11

Supplies energy when throttle engaged

12

Captures energy when braking engaged

Gregory
Tuayev-Deane
Gregory
Tuayev-Deane

Safety
13

Does not break into hazardous pieces

14

Quiet (<90dB)

15

Not poisonous

16

Produces little physical waste

Gregory
Tuayev-Deane
Gregory
Tuayev-Deane
Aditya
Balamurali
Aditya
Balamurali

CPCB India
CPCB India

17

No.

D/W

Requirements

Responsible

Source

Aditya
Balamurali
Aditya
Balamurali

Customer
Requirement
Customer
Requirement

Ergonomics
17

Does not impede occupant comfort

18

Operation of rickshaw not impacted negatively

Production

19

Few parts

Colin Kelsall

20

Produced from standard parts

Colin Kelsall

21

Should not require manufacturing

Colin Kelsall

Customer
Requirement
Customer
Requirement
Customer
Requirement

Quality Control
22

Visual inspection is sufficient

Aditya
Balamurali

Assembly
23

Can be assembled in-situ

24

Can be assembled by driver/operator

Venkatesh
Chinnakonda
Venkatesh
Chinnakonda

Customer
Requirement
Customer
Requirement

Transport
25

Meets transportation regulations

Gregory
Tuayev-Deane

Operation
26

Requires no driving interference during operation

27

Operates in all weather conditions

Aditya
Balamurali
Aditya
Balamurali

Maintenance
28

Requires basic mechanic skills

Venkatesh
Chinnakonda

Recycling
29

Components can be sourced from other devices

Colin Kelsall

30

Components can be repaired

Colin Kelsall

31

Components can be reused in other devices

Colin Kelsall

Costs
32

Payback period of <1 year

Venkatesh
Chinnakonda

Hybrid Car
payback period

Venkatesh
Chinnakonda

Course
requirement

Schedules
33

By the end of ME 4182 course

Certain specifications have already been given numerical values, such as the kinematics of the
system in which the rickshaw should be able to accelerate and decelerate at a rate greater than 1 m/s2, which
stems from the current performance of rickshaws having to be unchanged. The values of current rates of
acceleration and deceleration werent available online, so using personal experience and judgement, a
simple kinematic calculation was made to suggest a reasonable goal for the system. Again, this goal may

18

be adjusted in future iterations of the specification sheet but can provide a point from which to ideate and
think of solutions. Other specifications came directly from the customer requirements and seem obvious,
such as the need for the system to be able to be assembled by an Auto-rickshaw driver shown in
specification number 25. A metric for this specification could be based on the longest time it could take to
install the system, but this would again be a specification that is difficult to determine until further steps
have been taken in ideation and choosing a solution.

4. Market Research
In order to gain a complete understanding of the problem and develop a comprehensive solution
for rising emissions in urban areas of India, it is necessary to investigate the current state of the
transportation industry. This can be done by examining the modes of transportation, regulations that control
the industry, and audience the industry chooses to serve. The alarming rate of increase in vehicular
emissions and population have led to multiple studies and investigations published online by multiple
organizations.
Market research on the modes of transportation in India and specifically its cities has provided an
in-depth understanding of the various factors to consider when deciding on a design for a system to reduce
the emission of vehicles. It is estimated that the population of Indias cities will grow from 340 million to
590 million from 2008 to 2030. The growth of over 250 million people means that there will be a quarter
billion more people on the city streets leading to more privately owned vehicles as well as a proportional
increase in auto rickshaws. With a population increase of more than 70% and proportional increases in
transportation demand, it is important to target the potential effects of vehicles with the same emissions
standards. Currently, emissions from vehicles in major cities in India have had an adverse effect on the
health of the population leading to an increase in morbidity and premature mortality. Adhering to existing
technologies and standards will only significantly worsen the overall quality of life in these cities.
Therefore, it is imperative to take the necessary steps to address the health and emissions concerns for the
densely populated cities in India.

4.1 Current State of Mumbai Auto Rickshaws

The target city of Mumbai has a population of about 18.4 million people and serves as the capital
of Indias financial, commercial, and entertainment industries. They have already taken steps towards
addressing the problems of tailpipe emissions in urban areas. However, there is much more room for
improvement when considering the potential increase in population and vehicles. The city currently uses a

19

wide range of transportation methods for its population which includes the railway, bus, private vehicles,
taxis, and auto rickshaws. Of these modes of transportation, auto rickshaws represent about 11% of the total
vehicles on the road while representing 20% of overall modes of transportation, which results to over
150,000 auto rickshaws in the city of Mumbai alone.
Currently, Mumbai has made it mandatory for all auto rickshaws to run on CNG only which has
helped reduce overall emission in the auto rickshaws utilizing 4-stroke engines. However, the population
of rickshaws that use 4-stroke engines represents about 23% of the population. Since the conversion of
CNG only has a noticeable impact on 4-stroke engines, the majority of the 2-stroke engine rickshaws have
not seen any notable improvement in emission reduction. This is due to the inherent nature of the twostroke engine and its incapability of combusting the intake fuel which is then released out of the exhaust.
As a result, higher levels of hydrocarbons (HC) are released into the atmosphere than traditional four-stroke
engines. A study led by McKinsey & Company in 2010 revealed that the most effective approach to
reducing tailpipe emissions involved a combination of government regulation and conversion from twostroke to four-stroke engines for auto rickshaws (M. Akshay, 2012). However, the problem arises when
most rickshaws are privately owned and converting existing engines to four-stroke can be extremely labor
intensive and expensive.

4.2 Mumbai Auto Rickshaw Demographics

An average age of rickshaws ranging from 6-10 years also means that these vehicles are not
replaced so easily especially as manufacturers try to improve their lifetime durability. The auto rickshaw
vehicle age is split between 55% being from 1-5 years old while 42% 6-10 years old. This reveals that not
many rickshaws last beyond a decade lifetime, but also shows that any mass change in manufacturer
propulsion technology would require at least a decade to phase out older technology. This, along with
government regulation would be necessary to provide the minimum improvement by eliminating the sale
of two-stroke engines.
In the pursuit of developing a system to improve tailpipe emissions of auto rickshaws, it is
important to consider the daily operations of the average auto rickshaw. A typical workday for a rickshaw
driver is around 10 hours in which he/she drives about 105 km per day. Of those kilometers driven, about
10% is without any passengers. The average trip length is about 5.8 km with about 18 trips per day of which
most are used the purposes of passengers getting to work, shop, or school. The majority of drivers range
from 30-50 years old, meaning that they are more likely to have a family that they are supporting with this
profession. Based on average costs and revenue associated with owning or renting an auto rickshaw, the
driver sees an average daily earnings of about Rs. 370 in a populated city like Mumbai. This daily average

20

pay translates to a yearly average about $1,900 (M. Akshay, 2012). However, in cities with less traffic and
population, this number can drop significantly, which makes it extremely difficult for drivers to support
their family. About 50% of their daily costs go to fuel, and targeting this category can be the best way for
drivers to earn more while also lowering the fare for its passengers.

4.3 Stakeholder Research

The transportation industry in India currently adheres to Bharat IV standards which adhere to the
European emissions standards. The next goal of Indian emissions regulations is to skip Euro 5 and go
straight to Euro 6 regulations by the year of 2020. This goal for the Indian government provides an adequate
goal for the proposed system to achieve upon implementation. As one of the top stakeholders in the
stakeholder analysis, it is important to develop a design that will address legislation goals for the future.
The best possible way to address the emissions problem is to reduce the overall duty cycle time of the
engine and its peak emitting operating conditions.
The main audience for the proposed system is the auto rickshaw drivers since they are the
individuals privately buying and offering the service. As previously mentioned, the fuel costs associated
with running a rickshaw represents about half of total vehicle day to day costs. Targeting this large
proportion of costs will help lower overall running costs for a vehicle, and in turn reduce the amount of
emissions per vehicle. As a result, this will not only improve the likelihood of lower fares, which would
benefit passengers, but also improve the air quality of the urban areas in which these rickshaws are run. An
improvement in the air quality would decrease the susceptibility to disease and potential health risks,
resulting in an improvement of overall quality of life for the urban citizens of India. Another important
aspect to consider is the overall cost associated with implementing an emission reducing system. Since the
average driver makes about 1,900 USD per year, and the average cost of a rickshaw is in the same price
range, the proposed system must remain a small percentage of the overall cost. This overall cost must have
short buy back period relative to the decade long lifespan of the vehicle as well in order for the drivers to
experience the benefit of a hybrid powertrain. Depending on fuel costs and average distance driven, this
payback period could range from 1 2 years.

