Transformer Differential Protection using Principal

Component Analysis
E. Vzquez, Member, IEEE, I. I. Mijares, Student, O. L. Chacn, Member, IEEE, and A. Conde, Member, IEEE

Abstract--This paper describes a new algorithm for transformer

differential protection, based on pattern recognition of the differential
current obtained as the phasor sum of the current transformers
secondary currents. The algorithm uses principal component analysis
(PCA) to pre-processing data from the power system, in order to
eliminate redundant information and enhance hidden pattern in
differential current to discriminate between internal faults from
inrush and overexcitation conditions. The algorithm was proven
using PSCAD/EMTDC simulations in a three-phase power system
considering critical fault cases. The results show the feasibility to
implement this algorithm for transformer differential protection.
Keywords--Protective relay, transformer protection, differential,
pattern recognition. 1

I. INTRODUCTION
When transformer internal faults occur, immediate
disconnection of the faulted transformer is necessary to avoid
extensive damage and/or preserve power system stability and
power quality [1]. The percentage differential principle is
widely used to detect faults in transformers [2], providing
excellent results toward improving the security of differential
protection for external faults with current transformers (CT)
saturation.
A misoperation of differential relays is possible due to
inrush currents, which result from transients in transformer
magnetic flux. Some solutions to this problem include to
introduce an intentional time delay in the differential relay, to
desensitize the relay for a given time, or to supervise the
differential relay [3],[4]. In the latter option, the harmonic
content of the differential current provides information that
helps differentiate between inrush conditions and actual faults;
these methods are known as harmonic restraint or blocking
methods.
These methods have problems in cases with low harmonic
content in the differential current [5]. Transformer
overexcitation is another possible cause of differential relay
misoperation. Protective relay
manufacturers have
implemented an additional fifth-harmonic restraint to prevent
misoperations on overexcitation [6], and several methods
based on waveform recognition to distinguish faults from
inrush [7],[8],[9]. However, these waveform recognition
techniques do not identify transformer overexcitation
conditions.
This paper describes a new algorithm for transformer
differential protection. The proposed algorithm explores the
possibility to characterizing the differential current waveform
behavior to discriminate internal faults from inrush and
E. Vzquez (evm@ieee.org), I. I. Mijares, O. L. Chacn
(ochacon@mail.uanl.mx) and A. Conde (con_de@yahoo.com) are with
Universidad Autnoma de Nuevo Len, Monterrey, NL, Mxico

1-4244-0493-2/06/$20.00 2006 IEEE.

overexcitation events. The PCA method extracts the features

from the differential current in order to implement a pattern
recognition process in a 2D space called feature space. The
representation of the original relaying signals in the feature
space show a linearly separable structure and it is not
necessary to use a classification technique to solve it. This
concept has been used for transmission line protection [10].
The algorithm uses a data window with 64 sample points of
differential current signal, covering a period of 16 ms at a
sampling rate of 4 kHz. The algorithm accommodates CT
saturation and changes in the power system configuration. The
algorithm was proven using PSCAD/EMTDC simulations
considering distinct scenarios such as changes in transformer
loading, source impedance, CT ratio, and CT magnetizing
curve. In all cases, the algorithm successfully distinguishes
internal faults from inrush and overexcitation conditions.
II. TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
Fig. 1 shows a typical differential relay connection
diagram. The relay compares an operating current with a
restraining current. The operating current (also called
differential current), IO, and the restraining current, IR, are
obtained as [1]:

I O = I1 + I 2

(1)

I R = k I1 I 2
CT1

CT2
IO
I1

I2
IR

Fig. 1. Differential relay connection diagram.

The relay generates a tripping signal if the operating

current, IO, is greater than a percentage of the restraining
current, IR, according to:

IO > k I R + I P

(2)

where k is the relay operating characteristic, that consists of a

straight line having a slope equal to k. Intersection of this
characteristic with vertical axis (IO) define the relay minimum
pickup current, IP [1]. The relay percentage restraint
characteristic typically has an excellent behavior, but it has
problems discriminating fault currents from false differential
currents caused by magnetizing inrush and transformer
overexcitation.

III. PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS (PCA)

A common method from statistics for analyzing data is
principal component analysis, or PCA [11]. The purpose of
PCA is to identify the dependence structure behind a
multivariable stochastic observation in order to obtain a
compact description of it.
Fig. 2 illustrates the PCA [12]. In this figure, OA is the first
principal component direction of the distribution that
generates the cloud of points, and OB is the second principal
component. It is evident that the projection onto OA shows
more structure than the projection onto OB. Clusters are thus
more likely to be distinguished by projection in a highvariance direction than in a low-variance one. Hence, the
dimensionality reduction in the PCA could retain most of the
intrinsic information in the data. In PCA, the kth principal
component direction is along an eigenvector direction
belonging to the kth largest eigenvalue of the covariance
matrix of the input data.
For a data set of pth dimension vectors yn, we can proof
than axes wj correspond to largest q eigenvectors in:

Sw j = j w j

(3)

which are associated to largest eigenvalues (j) of the

covariance matrix S. The new data representation is:

xn = W T ( y n y )

(4)

where W=[w1 w2 wq], y is the mean of data set and xn is

the q-dimensional compact description of original data set yn.
An advantage to use PCA to pre-processing data is a reduction
in data dimension that eliminates redundant information and
allows simplifying the classification process. A complete PCA
example is described in [13].

iDIF ( a b ) I AB I ab

I DIF = iDIF ( b c ) = I BC I bc
iDIF ( c a ) I CA I ca

(5)

where IAB, IBC, ICA, Iab, Ibc and Ica are delta signals [14] of the
secondary CT currents in both transformer ends, expressed in
per unit of the CT rated current. The delta signals were
selected to improve the algorithms ability to discriminate fast
changes in the differential current waveform that are typical of
capacitive effects in transmission lines.
The delta signals have been used in transmission line
protection using high-frequency components of traveling wave
phenomena [10]. In transformer protection, the delta signals
reduce the load effect because they are almost zero in stable
state. When a fault occurs, by virtue of the superposition
theorem, the fault injected components can be acquired by
subtraction of the steady-state components from the post fault
signals (incremental signals) using a delta filter [14]; the fault
injected components can be expressed as:

i (t ) = i (t ) i (t nT )

(6)

where T is the period of the fundamental sampling frequency

and n=1 means subtraction of the sample one fundamental
cycle prior from the present sample. These signals correspond
to the instantaneous current values available in the output of
A/D convert in a digital relay.
The purpose of delta signals is to heighten any transient
change in the differential current, in order to discriminate
between internal faults from inrush and overexcitation
conditions. When a fault occurs, a fault detector is used to
build the data window, and then carry out the next operation
criteria:
IDIF (t) >

(7)

where = 5.0 A, the CT rate current in steady state. Therefore,

the first sample of the data window is the first sample of IDIF
that fulfills (7), as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 2. Graphical interpretation of PCA.

IV. APPLICATION OF PCA AS DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

A. Data window
The principal idea behind the use of PCA is to carry out a
pattern recognition process to discriminate between internal
faults and inrush or overexcitation conditions using the basic
features extracted from the differential current available for
the relay. The CT transient response due to the fault is
considered. The proposed algorithm uses the three-phase error
differential current:

Fig. 3. Data window used in the algorithm.

The main component of the operation time of the proposed

algorithm is the length of the data window, tW. If tW is short,
the algorithm will not have enough information to carry out
pattern recognition; on the other hand, for a large tW, the data
window will include symmetrical sections of the differential
current, which introduce an error decision about the origin of
the differential current. As the algorithm uses delta signals,
which are valid during the first cycle after (7) is fulfilled,
tW=16 ms, a 60 Hz-cycle, that means data window is formed
with 64 samples of three-phase differential current with a
sample rate of 4 kHz. As we have three-phase transformers,
the data window is a (192x1) vector, with three sections of 64
values for each error differential current:

iDIF ( a b )1

iDIF ( a b ) 64

iDIF ( b c )1

M
I T =

iDIF ( b c ) 64
i

DIF ( c a )1
M

DIF ( c a ) 64

(8)

B. Principal components calculation

We used the PSCAD/EMTDC program [15] to simulate,
the three-phase power system shown in Fig. 4, and
characterize the error differential currents. The transformer
has delta-grounded star (wye) connections, 100 MVA,
230/115 kV, 60 Hz. On the high-side there is a source 50
MVA, 230 kV, and 10 ohms as internal impedance; in the low
side there is a three-phase load of 8.058 kW and 2.025 kVAR.
The saturation curve data is described in Fig. 5.