4.4 Competition
The market research conducted on the current state of auto rickshaws has led to many impacts on
the overall design decisions made for the proposed hybrid system. In addition, competing products such as
the hybrid electric powertrain made by Surya Conversions reveals a proven technology using electric
motors and batteries to supplement the gas engine in auto rickshaws (Surya Conversions, 2016). Their

21

proposed system and price of $600 for the conversion have provided the team with a benchmark to design
a hybrid system using pneumatics that will aim to drastically undercut the competing kits. Based on the
competition and market research, it is important for the pneumatic system to be simple in nature, easily
serviceable, and also have the ability to adapt to existing infrastructure. One aspect that the competitor has
failed to address is the possibility of a plug-in hybrid that could charge in any electrical outlet. However,
one of the main issues experienced in India is the number of power outages. Therefore, it would be ideal
for the pneumatic system to have the capability of filling up its tank with an air pump from a traditional
motorized tire pump found at most gas stations. The pneumatic system would also have to be engineered
to capture kinetic energy upon off-throttle situations and provide the propulsion in low speed scenarios of
acceleration and deceleration. Targeting for independent pneumatic propulsion in low speed is the best
approach in order to reduce overall vehicle emissions. This is due to the fact that the engines produce the
most amount of emissions upon acceleration and higher rpms. A goal for the pneumatic system would be
not only to reduce overall engine duty cycle, but also to optimize the hybrid system to run the engine at its
most efficient speed.

5. Design Concept Ideation

The first step in the ideation process was to determine what specific functions the solution needed
to address. The function tree shown in Figure 3.2 decompose the overall requirement of the system into
the following functions:

Convert braking energy into potential energy

Transmit potential energy to storage system

Store potential energy

Transmit stored energy to propulsion system

Convert potential energy to kinetic energy

Modulate IC engine input to powertrain

Modulate regenerative system input to powertrain

Reduce noise (indirectly addressed)

Reduce tailpipe emissions (indirectly addressed)

22

The resulting low-level functions were examined and a series of solutions were developed to
address each one. These solutions are displayed in a morph chart in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Morphological chart to address functions
Functions
Convert braking energy
into potential energy

Solutions

Transmit potential
energy to storage
system

Store potential energy

Transmit stored energy

to propulsion system
--

Convert potential
energy to kinetic energy

Modulate engine input

to powertrain
--

Modulate regeneration
system input to
powertrain

Reduce noise
Reduce tailpipe
emissions

*
*

*
*

*
*

*These functions were not directly addressed with system features and are a result of the other functions

23

From the morph chart, five complete system designs concepts were developed:
1. Regenerative Pneumatic Hybrid
This design utilizes a tank to store air which is compressed using the energy normally lost while
braking. The high-pressure air can then be released in reverse through the compressor to accelerate
the vehicle. This system will be in a parallel hybrid arrangement where the pneumatic system can
power the vehicle independently or at the same time as the gas engine. Appendix A, Figures A1A3.

2. Externally Charged Pneumatic Hybrid

This is a similar system to the regenerative pneumatic hybrid system but does not utilize
regenerative braking. Instead, the system has a pressurized gas tank filled with either air or N2 gas
that is charged externally and provides acceleration assistance through an air motor. The tank could
be refilled at any gas station with the air pump.

3. Regenerative Electric Hybrid

In this system, the rickshaw is mostly powered by its original combustion engine. An electric
motor/generator is also connected to the driven axle via chain. During braking, the generator
becomes engaged and an alternating electrical voltage is generated. This electrical signal is then
rectified and smoothed to be used to charge the battery bank. Upon acceleration from rest, the
battery bank is used to run a current through the generator in the reverse direction in order to act as
a motor. Once a certain speed is attained, the original combustion engine is used again. See
Appendix A, Figure A4.

4. Entirely Electric Powertrain

An all-electric powertrain utilizes a small lithium-ion battery pack of a capacity around 5 kWh. The
estimated capacity was determined by comparing existing electric vehicle capacities and their
respective range with the technical specifications of an auto rickshaw and its average daily distance
travelled. Implementation of an electric system, will shift urban Indian transportation from fossil
fuels to electricity. A regenerative braking system will be used to capture the kinetic energy of the
vehicle to recoup otherwise lost energy to recharge the battery pack. Appendix A, Figure A5.

5. Regenerative Flywheel Hybrid

The regenerative flywheel system uses a series of clutches and a gearbox to transfer kinetic energy
from the wheels of the rickshaw to a flywheel contained in an evacuated chamber to slow the wheels

24

and speed up the flywheel. To drive the wheels, a clutch engages the flywheel and kinetic energy
is transferred from the flywheel through the gearbox and to the wheels. Appendix A, Figures A6A8.

6. Preliminary Concept Selection and Justification

These five concepts were initially evaluated primarily on cost and technical feasibility.
Technologies utilized by electrical systems are significantly more complex than those currently used by
auto rickshaws. Due to this technology gap, as well as the high cost of batteries, there would be a significant
cost of switching to electrical or electrical hybrid systems. A pneumatic or flywheel system, however, uses
much simpler technologies that rely on purely mechanical means to store energy. Batteries may have higher
power density per unit mass when compared to kinetic or compressed air storage, but the mechanical storage
mechanisms make up for it in their simplicity and low cost. The maintenance required throughout the
lifetime of the systems was also considered, and it was determined that the pneumatic and flywheel system
required less technical competence to adequately maintain them. A complete comparison of our selection
methodology is summarized in a concept evaluation matrix shown in Table 5.2.

[This space has been intentionally left blank]

25

Table 5.2: Concept evaluation matrix for five system designs

Concepts

Regenerative
Pneumatic
Hybrid

Externally
Charged
Pneumatic Hybrid

Regenerative
Electric
Hybrid

Entirely
Electric
Powertrain

Regenerative
Flywheel
Hybrid

Customer
Reqs.

Importance

Raw

Weighted

Raw

Wt.d

Raw

Wt.d

Raw

Wt.d

Raw

Wt.d

Low
Cost/Payback
Period

10

40

30

20

10

20

Improved fuel
economy

27

18

27

36

18

Reduced
emissions

27

18

27

36

18

Safety of
passengers
and operator

10

30

30

30

30

40

Unchanged
handling
performance

21

28

21

14

21

Retrofittable
into existing
vehicles

32

32

16

24

Serviceability

28

28

14

14

Low Risk of
Theft

18

18

12

18

Total

223

202

167

163

157

Percentage
of Total

24%

22%

18%

18%

17%

From the comparative analysis of the ideas, the pneumatic solutions are the best methods
of addressing the stated problem. The regenerative pneumatic hybrid, specifically, ranks highest
in the overall comparison primarily due to its low cost and ease of implementation. The technology
we seek to implement is not a completely novel idea, but rather a novel application. Consumer
motor vehicles using this technology have been developed by several car companies including
Peugeot Citron (PSA, 2016). This development indicates that this technology is both technically
and economically feasible on a large scale. Additionally, a preliminary feasibility calculation was
done to determine whether such a system could be developed for a go kart application.
Assuming a weight of 660 kg for the rickshaw, driver, and three passengers, and using a
traditional braking system, slowing from 25 mph down to 0 mph results in 41.2 kJ of kinetic energy
normally lost as frictional heat. Assuming just 50% of this energy is able to be stored as pressurized
air in the tank, this would provide enough energy to accelerate back up to 18 mph. In addition, this
26

corresponds to a maximum pressure in a standard 10 liter tank of only 122 psig, within the capacity
of standard piston air compressors used in consumer applications.

7. Industrial Design
The Industrial Design considerations during the design process were primarily focused on
safety and serviceability. The entire system will be contained within the existing rickshaw engine
compartment and will rarely be accessed directly, so the visual appeal of the product is
unimportant. It is important, however, that the system is both safe and easy to maintain. The system
will be designed to allow for simple maintenance performed by rickshaw drivers. It will also be
designed not to clutter the engine compartment or prevent access to existing rickshaw components.
The system will also be designed to not have any risk of explosion, cutting, or burning hazards for
either the passengers or rickshaw drivers.

7.1 Integration of Visual Hierarchy and Language

These pneumatic retrofit components are expected to be stored in the engine bay or in an
area of the rickshaw that is not seen by passengers or urban population. Visual hierarchy is
perceived from color to size to alignment to character. Due to the nature of the proposed pneumatic
system, the color of the system will be determined by the selection of materials and parts used to
design the system. Taking time and consideration for potential color for the system would
negatively impact the goals for developing an inexpensive system. The size of the system will have
to remain within the footprint of the auto rickshaw chassis. The compressor that will be used to
capture the kinetic energy of the vehicle upon deceleration must be able to fit within the existing
engine compartment. The tank will need to be placed underneath passenger or driver seats and
away from the heat of the engine compartment. The system will need to be retrofitted in an effort
to have the least impact of driving dynamics and visual appeal. In order to balance the weight of
the components with respect to the vehicle, the compressor and tank will need to be installed
separate from each other. The components of the system will need to be properly insulated from
the environment to prolong lifetime of components. The concealment of these components will
focus on maintaining the original character of the vehicle by adapting to the existing vehicle color
scheme. Visible components will take on a color scheme that matches the existing colors of the
27

rickshaw. Safety critical devices will be colored appropriately to visually distinguish between high
energy and dormant components. Communication for safety can visually illustrated using standard
safety symbols etched into components which shouldnt be touched.

7.2 Future Industrial Design Choices

Logo
The logo will be designed to demonstrate the environmentally friendly nature of the system
and the benefits it provides to its stakeholders. Bumper-sticker style logos could be placed on the
rickshaw to notify the public and passengers that they are in an environmentally friendly vehicle,
garnering public support and promoting environmental concern.
Branding
Branding will follow the same theme as the logo, following a clean, airy, eco-friendly
scheme using minimal color and white space to demonstrate this fact. The colors of the branding
and logo will be considered in the next few weeks while detailed design occurs. Current proposed
colors are white, blue and green, with arrows being suggested as a design element for the branding
to symbolize the flow of air, which is the main feature in the operation of the compressed air hybrid
system. The brand name that has been proposed is Vaayu which means air in Hindi. The team
believes the name best illustrates the target audience and powertrain technology.
Colors
The colors of the system will be dictated by the material required for the function and as
required for labeling in safety. The design is focused on low cost, and because of its desired
minimal physical interaction with people and the user, there will be minimal importance given to
the visual appeal of color.
Finish and Textures
Surface finishes and textures will be determined by safety considerations, making sure that
anyone touching the system wont be harmed. The corners and edges of boxy components will be
filleted to ensure easy assembly, installation and disassembly for access to components for repair
and replacement. In addition, components which may require complex maintenance requiring
removal of components will be easily separable from other components using standard metric sized
components easily available to a rickshaw driver or mechanic.

28

Concepts
The concepts shown in presentations will be focused on demonstrating engineering
concepts, as the system wouldnt physically alter how the auto-rickshaw looks to the average
commuter. Concepts will most likely be represented using renders from CAD software, but the
presentation of these concepts on posters and in PowerPoint presentations will be influenced by
the house style that is chosen in the next few weeks. This will be mostly obviously shown in the
colors of lines and annotations in labeled renderings.

8. Engineering Analyses and Experiments

The flowchart below demonstrates the flow of variables and constants in the calculation
process. It should be noted that the flow chart is iterative in nature and so a time increment must
be chosen over which calculations are repeated. The ultimate goal of the mathematical model is to
find the deceleration profile of the rickshaw in order to determine the length of time necessary to
bring the rickshaw to rest using purely pneumatic braking.
Values that are enclosed in red boxes and passed by red arrows are constants whereas
values that are passed by blue arrows are variables whose value changes in every iteration. The
two initial variables that must be provided are the rickshaw initial velocity and the storage tank
pressure. It should also be noted that the left and right sides of the flow chart represent the
drivetrain dynamics and the thermodynamic model respectively.

29

Figure 8.1: Flowchart Showing Order of Calculations in Mathematical Model

8.1: Deceleration Effect of Compressor on Vehicle

Objective
The objective of the Part I calculations is to determine a dynamic model to relate the power
required to compress air into the tank and the deceleration rate of the rickshaw when compressive
braking is applied. Figure 1 below provides a basic labelled schematic of the relevant hardware
involved in this calculation.

Figure 8.2: Compressor-Driveshaft Connection Assembly

30

Assumptions
In order to perform these calculations at such a preliminary stage in design, several assumptions
must be made. Additionally, other assumptions must also be made in order to facilitate simpler calculations.
These assumptions are listed below:
a. The chain or belt (as shown in Figure 8.1) does not slip over either gear sprocket during braking
and cornering/turning maneuvers. This is a reasonable assumption since it has been found that the
transmission of force from a gear to another gear is approximately 98% efficient when using a belt
or 100% efficient when using a chain since it is a purely mechanical system (D. Panchal, 2015).
b. This calculation requires the initial driveshaft rotational speed, before braking, as an input which
will be dependent on the velocity of the rickshaw. Therefore, an initial velocity for the rickshaw
must be assumed in order to carry out consequent computations. Spreadsheet software will facilitate
automatic updating of calculated parameters if different inputs are assumed.
c. It will be assumed that there is a fixed gear ratio of roughly 4:1 between the driveshaft and the
compressor sprockets.
d. Rickshaw wheels are assumed to be perfect circles. The compression of the wheel due to the weight
of the rickshaw is neglected and so the wheels are assumed to have a uniform radius all around.
e. Since the system is a time varying system, various parameters will be calculated at discrete points
in time in order to create plots. It will be approximated that all system parameters will vary linearly
between these discrete calculation points. This is a reasonable approximation so long as the time
increment between points is small.

Methodology
As mentioned earlier, the ultimate goal of this calculation is to obtain a value for the deceleration
of the rickshaw while the driveshaft is being used to power the compressor during braking. The first
parameter that will be calculated is the initial torque required to power the compressor to pump air from the
atmosphere into the accumulator, which will contain air at an initial pressure. Since the system utilizes an
accumulator, this initial pressure will be a parameter that can be varied in the model. A higher tank pressure
will require a higher compressor power in order to pump air into it. A method of calculating the required
initial compressor power is provided in section 8.2 of this calculation.
Once the initial compressor power is known, the compressor torque can be calculated using the
velocity of the rickshaw and gear ratios between the rickshaw wheels and compressor. This torque opposes
the rotation of the driveshaft and provides the braking force to slow the rickshaw.
Equation 8.1 is used to calculate the torque required to provide a power, PC, when the compressor
shaft is rotating at rad/s. PC is calculated based on the pressure difference between atmospheric pressure

31

and the pressure of air in the accumulator into which the compressor must pump air. This power will be
calculated in section 8.2.

(8.1)

This torque, , is the torque required by the compressor and will oppose the rotation of the rickshaw
driveshaft to which it is connected.
The free body diagram below of the various components displays the forces and torques involved.

Figure 8.3: Free Body Diagrams of Forces and Torques on Wheel, Driveshaft and Compressor

==

(8.2)

In Equation 8.2 above, the subscripts r, c, d and w refer to the rickshaw, compressor, driveshaft and wheel
respectively. r refers to the radius of each corresponding gear sprocket. This equation follows from the
assumption (a) above that the force is fully transmitted from the compressor to the driveshaft based on the
assumption that the chain/belt between the driveshaft and compressor does not slip.
Since the wheel/tire radius (from point of contact with the ground to the center), driveshaft sprocket
radius, and compressor sprocket radius are either known or directly measurable, then the resultant force on
the rickshaw can be calculated. Using Equation 8.2, the torque on the driveshaft can be calculated and this
torque is identical to the torque on the wheel.
Rearranging Equation 8.2, the deceleration of the rickshaw can be calculated according to Equation
8.3 below,
=

= =

(8.3)

where a is the deceleration of the rickshaw and mr is the mass of the rickshaw. Knowing the deceleration
allows the velocity at any moment in time during the deceleration process to be calculated according to
Equation 8.4,
() = 0

(8.4)

32

where v0 is the initial velocity of the rickshaw and dt is the time increment between calculation points. The
time increment between the calculation points will be chosen so as to provide enough data points to
accurately construct plots of the velocity and tank-pressure profiles during deceleration.
The new compressor shaft rotational speed after the time increment, dt, can then be recalculated
using Equation 8.5,
=

()

(8.5)

where vr, dw, rd and rc are the velocity of the rickshaw, diameter of the wheel/tyre, radius of the driveshaft
sprocket and radius of the compressor sprocket respectively. The quotient

can also be thought of as the

gear ratio between the driveshaft and compressor sprockets. This new compressor shaft speed can be used
to update the value of the torque required to power the compressor, after time increment dt, using Equation
1 and it can also be used as an input into the calculations of section 8.2.