Fig. 4. Three-phase power system.

For the CT ratio, in [16] the following relation is proposed

to avoid saturation and reduce adverse impact to protective
relays:
20

X
+ 1 I f Zb
R

where If is the maximum fault current in per unit of CT rating,

Zb is the CT burden in per unit of standard burden and X/R is
the X/R ratio of the primary fault circuit. Using the power
system data, the CT ratios will be 1500:5 and 3000:5 for high
and low side; however, almost ever, the CT did not fulfill (9).
We select lower CT ratios to allow distortion in the waveform
of the differential current as part of the steady state operation.
The CT ratios selected were 600:5 and 1200:5.
Table 1 describes the conditions used to calculate the
principal component; the simulation process produces 352
data windows (yn, n=1352) formed with samples of error
differential current, where 304 are faults, 32 are inrush
currents and 16 are overexcitation conditions.
TABLE 1.
FAULT AND NON-FAULTS CONDITIONS USED TO ESTIMATE PC.
Fault inception
Number
Disturbance
RF
(ohms)
time FIT (ms)
of cases
A-G
16
B-G
16
C-G
16
AB-G
16
BC-G
16
Fault*
CA-G
16
ABC
16
AB
16
BC
16
CA
16
0.01
Every 1 ms in a
No fault
16
cycle of 60 Hz
A-G
16
Energization
voltage signal.
with load and a
B-G
16
fault*
C-G
16
ABC
16
No fault
16
A-G
16
Energization
without load and
B-G
16
a fault*
C-G
16
ABC
16
Fault in transformer high side
16
Step voltage in generator bus
16
(from 1 to 2 per unit)
Total
352
* Faults simulated in transformer low side.

In order to implement the algorithm in any power system,

all data windows obtained by simulation were normalized
using CT rate current 5 A, in this way, PCA does a
geometrical translation to the data origin; the new data
windows are:

yn = [I T I T ] / I CT

Fig. 5. Saturation curve data.

(9)

(10)

where I T is a row vector with the mean value for each

original data. These normalized vectors yn will be use as test
pattern to principal components calculation. An advantage of
using the absolute value of yn from (10) is solving the problem
of sign rotation in the principal components axes [10], and it

allows discrimination between distinct situations (fault, inrush

and overexcitation) in a direct way, without requiring a
classification process.
The matrix of vectors yn can be represented as:
y (1,1)
M

Y = y (k ,1)

M
y (n,1)

y (1,2)
M

L
M

y (k ,2)
M

L
M

y (n,2)

y (1, p )
M
y (k , p)

M
y (n, p)

(11)

PCA subspace. The operation criteria were defined from an

analysis of the 352 simulation cases described in Table 1. The
representation of all 352 cases after PCA transformation (15)
is shown in Fig. 6.

zone

zone
zone

where p=192 (dimension) and n=352 (cases). Now, we obtain

the eigenvectors V and eigenvalues D, from covariance matrix
of Y:

V = [eig1 eig 2 L eig192 ]

D = diag[ 1 2 L 192 ]

(12)
(13)

It is easy to prove that the sum of all eigenvalues in D is

equal to 1.0, meaning that PCA represents an orthogonal
transformation [11].
Every data window represents a single point in a 192dimension space, and the idea behind the use of principal
components is to reduce this representation to the minimum
possible subspace. The most representative principal
components correspond to the dominant eigenvectors that are
associated with the largest eigenvalues in the covariance
matrix. In our case, the first two eigenvalues contain 90% of
the meaningful information, and the dominant eigenvectors
are the first two principal components:
A ( 2 x192 ) = [eig1 eig 2 ]

(14)

Therefore, each vector of the error differential current (yn)

will be represent into the new axes:
PC ( 2 x1) = A( 2 x192) [y n y ]

(192 x1)

(15)

where y is the row vector with the mean value for each 192
dimensions of the original data, and PC is the representation
of yn vector in the 2D-subspace of the first two principal
components.
Therefore, the differential protection principle is reduced a
pattern recognition process in a 2D subspace, and each point
in this space represents a waveform of the differential current
for a specific disturbance.
V. ALGORITHM

Fig. 6. Representation of all-352 cases in PCA subspace (PC1 vs PC2).