8.2: Power Required to Operate Compressor

Objective
The objective of this section is to determine the relationship between tank pressure and required
compressor power. Inputs include numerous physical constants, tank size, tank initial pressure, and
compressor RPM. The outputs of this model is the power required to compress air into the storage tank as
a function of time. The deceleration effects of the compressor power requirement on the rickshaw are
calculated in section 8.1 of the model and are consolidated with this portion of the model to develop the
figure shown in the Results section.
Assumptions
To simplify the model of the compression of air into the storage tank, the following assumptions
were made:
1. In the system, the working fluid, air, is modeled as an ideal gas.
2. The system is adiabatic and loses no heat to the surroundings. This assumption is variable within
the model and the k value used for a polytropic process model can be varied between 1.4 (adiabatic)
and 1 (isothermal).
3. Volumetric flowrate of the reciprocating compressor remains the same regardless of the output
pressure. This assumption assumes a 100% volumetric efficiency of the compressor, but the
manufacturer specified volumetric flowrate is indicated near the maximum operation pressure of
the compressor. This assumption is conservative and the actual flowrate will be higher for lower
output pressures.

33

Methodology
To begin, the volumetric displacement of one cycle of the compressor is calculated using known
compressor values using the following equation.
=

(8.6)

where both the rated volumetric flowrate (Vrated) and rated rotational velocity (rated) are taken from
manufacturers specifications. The value calculated with this equation is the effective compressor
displacement and is used in the following equations. To calculate work required to operate the compressor
under the specific conditions experienced by this system, two forms of work are required. To calculate the
work required to compress the air, the following equation is used
(8.7)

Where

PA

is

the

atmospheric

pressure, Pi is the tank

pressure

or

inlet

and

the

fractional values are exact formulations of the k value. Wi represents the work required for one cycle of the
compressor at a specified tank pressure. The calculated value is then used in the following equation to
determine instantaneous power required by the compressor.
=

(8.8)

Here, c represents the compressor revolutions per second calculated using the methodology described in
Part I. This value is used as an input into the equations in Part I to ultimately determine the new rickshaw
velocity after a time dt.
In addition to calculating the power requirement of the compressor, it is also necessary to determine
the pressure increase in the tank over the specified time increment. The following equation is used for this
purpose (K. T. McDonald, 2008)
(8.9)

where V represents the tank volume. This pressure increase is also accounted for while incrementing over
the specified time intervals. The updated rickshaw velocity and tank pressure are then used to calculate the
required compressor power for the specified interval.

34

Results
The model obtained through the previously described methodology is able to provide a prediction
of both vehicle speed and tank pressure as a function of time during braking. An example system is modeled
in Figure 8.2 with parameters specified in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Variables used in velocity model
Environmental Conditions
Value
Unit
Atmospheric pressure (PA)
101
kPa
Temperature (T0)
30
C
Working Fluid Specs (Air)
Rspecific
k
cv

286.9
1.4
0.718

J/kg-K
1
kJ/kg-K

Compressor Specifications
Rated volumetric flow rate
Rated RPM
Volumetric flow per rotation
Isentropic Efficiency

10.6
1250
0.000240
95%

CFM
RPM
m3/rev
1

Tank
Volume
Initial pressure/precharge

5
10

L
PSIg

Rickshaw System Specs

Rickshaw Total Mass
Initial Velocity
Wheel Diameter
Sprocket Gear Ratio (rd/rc)
Compressor Sprocket Diameter
Shaft Sprocket Diameter

660
15
0.416
6.5
0.0762
0.3302

kg
km/hr
m
1
m
m

35

160.00

14.0000

140.00

12.0000

120.00

10.0000

100.00

8.0000

80.00

6.0000

60.00

4.0000

40.00

2.0000

20.00

0.0000

Pressure (PSI)

Velocity (km/hr)

16.0000

0.00
0

Time (s)

Rickshaw Velocity (m/s)

Tank Pressure (PSI)

Figure 8.4: Rickshaw velocity and tank pressure model

8.3: Running the Compressor in Reverse to Propel the Rickshaw
The analysis of using the compressor as a mechanism for propulsion can also be divided into the
same two parts: Drivetrain Dynamics and Thermodynamic Modeling. For simplicity, the preliminary
analysis can simply be performed by reversing the aforementioned process starting at the interface between
the wheel and the road surface. At the surface of the wheel in contact with the ground, a certain force will
be required to move the rickshaw from rest. This initial force will be dependent on the static coefficient of
friction between the wheel and the ground according to Equation 8.10
=

(8.10)

where and are the coefficient of friction and the normal force between wheel and road, respectively.
Once the rickshaw starts moving, the kinematic coefficient of friction will have to be used instead of the
static coefficient which is usually higher. Once the force, , is determined and a desired acceleration is
selected, the required driveshaft torque can be calculated using Equation 8.3. Thereafter, the required
compressor torque can be found using the gear ratio between the driveshaft and the compressor sprockets
as shown in Equation 8.2. With a known crank offset, the force required by each individual piston in the
compressor can be found. The crank offset distance is demonstrated in Figure 8.5 below.

36

Figure 8.5: Piston and cylinder geometry of reciprocating compressor

By knowing the force required from an individual piston in the compressor and the area of that piston face,
the required pressure of the air in the cylinder can be calculated using Equation 8.11

(8.11)

where Pcyl, Fpiston, and Apiston are the required air pressure in a compressor cylinder, force on a piston face
and area of a piston face respectively.
The amount work that can be done by a volume of compressed gas, if allowed to expand down to
atmospheric pressure adiabatically can be calculated using Equation 8.12 below
1

= [1

()
2

144

2 2
] 33000(1)

(8.12)

where We, Pa, 2 , 2 and n are the work of expansion in horsepower, atmospheric pressure, tank pressure,
volume of gas at elevated pressure and ratio of specific heats, respectively. If the intention is to find the
work of expansion of one cycle of compressor, the volume of gas at elevated pressure (2 ) refers to the
volume of gas that is used to fill the cylinders of the compressor which is essentially the displacement of
the compressor. It must be noted that this work of expansion assumes an adiabatic process and that there
are no parasitic loads in moving the compressor pistons, such as friction.
A value for this work of expansion is therefore easy to calculate. However, after manually spinning
the reciprocating compressor from rest by hand, it was clear that the static friction of the compressor
components is much greater than its kinematic friction. Therefore, calculating any theoretical value for the
work of expansion without friction would not provide useful information and may be misleading. Physical
measurements of the initial torque in order to overcome this friction need to be made in order to accurately
model the reversal of the compressor.

37

It should be noted that the compressor friction did not play such a large role in the braking process
because kinematic friction dominates while the compressor is already spinning. Additionally, compressor
friction assists in the braking process to some extent although it lowers the maximum attainable pressure in
the storage tank.

Results
A model of the potential acceleration of the rickshaw was made through MATLAB using the ideal
gas and pressure-volume equations applied in normal internal combustion applications. The results of the
model are displayed in Figure 8.6.

Figure 8.6 Torque and compressor cycle at varying intake closings

The model helps illustrate the differences in output of the compressor when run in reverse at a
modeled pressure of 100 psi. The factor value illustrates the volume percentage at which the intake valve
closes to let in compressed air into the engine. The lower the factor, the sooner the intake valve closes which
means less volume of air is used. This allowed the pressure of the compressed air to do the work necessary
to push the piston and run the compressor in reverse to spin the shaft. Based on these results, it was seen
that when the intake valve was closed too soon, it did provide a high number of motor cycles which makes
sense as less volume is used per cycle, but less torque is generated by the motor. Meanwhile, at high intake

38

valve close times, the motor had the potential to produce power output levels of over 24 ft-lbs of torque at
the shaft, which is over 250% of the existing auto rickshaw motor.
Upon further investigation to find the optimal balance of motor cycles and torque produced, it was
determined that a factor of about 42% of the expansion volume should be when the intake valve closes. The
modeled results are displayed in Figure 8.7.

Figure 8.7 Optimal volume of intake closure

This model provides the most balanced output of the motor in terms of motor cycling and power output
overall and would be the operating condition upon acceleration for the potential design of the prototype.
The model illustrated in Figure 8.6 represents the potential of the system that can be implemented into the
actual rickshaw to mimic the variable valve timing experienced in conventional internal combustion
engines.

39

9. Initial Drawing and Fabrication Package

9.1 Preliminary CAD
The aim of the first stage of computer aided design was to aid with packaging of the system in the
existing rickshaw. The first step was to look for the geometry of rickshaws and try to recreate the areas into
which the system will be fitted. As a result of the unavailability of technical documentation and CAD
models from the manufacturer, geometry had to be estimated as accurately as possible using images found
on internet searches and in photo galleries, and by using unofficially created 3D models and textbooks.
Having found a very detailed CAD model on a CAD sharing website (grabcad.com), the engine bay was
traced and the main stock components in the engine bay of the rickshaw were placed in roughly the locations
in which theyd be found in a real rickshaw. In addition, the main components of the compressed air hybrid
system were also placed in positions where they could be placed in a final assembly, with space provided
for more detail and expansion. The inserted components are only placed for sizing and are not representative
of the actual components which will be used in design. As further information becomes available both from
the mathematical analysis and from contacting producers to perfect the recreation of the engine bay, detail
will be added to the CAD model, and changes will be made to reflect this detail. It may occur further on in
the component design phase that a part in this current placement might have to be moved because it is larger
than previously accounted for. Specifically, this will affect the components of the compressed air hybrid
system, such as the tank, compressor and its transmission. Images of the CAD files follow with annotations
to label parts.

40

Engine Bay

Figure 9.1: Rear of rickshaw with engine cover removed

41

CNG Tank

Compressor

Hybrid Transmission and

Flywheel

Existing Differential

5 Liter Air Tank

Existing CNG
Engine

Power Coupler

Figure 9.2: View of recreated engine bay shell with components visible

42

Figure 9.3: View of recreated engine bay shell with components visible

Figure 9.4: Dimensioned view of Autorickshaw CAD mockup from grabcad online CAD
library. Dimensions given in millimeters

43

10. Prototype Development

10.1 Prototype Description and Purpose
To determine the feasibility of the chosen design, a scaled prototype was developed. The
objective of this device was to determine whether an electronically actuated valve train could be
developed that would allow a standard of-the-shelf reciprocating air compressor to both compress air by
decelerating a mass, and then utilize the compressed air to reaccelerate the mass. Photos of the completed
prototype are provided in Figures 10.1 to 10.3.

Valvetrain

Figure 10.1: Top corner view of prototype. Electronic valve train and switching system visible.

44

Compressor
Pulley
Hand Crank

Steel A-Frame

Flywheel
Pulley

Figure 10.2: Front view showing pulleys and side view of the valve train

45

Compressor

Pressure
Gauge

Accumulator

Flywheel

Figure 10.3: Side view of the prototype showing electronic components and storage accumulator

46

10.2 Testing and Results

Compression
When evaluating the effectiveness of the prototype compression cycle, the flywheel was
accelerated by hand to various rotational velocities. After compressing air into the 1 liter tank and slowing
to a stop, the pressure in the tank was measured. Using Eqn. 10.1, a simplified version of Eqn. 8.2, the
energy stored in the tank as compressed air was calculated and compared to the modelled behavior in
Figure 10.4.

T = T T ln T

10.1

This equation assumes completely adiabatic compression where PT is the pressure in the tank, VT is the
volume of the tank, and Pa is the atmospheric pressure.

120
Modeled

Measured

Stored Energy (J)

100
80
60
40
20

0
120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

Initial Flywheel Speed (RPM)

Figure 10.4: Comparison of modeled energy storage capacity versus measured energy storage based
on initial flywheel speed.
From this data and Eqn. 10.2, an average compression storage efficiency of around 30% was obtained.

flywheel

10.2

47

Acceleration
The prototype was utilized to run multiple tests at varying tank pressure levels to determine the
amount of strokes the motor would achieve. These results were compared to the model to determine the
validity of the MATLAB code. The comparison of the two results are illustrated in Figure 10.5.

10
9
8

Strokes

7
6
5
4
3
Model

Experimental

1
20

30

40

50
60
70
Initial Pressure (PSI)

80

90

100

Figure 10.5: Comparison of model and experimental acceleration results

Upon comparison of the results, it can be seen that the experimental results exhibited the same
behavior of the model at the same tank pressure levels. The lower number of strokes in the experimental
testing can be accounted to various frictional sources that were not included in the model. These frictional
sources can be from the internal friction of the piston and cylinder walls, the belt that connected pulleys
from the compressor shaft to drive shaft, as well as potential pressure leakage through the crankcase of the
compressor. Despite these various sources of friction, the model proved to be promising in determining the
potential output of the compressor as it revealed a directly proportional relationship between tank pressure
and motor strokes. Although the model did provide the potential torque output at the shaft of the
compressor, there was no feasible method of measuring this due to limited budget and resources for a
dynamometer. The overall efficiency of acceleration was determined to be 13.6% when comparing the
energy stored as compressed air and the final kinetic energy of the flywheel.

48

10.3 Prototype Design

Mechanical
The mechanical structure of the prototype was primary focused on demonstrating the kinetic
energy available with a movie auto rickshaw. Actually purchasing and using one of these rickshaws was
too costly and logistically difficult, so a flywheel system was developed to imitate the kinetic energy of
such a vehicle. The flywheel was designed to be accelerated up to 500 RPM and replicate approximately
560 J of kinetic energy. A triangular A-frame structure was fabricated to mount the flywheel also visible
in Figure 10.1,
Figure 10.2, and Figure 10.3. Above the flywheel, an adjustable height stand was constructed for the
compressor which allowed for in-place tensioning of the drive belt. The initial design also had a simple
automobile starter motor configured to accelerate the flywheel. During testing, however, the motor was
only able to accelerate the flywheel up to around 90 RPM due to internal limitations on the motor and a
large gear ratio. This speed was deemed insufficient to allow the system to function, so a hand crank was
added to accelerate the flywheel to a higher maximum rotational velocity. The pulley ratio between the
compressor pulley and the flywheel pulley was 3.05, which allowed for a maximum flywheel velocity
during testing of 238 RPM. This corresponds to a kinetic energy of around 127 J. Although this test fell
under the goal RPM and energy content, it was still able to provide a useful demonstration of the system.
Pneumatic
The pneumatic system for the prototype was constructed as it would be in the final system. A
valve and tubing network was used to switch between deceleration mode (compressing air into the
accumulator, Figure 10.6), and acceleration mode (accelerating the flywheel using the compressed air

Figure 10.7).

49

2 inlet

2 exhaust

Inlet
Compressor

Outlet

1 exhaust

1 inlet

Tank

Figure 10.6: Piping network actuated for compression. Green valves indicate open valves, grey
indicate closed.
2 inlet

2 exhaust

Inlet
Compressor

1 inlet

Outlet

1 exhaust
Tank

Figure 10.7: Piping network actuated for acceleration. Orange valves are intermittently actuated by
the electronic timing system.

Electrical
In order to allow a standard reciprocating compressor to operate as both a compressor and as an
engine, external valves had to be used in addition to the built in one way valves. After comparing various
valve types it was determined that electronically controlled solenoid valves would be the most suitable and
simple type for this application. Therefore, four solenoid valves, each connected to an inlet or exhaust of
each of the two compressor cylinders were implemented.
While operating the compressor as a compressor (to mimic braking), all electric valves were held
open and the built-in one way valves were used to control air flow. This was accomplished using four
separate switches with each one independently controlling a solenoid valve. In order to run the compressor

50

in braking mode, all switches were closed. A simplified diagram of the circuit used to control the solenoid
valves is shown below in Figure 10.9.
On the other hand, operating the compressor as an air engine required more complex circuitry. With
two cylinders in the compressor, the top dead center (TDC) position of one piston corresponded to the
bottom dead center (BDC) position of the other. For simplicity, valve timing was chosen so as to open an
inlet valve and close an exhaust valve to a cylinder when the piston was at TDC. The opposite was done at
BDC. On the output compressor shaft, the angular positions of TDC and BDC of one of the pistons was
marked on the output compressor shaft. A switch was implemented at each of these positions so that one
pair of solenoid valves would open when its corresponding switch closed. Each switch was wired to an
input pin of an Arduino and the operating code was made to open the corresponding set of valves, while
closing the other pair of valves. The simplified circuit used to mimic acceleration of the rickshaw is shown
in Figure 10.9. Since each valve required approximately 3 amps, an external power supply was used for
each valve and controlled using a MOSFET. For simplicity, wiring of the MOSFETs is not shown in Figure
10.9.