In Fig. 6, it is possible to see that faults follow a clustering

behavior for each type of fault; for example, the cluster
marked in the figure corresponds to all-48 a-to-ground fault
conditions, indicates in Table 1. For overexcitation and inrush
conditions, the PCA process forms a unique cluster due to
likeness among waveform of differential current for these
cases.
As a result of this procedure, the 2D-subspace of the first
two principal components is divided in three zones, where the
left-side ( zone) corresponds to faults and the right-side (
zone) to inrush conditions; the overexcitation cases are
restricted in the middle ( zone). Furthermore, all that is
required to identify the operation condition is to verify the
absolute value of the first principal component (PC1), as
described in (16):

0.05 <

PC1
PC1

< 0.05
Inrush
(16a )
< 0.20 Overexcitation (16b)

0.20 <

PC1

Fault

(16c)

Consequently, it isnt necessary to use a classification

technique, such as statistical based or based on artificial
intelligence methods [12], to discriminate between faults and
inrush or overexcitation conditions.

A. Discrimination between faults, inrush and overexcitation

B. Block diagram of the algorithm

Inrush or overexcitation conditions of a power transformer

produce false differential currents that could cause relay
misoperation. Both conditions produce distorted currents
because they are related to transformer core saturation. To
discriminate between these conditions and a fault current, the
proposed algorithm carries out a pattern recognition using the
distorted waveforms of differential current represented in the

Fig. 7 shows the block diagram for the proposed algorithm.

The current signals are obtained from the CTs and they are
scaled using CT rated secondary current, prior to computing
the delta signals IDIF. Once a disturbance occurs, the
algorithm builds the data window from one cycle of current
samples as a normalized 192-dimensional vector (yn) and
represents it in principal components 2-dimension subspace. If

(16c) is satisfied a fault is detected (projection of tn is in

zone), the algorithm prepares the trip signal to the breaker.
Otherwise, an inrush or overexcitation condition is assumed.

The main problem for differential protection relays on

power transformers is to make this discrimination when
differential currents are almost symmetrical, containing low
harmonic content. Considering that CT saturation is the only
problem is Fig. 9 (scenario 8), an increase of the CT ratio will
reduce distortions in the waveform. Fig. 10 shows all-352
cases of scenario 9, where CT ratios are 400:5 and 800:5. The
clusters structure is the same for , and zones, but theirs
positions change horizontally. In this case, when the CT ratio
is increased, the clusters will move close to the discrimination
line between zones and . However, the operation condition
(16c) is satisfied even without CT saturation, with ratios of
1500:5 and 3000:5, according to (9).
In conclusion, the proposed algorithm successfully carries
out the differential protection function using projections over
principal component subspace; in all cases, the algorithm
discriminates internal faults from inrush or overexcitation
conditions.

Fig. 7. Block diagram of the algorithm.

VI. RESULTS
The algorithm was evaluated in distinct scenarios simulated
in the power system test (see Fig. 4). Every scenario was
formed as a combination of situations, including changes in
transformer loading, in the magnetizing curve shape, in the
power system time constant (source impedance) and in the
differential CT ratios. A total of 3170 simulation cases were
run to show the feasibility to implementing this algorithm for
transformer differential protection. These cases are described
in Table 2; every scenario was simulated for all-352
conditions describe in Table 1.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

TABLE 2.
SCENARIOS USED TO TEST THE ALGORITHM.
Scenarios
Number of
cases
Increase reactive load 10%
352
Reduce reactive load 10%
352
Move knee in magnetizing curve +10%
352
Move knee in magnetizing curve -10%
352
Modify generator impedance from resistive to RL
352
Increase generator inductance 10%
352
Reduce generator inductance 10%
352
Increase CT ratio in 10%
352
Reduce CT ratio in 10%
352
Combination of previous scenarios
2
Total
3170

The results from the algorithm are shown in figures 8 to 10.

Fig. 8 describes 352 simulation cases for scenario 3, where the
point of saturation was moved 10% from the previous
position. The clustering observed in Fig. 8 remains, for faults
( zone), inrush ( zone) and overexcitations ( zone).
Likewise, Fig. 9 describes another 352 cases that corresponds
to scenario 8; the CT ratio changes from original data 600:5
and 1200:5 to 400:5 and 800:5 respectively for high and low
sides. This increases the saturation effect, and introduces
additional distortions in the differential current. However, as is
show in the figure, the final discrimination is correct.

Fig. 8. 352 simulation cases for scenario 3.

Fig. 9. 352 simulation cases for scenario 8.

[6]
[7]
[8]

[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
Fig. 10. 352 simulation cases for scenario 9.

VII. CONCLUSIONS
The percentage differential principle is widely used to
detect faults in transformers, providing excellent results in
improved security of the differential protection for external
faults with CT saturation. However, it has problems
discriminating fault currents from the false differential
currents caused by magnetizing inrush and transformer
overexcitation.
The methods used to solve these problems use harmonic
content or waveform recognition, but cases with low harmonic
content in the differential current are yet unsolved.
This paper describes a new algorithm for transformer
differential protection; the proposed algorithm explores the
possibility to characterize the waveform behavior of the
differential current to discriminate internal faults from inrush
or overexcitation events. The PCA method extracts the
features from the differential current in order to implement a
pattern recognition process in a 2D space called feature space.
The representation of the original current signals in the feature
space shows a linearly separable structure, not requiring a
classification technique to solve it.
The algorithm was evaluated with 3170 simulation cases,
which include changes in transformer loading, in the
magnetizing curve shape, in the source impedance and in the
differential CT ratios. In all cases, the algorithm successfully
discriminates internal faults from inrush or overexcitation
events.
VIII. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]

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M. A. Arman, and B. Jeyasura, A state of art review of transformer
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pp 534-544, April 1988.
O.P. Malik, P. K. Dash, and G. S. Hope, Digital protection of a power
transformer, IEEE publication 76CH1075-1 PWR, Paper no. A76 1917, IEEE PES Winter Meeting, New York, January 1976.
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solution for transformer differential protection, Part II, IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 17, pp. 886-893, October 2002.

[14]
[15]
[16]

C. H. Einval, and J. R. Linders, A three-phase differential relay for

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IX. BIOGRAPHIES
Ernesto Vzquez received his B.Sc. in Electronic and
Communication Engineering in 1988, and his M.Sc. and
Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the Universidad
Autnoma de Nuevo Len, Mxico, in 1991 and 1994
respectively. Since 1996 has worked as Research Professor
in Electrical Engineering for the UANL. He is IEEE
member. In 2000 he did a research stay in University of
Manitoba, Canada, where he was working in traveling wave
protection algorithms. His research areas are power electrical systems
protection and the artificial intelligence application in power systems.
Ivn I. Mijares received his B.Sc in Electrical Engineering and his M.Sc in
Electrical Engineering from the Universidad Autnoma de Nuevo Len,
Mxico, in 2002 and 2005 respectively. His research area is power system
protection.
Oscar Chacn received his B.Sc. in Chemical Engineering
from the Universidad Autnoma de Nuevo Len, Mxico, in
1968. In 1974 he received his M.Sc. from the University of
Houston and his Ph.D. in 1987 from the University of Texas
in Austin. From 1968, he is full time professor in the
Universidad Autnoma de Nuevo Len, Mxico. He is IEEE
member. His research areas are optimization and artificial
intelligence techniques applied in power systems.
Arturo Conde received the B.Sc. degree in mechanical and
electrical engineering from the Universidad Veracruzana,
Mxico, in 1993, and his M.Sc. and Ph.D. in Electrical
Engineering from the Universidad Autnoma de Nuevo
Len, Mxico, in 1996 and 2002 respectively. From 2003,
he is full time professor in the Universidad Autnoma de
Nuevo Len. His research areas are power system protection and power
quality.