Figure 10.8: Circuit Diagram Used During Braking Operation.

51

Figure 10.9: Simplified Circuit Diagram Used During Acceleration

10.2 Bill of Materials

The bill of materials below reflects the expected necessary purchases to implement this system in
an auto rickshaw. It is based on the materials that were required to construct the prototype. Some materials
that were required in the prototype will not be required in the final design such as the steel tubing and an
external power source because the entire system would be attached to the rickshaw chassis and the rickshaw
battery would be suitable to run the electronic solenoid valves.
Table 10.1: Preliminary Bill of Materials

Quantity
1
1
4
2
4
1
1
1
2

Item Name
Aluminum 3HP Air
Compressor
Jabsco Accumulator
HSH FloSolenoid
Valve 12 V DC
Pillow Block Bearings
N-Channel MOSFETs
3 ft Steel Rod
20 ft Steel Tubing
6061 Aluminum Block
1.5 x 4 x 1
6061 Aluminum Rod 1
Length, 4 Diameter

Part No.
TL31117
Jabsco 305730000

Item Price
(Total)
$79.99

Source
Ebay

$83.15

Amazon

$95.96

Amazon

UCP204-12 P204
FQP30N06L
8927K13

$19.86
$10.78
$40.39

Ebay
Ebay
McMaster
Carr

8975K257

56.04

1610T37

23.82

McMaster
Carr
McMaster
Carr
52

1
2
2

1
2
4
4
4
1

Brass Ball Valve

NPT Female
Connections
Bottom Connection
Ashcroft Pressure
Gauge
5 Pack Brass Barbed
Hose Fitting Adapter
ID NPTF Male
10 PVC Tubing ID,
13/16 OD
Nickel Plated Brass
Hex Nipple
Worm-Drive Hose
Clamps to 29/32 10
pack
Fabric-Reinforced
Silicone Rubber Sheet,
Adhesive back, 12 x
12 x 1/32
V-Belt

47865K24

40.08

McMaster
Carr

4066K41

43.98

McMaster
Carr

5346K25

$14.25

McMaster
Carr

5238K758

$13.40

9151K89

$22.15

5388K17

$12.90

McMaster
Carr
McMaster
Carr
McMaster
Carr

8612K16

$21.95

McMaster
Carr

47515

$5.09

1/2 in. Plastic PEX Barb

Tee (5-Pack)
15 Amp Single-Pole
Toggle Switch
1-Gang 18 cu. in. PVC
Switch Box
Leviton 1-Gang Switch
Wall Plate
Arduino-UNO R3

UP362A5

12.54

Advance Auto
Parts
Home Depot

R52-01451-02W

$2.76

Home Depot

B118A

$1.08

Home Depot

R52-88001-00W

$1.12

Home Depot

ATMega 328

$24.95

Amazon

10.5 Prototype Effectiveness

From the results of the testing, the prototype was determined to be effective at demonstrating the
concept, but has some significant limitations. The efficiency of the prototype was much lower than the
model predicted and several mechanical efficiency losses need to be addressed before continued
development. Based on the data and analysis, the overall efficiency of the system from initial kinetic energy
to final kinetic energy was around 4%.

53

11. Codes and Standards

Pneumatic Connections

Fittings which deal with pressurized air running through the system need to be selected according
to the correct standards set for the situations they operate in, in order to prevent failure and to allow the
system to run efficiently with minimal leaks and safety risks. Fittings such as valves, joints and regulators
will need to be chosen to minimize losses while serving their functions well in the system and to also be
easily fixed or replaced.

Valves

Selection
Common valve types relevant to the hybrid system include gate valves, plug valves, ball valves,
butterfly valves, check valves, pressure relief valves and control valves. A gate valve is a simple on/off
device that works by sliding a vertical disc or gate downwards to block the flow. Both plug and ball valves
are quarter-turn valves meaning that a 90 degree rotation can continuously vary the flow through a hole in
a cylinder. Butterfly valves, commonly used in throttling applications, use a circular disc or vane with its
pivot axis perpendicular to the flow. Check valves and pressure relief valves are self-actuated valves that
open when the pressure difference across them reaches a predetermined value and remain closed when the
pressure difference is below that value. Control valves are designed to allow proportioning of flow and vary
the rate of flow based on electrical signals it receives. These electrical signals are based on the outputs of
pressure or flow sensors. Technically, any valve can be turned into a control valve by implementing a motor
(servo or stepper motor) in conjunction with one of the manually controlled valves above. When precise
control is desired, needle valves are typically implemented with some automated control mechanism.
Correct implementation of relief valves is very important since relief valves serve as a safety
measure. They are typically positioned between the regulator and the first shutoff valve at the first point
that could be subject to full cylinder pressure, should the regulator fail. No valve should be located between
the relief valve and the regulator. The relief valve release point should be set to 50% more than the operating
pressure. It is also good practice to install relief valves near other possible points of failure in the system
such as where measurement instruments are installed.

54

Tubing/Piping

Selection
The most important factor in selecting piping is its pressure rating. The pressure rating for a given
material pipe is a function of the pipe thickness and diameter and can be calculated using equations given
in ASME B31.3: Process Piping Design. The pressure rating should be selected to withstand the highest
anticipated system pressure. According to the American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE), systems
with pressures between 100 and 200 psia should consider using 304 or 316 stainless steel and/or copper
tubing with pressure fit joining.
A major concern when selecting piping components such as reducers, elbows and valves is the
pressure loss across those components. This pressure loss is mainly dictated by the friction factor of that
component which is usually provided in tables by the manufacturer. Standardized pressure losses in various
components can also be found in handbooks provided by the ASPE or ASME. ASPE provides a standard
procedure for determining the layout, piping geometry and size of a compressed air system in the November
2013 Continuing Education from the ASPE monthly release.
Since compressor performance depends highly on inlet conditions, special consideration must be given to
the compressor inlet piping. Air supply to the compressor should be as clean, cool and dry as possible which
may require use of a filter. Filter classification information is also provided by ASPE (Nov, 2013). The
velocity of the inlet air into the compressor should be limited to 1000 ft/s and should be positioned so as to
avoid contamination. In industrial practice, if the length of piping is more than 20 feet, the next largest
piping diameter should be used to account for the additional friction losses.

Measurement and Sensing

Thermocouples and pressure sensors will be used in tandem in order to measure temperature and
pressure respectively at various points in the air carrying network, including the storage tank, compressor
and tubing. Having accurate and precise values for these measurements is vital in determining the state of
the working fluid (air) in the air carrying network and will be particularly important to act as indicators of
impending failure or requirement of service to the user. Standards are presented below for selection,
calibration and placement of thermocouples and pressure sensors.

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Thermocouples
Selection:
Thermocouples are classified by the Instrument Society of America and the American National
Standards Institute. The extension wire metal type is specified and ordered by ANSI letter designations.
They can be classified by junction size and junction type. Junction size selection is a tradeoff between
length of service and response times. Smaller wire gauges provide faster response but their performance
and accuracy are not maintained over a long period of time in adverse conditions. The use of thermowells
and sheaths is usually recommended for the extension of thermocouple life. Table 11.1 demonstrates
various thermocouple types, operating temperature ranges and tolerances.

Table 11.1: Temperature Ranges and Tolerances of Thermocouple Types

From Table 11.1, it can be seen that thermocouple types J, K and R are common, and are therefore
less costly to purchase. However, R-type thermocouples are usually intended for high temperature
applications since their sensitivity is much higher in that range. Initial calculations have shown that the
maximum expected air temperature after compression from atmospheric pressure to the operating pressure
of the selected compressor (115 PSI), assuming isentropic efficiency of 75 percent, will be approximately
370 Celsius. This range corresponds well with the type-J thermocouple. However, the iron wire in type J
thermocouples is known to oxidize in air and so for the given application of measuring compressed air
temperature, a type-K thermocouple may be more suitable.

56

Since the air pressures and temperatures are expected to vary with braking and acceleration of the
rickshaw, a thermocouple with a short response time is desired. Therefore, a small junction size is more
suitable.

Pressure Sensors

Selection:
Pressure measurement devices can be classified as either mechanical or electrical. Mechanical
pressure measurement devices measure pressure by balancing the force exerted per unit area against the
deflection of an elastic element and the three main types of elastic elements are Bourdon, bellows and
diaphragm devices. Devices that function based on electrical energy (pressure transducers) typically rely
on one of the mechanical elastic elements above, but output the pressure reading in the form of a resistance,
voltage or current. Common electrical pressure sensing devices include strain gauges, linear variable
differential transformers, capacitance transducers, potentiometric, variable reluctance, piezoelectric and
piezoresistive transducers.
For the purposes of the compressed air hybrid drivetrain prototype, the system would be required
to automatically log pressure data at various points in the system with time. For this reason, it is preferred
that an electrical pressure sensor be used since it can be combined with a microcontroller unit as well as
data logging software.
Electrical sensors are typically classified according to their output level, accuracy, pressure range,
temperature range, vibration sensitivity and calibration shift with use. Since the compressed air system will
have cyclically varying pressures, vibration sensitivity will be an important factor to consider. Additionally,
in order to avoid complex signal amplification circuitry, it will be preferred if the initial output from the
sensor is high. If the signal is too low, then the use of a low-pass filter may have to be implemented in
conjunction with the amplification circuit in order to reduce noise amplification. Therefore, the three types
of sensors under consideration are capacitance, variable reluctance and piezoelectric. Table 11.2 shows a
comparison of various pressure sensor types.

57

Table 11.2: Comparison of Electrical Pressure Sensor Types

In the case that electrical pressure sensors are not viable for the design of the pneumatic hybrid
system, analog gauges must be installed and placed in an ergonomic layout for the driver to see while
operating the vehicle. Maximum cutoff pressures should be set in order to relieve excess pressure. In
addition pressure accuracy readings of analog devices must be within 7% error (L. Wang, May 2014). A
warning signal must be available other than a pressure gauge that provides a continuous warning to a person
in the normal driving position when the ignition is in the on (run) position and the air pressure in the
service reservoir system is below 60 psi. The signal shall be either visible within the driver's forward field
of view, or both audible and visible. Each service reservoir system shall be protected against loss of air
pressure due to failure or leakage in the system between the service reservoir and the source of air pressure,
by check valves or equivalent devices whose proper functioning can be checked without disconnecting any
air line or fitting.

Rotational Speed Measurement

There is a multitude of techniques for measuring rotational speed. Single/dual electrostatic sensors
utilize the fact that when a solid object is in rotation, its surface becomes electrostatically charged due to
the relative motion between the objects surface and the air. Optical techniques utilize a digital stroboscope
which varies the frequency of a flashing light until it matches that of the rotating shaft. A cheap technique

58

is a contactless capacitive angular speed sensor which is based on a passive rotating electrode placed
between two mechanically static and electrically active electrodes. The system measures the number of
electrical peaks obtained per second and is insensitive to vibrations. Perhaps the most commonly used
system involves using encoders which can be of either the optical or magnetic type. Encoders can output
either a displacement or a rotational velocity directly. Two optical or magnetic strips are placed on the
rotating body and a stationary sensor is fixed near to the rotating shaft/body. As the body rotates, square
waves are generated with phase difference. With the known phase difference and the known angular
distance between the two strips the rotational velocity can be calculated. The direction of rotation is
determined according to which strip encountered the sensor first.

Handling and filling compressed air tanks

In testing and in real world applications, the compressed air tanks used in the hybrid system will
be pressurized to high levels that may be dangerous if a leak forms or if a pressurized component fails. In
order to find the correct method of dealing with the movement, handling and filling of tanks, standards were
searched for, resulting in a standard for the correct method of dealing with and handling small paintball
cylinders which share many characteristics with the type of tank the hybrid system would use, such as a
pressure of around 125 psi, and a size of less than 10 gallons. The standard considers different facets of
dealing with compressed air, and gives directives for correct operation. It provides instructions for how to
inspect the tank, recommended standards for filling stations for the tank and fill procedures (ASTM, 2013).

Compressed Gas Air Tank Inspections

Regulations for the inspection of vehicles utilizing compressed gas tanks follow similar federal
standards to those made for CNG and LPG tanks. Although air is a non-reactive gas, unlike CNG or LPG,
these regulations focus on standard inspection procedures for tank containing compressed gases.
Inspections of the tanks must occur at either time of installation, every three years or 36,000 miles,
whichever occurs first, or following any collision with any vehicle over the speed of five mph. Periodic
visual inspection must be conducted and areas of valve fittings and deformations for the tank must be areas
of inspection. The cylinder storage area must also be checked for any leaks or damages that prevent the
cylinder from being stored in a cool, dry, and well-ventilated space. In the case of any leaks in the storage
area, the cylinder must be checked for any signs of rust or deformation. In the case that any cylinder is
unserviceable, the manufacturer and tag must be contacted for service. Upon completion of a successful
inspection, the gas cylinder can be placed inside vehicle and securely latch to the proper location. Ensure

59

the storage area and its seals are properly fitting to prevent any debris or moisture from entering the
enclosure.

Compressed Air Regenerative Braking Systems

While no standards currently exist for a compressed air braking system, an analysis of the
performance of a commercialized compressed air braking system could be used to serve as a guideline for
the range of values that the system could realistically achieve, and the types of measurements and
parameters that should be monitored during the tests of the system. Using Wicks paper, the system can get
closer to being industry ready as it can more easily aligned with the industrys averages.

System Noise Level

The level of allowable noise levels for vehicles in the United States will serve as the standard for
the operation of the target vehicle in India. Based on these standards, any motor vehicle of weight 10,000
lbs or less, will operate at less than 92dB overall (Feb 2016). At steady speeds below 35 mph, the vehicle
must not exceed a noise level of 86dB. Above 35 mph, vehicles must remain under 90dB at steady speed.
Focusing on regulations of noise levels will not only lead to the development of a quieter system, but will
tackle noise pollution in heavily populated cities as well.

12. Societal, Environmental and Sustainability Considerations

The selection of the materials and components used in the design will consider the environmental
cost of using those materials and how sustainable they are as part of the pneumatic hybrid system in
addition to their suitability for their purpose and their price. Fittings and piping will be standardized to be
available easily in the market of the user, and will be chosen to ensure that the entire system remains
emission free. This entails selecting materials that wont degrade into pollutants over usage and time and
can sustain the climate cycles that are typical of its area of usage. By using readily available fittings and
valves in the design, the issues of initial availability during manufacturing and serviceability can be
mitigated. Plumbing fittings would suit the purpose well as they are rated for similar pressures and are
readily available worldwide.
Components such as the compressor, valves and air tank can be repurposed from other common
applications to be used in the system. Refurbishing and using standardized parts will also keep the price
of the system low as expensive bespoke parts do not need to be made. This will attract more users to the
system and will ensure that maintenance costs are minimal, allowing rickshaw drivers to save even more
money.

60

13. Risk Assessment, Safety and Liability

The risks identified in the use of our design fall under five categories: Explosion, Collision,
Burning, Fire, Projectiles, and Cutting Injuries. Tables 13.1 and 13.2 summarize the risk assessment
approach taken to quantify each individual risk. Table 13.3 breaks down each of the risk categories into
causes of these risks and evaluates the level or attention. Each risk was examined and quantified with a
Frequency and Severity rating. The Frequency rating ranges from A (Frequent) to E (Improbable), and the
Severity rating ranges from 1 (Catastrophic) to 4 (Negligible). Each calculated risk was matched with a risk
mitigation strategy to manage the risk of system failure. The two risks with the highest level were identified
as insufficient braking torque and sharp edges. Insufficient braking torque could result in the vehicle not
slowing down during braking while using the implemented system, a potentially catastrophic failure
resulting in serious vehicle accidents. To address this risk, the design will not replace the existing braking
system and will work alongside it. During light brake usage, only the regenerative brake will slow the
rickshaw. As the application of the brake from the driver increases, the original braking system engages
and stops the rickshaw. To address the issue of sharp edges, the design will contain fillets or chamfers on
all exposed corners and edges.
Table 13.1: Frequency and Severity rating descriptions
Frequency

Description of rating

Frequent (A)

Every time it is driven

Probable (B)

May occur during vehicle misuse

Occasional (C)

During/following repair

Remote (D)

Not expected during the life of the vehicle

Improbable (E)

Extremely unlikely

Severity

Description of rating

Catastrophic (1)

Major injury to driver, occupants

Critical (2)

Damage to property, and/or minor injury

Marginal (3)

Damage to vehicle only

Negligible (4) Minor repairable damage to vehicle only, no injuries

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Table: 13.2: Risk Level Quantification

Severity
Frequency

Catastrophic (1)

Critical (2)

Marginal (3)

Negligible
(4)

Frequent (A)

A1

A2

A3

A4

Probable (B)

B1

B2

B3

B4

Occasional
(C)

C1

C2

C3

C4

Remote (D)

D1

D2

D3

D4

Improbable
(E)

E1

E2

E3

E4

High (Unacceptable-Must
Mitigate)

Medium
(Undesirable)

Low (Acceptable with

review)

Acceptable

Table 13.3: Risk Assessment Matrix

Hazard
No.

Hazard

Frequency Severity

Initial Risk
Level

Mitigation

Final Risk
Level

Explosion
1

Compressed air tank

failure

Low

Regular maintenance and

inspection of blowoff valves

Low

Compressor failure

Medium

Regular maintenance of
compressor

Low

Valve failure

Medium

Regular maintenance of valves

Low

Fitting failure

Medium

Regular maintenance of
fittings

Low

Collision
5

Valve closure failure

Medium

Valves designed to fail in a

way that returns rickshaw to
previous, unmodified state

Acceptable

Excessive braking
torque

Low

Relief valve in parallel

Acceptable

Insufficient braking
torque

High

Existing brakes will still be

engageable under strong
braking

Acceptable

Excessive
acceleration/loss of
traction

Low

Use pressure release valve on

compressor

Acceptable

62

Burning
9

Heat from
compressor

Medium

Label parts susceptible to

heating and place compressor
out of regular handling area

Low

Fire
10

Electrical short

Medium

Insulate all electrical wiring

Low

11

Heat near flammable

material

Medium

Ensure heat shields cover all

flammable components

Low

Projectiles
12

Valving breaking free

Medium

Enclose valves in metal casing Acceptable

13

Fittings breaking free

Medium

Enclose fittings in metal

casing

Acceptable

14

Belt/Chain failure

Acceptable

Utilize belt/chain housing and

belt/chain guides

Acceptable

15

Flywheel Failure

Medium

Inspection during regular

maintenance intervals

Acceptable

High

Ensure that exposed parts are

smooth

Low

Cutting injury
16

Sharp edges during

maintenance

14. Patent Claims and Commercialization

Claims
This invention relates to the repurposing of reciprocating compressors to be used as engines
powered by compressed air while also maintaining their original function as a compressor. For example,
the compressor can be used to slow down a moving mass and converting kinetic energy to compressed air,
after which, compressed air can then be used to power the compressor as an engine.
For an in-line, multi cylinder, reciprocating compressor, the compressor head is modified, for
example as is shown in Appendix C. Compressor valves must either be replaced or supplemented by
external valves in order to allow the compressor to operate as an engine. These external valves open and
close according to the position of the pistons within the compressor.

63

Commercialization
The idea behind the invention can be applied widely to the automotive industry among others, for
example, in light vehicles such as three-wheeler rickshaws the concept can be marketed to large
manufacturers of rickshaws such as Tata, Bajaj, Piaggio and TVS. An estimated cost of the system after
mass production would be provided to the company which would give an idea of the price increase of the
commercialized rickshaw including the compressed air hybrid feature. Since rickshaw drivers are the final
buyers of the rickshaw, rickshaw drivers could be surveyed to determine a suitable pay-back period and
initial cost. Also, payment plans could be restructured to more easily facilitate the use of the compressor
hybrid system.

15. Conclusions & Future Work

The goal of the project was to address the problem of urban air pollution in developing countries
around the world. India was specifically targeted as it experienced the highest levels of particulate matter
than anywhere else on the globe. The autorickshaw was chosen as the vehicle of interest as it is the most
popular mode of transportation used in the urban regions of India. This problem was addressed through the
development of a pneumatic hybrid powertrain design. The design helped illustrate the placement and
installation of the proposed system into the existing autorickshaw engine bay. In order to model the
technical aspects of deceleration and acceleration of the vehicle, a prototype was built accompanied by a
MATLAB model.
The proposed design is packaged to fit inside the engine bay of a rickshaw with minimal
interference with the existing internal combustion engine. The system utilizes a modified compressor to act
as both an energy capture and release device upon deceleration and acceleration, respectively. The energy
will be stored in a 5-liter tank to act as an energy storage device. The air flow of the through the compressor
and tank was designed to be controlled by a network of electronically actuated valves that have the
capability of switching from compression to expansion modes through an Arduino powered circuit. All
electronic valves were selected to run on the existing 12V system provided by the existing autorickshaw
vehicle battery.
Due to lack of availability of an autorickshaw in the United States, a scaled prototype was
developed in order to model the powertrain and weight of the vehicle. This prototype was used to run
multiple tests to determine the performance of the system under deceleration and acceleration conditions to
compare to the MATLAB models. Based on the comparisons, the prototype produced results that closely
matched the modeled outputs in both acceleration and deceleration. Discrepancies in results were mainly

64

attributed to the frictional aspects of the compressor that could not be adequately modeled through
MATLAB.
Based on the results of the prototype, auto rickshaw drivers and the potential surrounding
population would experience many benefits. Although the auto rickshaw driver may potentially experience
an increase in horsepower by only 1%, they will see an increase in torque output of at least 150% due to
the compressor. The results from the prototype were further scaled up to the vehicle size and number of
auto rickshaws in the country to determine that this hybrid system has the potential to decrease CO 2
emissions by over 192,000 tons per year if implemented in every auto rickshaw. Based on the results and
observed operation of the compressor, it can be concluded that implementation of the design would provide
decreased engine cycle time, reduced greenhouse gas production, lower fuel consumption, and a resulting
improvement in air quality in urban environments.
Impact aspects of the project such as air quality, payoff period, and vehicle fuel consumption were
not quantifiable due to time constraint and availability of resources. Future plans involve quantifying the
impact of the system implementation for both the auto rickshaw driver and the environment. The team also
plans to continue pursuing the patent application for the valve system of the compressor. Upon successful
completion of these aspects, the team would also like to procure an auto rickshaw to test and refine the
proposed design. By pursuing these goals, the team will be able to better position and market the hybrid
powertrain for implementation into auto rickshaws to impact not only India, but also countries that use
similar vehicles like the tuk-tuk.

65

16. References / Citations

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Paintball Cylinders. United States of America. F2773, 2013.
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D. Panchal. Two and Three Wheeler Technology. New Delhi. PHI Learning Private ltd. 2015
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G. Solberg, The Magic of Tesla Roadster Regenerative Braking, Tesla Motors, June 29, 2007
K. T. McDonald, "Thermodynamics of a Tire Pump," Joseph Henry Laboratories, Princeton University,
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Surya Conversions, Surya Conversions Hybrid Kits. [Online]. Available:

https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/suryaconversions/surya-conversions-hybrid-kits. [Accessed: 9-Feb2016].
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9A20.Proof.Atm.Enrgy.pdf. [Accessed 15-Mar-2016]
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Appendix A: Concepts

Figure A1: General Schematic of Regenerative Pneumatic Hybrid System

Figure A2: Side View of Compressor-Drive Axle Connection

68

Figure A3: Modes of Operation of Compression Subsystem

69

Figure A4: General System Schematic of Electric Hybrid System

70

Figure A5: General Schematic of Fully Electric System

71

Figure A6: General Schematic of Use of Flywheel Regenerative System

Figure A7: Schematic of Connection Mechanism of Flywheel

72

Figure A8: Principal Modes of Operation of Regenerative Flywheel System

73

Appendix B: Gantt Chart

74

75

Appendix C: Fabrication Drawings

76