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Wood
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Woodisaporousandfibrousstructuraltissuefoundin
thestemsandrootsoftrees,andotherwoodyplants.It
hasbeenusedforthousandsofyearsforbothfueland
asaconstructionmaterial.Itisanorganicmaterial,a
naturalcompositeofcellulosefibers(whicharestrong
intension)embeddedinamatrixofligninwhich
resistscompression.Woodissometimesdefinedas
onlythesecondaryxyleminthestemsoftrees,[1]orit
isdefinedmorebroadlytoincludethesametypeof
tissueelsewheresuchasintherootsoftreesorshrubs.
Inalivingtreeitperformsasupportfunction,enabling
woodyplantstogrowlargeortostandupby
themselves.Italsoconveyswaterandnutrients
betweentheleaves,othergrowingtissues,andthe
roots.Woodmayalsorefertootherplantmaterials
withcomparableproperties,andtomaterialengineered
fromwood,orwoodchipsorfiber.
TheEarthcontainsabout434billioncubicmetersof
growingstockforest,47%ofwhichiscommercial.[2]
Asanabundant,carbonneutralrenewableresource,
woodymaterialshavebeenofintenseinterestasa
sourceofrenewableenergy.In1991approximately3.5
cubickilometersofwoodwereharvested.Dominant
useswereforfurnitureandbuildingconstruction.[3]

Pine

Spruce

Larch

Juniper

Aspen

Hornbeam

Birch

Alder

Beech

Oak

Elm

Cherry

Pear

Maple

Linden

Ash

Contents
1 History
2 Physicalproperties
2.1 Growthrings
2.2 Knots
2.3 Heartwoodandsapwood
2.4 Color
2.5 Watercontent
2.6 Structure
2.7 Earlywoodandlatewood
2.7.1 Insoftwood
2.7.2 Inringporouswoods
2.7.3 Indiffuseporouswoods
2.8 Monocotwood
2.9 Specificgravity
2.10 Wooddensity
3 Hardandsoftwoods
4 Chemistryofwood
4.1 Extractives
5 Uses
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5 Uses
5.1 Fuel
5.2 Construction
5.2.1 Woodflooring
5.2.2 Engineeredwood
5.3 Furnitureandutensils
5.4 Nextgenerationwoodproducts
5.5 Inthearts
5.6 Sportsandrecreationalequipment
6 Bacterialdegradation
7 Seealso
8 References
9 Footnotes

History
A2011discoveryintheCanadianprovinceofNewBrunswickuncoveredtheearliestknownplantstohavegrown
wood,approximately395to400millionyearsago.[4]Woodcanbedatedbycarbondatingandinsomespeciesby
dendrochronologytomakeinferencesaboutwhenawoodenobjectwascreated.
Peoplehaveusedwoodformillenniaformanypurposes,primarilyasafuelorasaconstructionmaterialfor
makinghouses,tools,weapons,furniture,packaging,artworks,andpaper.Theyeartoyearvariationintreering
widthsandisotopicabundancesgivescluestotheprevailingclimateatthattime.[5]

Physicalproperties
Growthrings
Wood,inthestrictsense,isyieldedbytrees,whichincreaseindiameterby
theformation,betweentheexistingwoodandtheinnerbark,ofnewwoody
layerswhichenveloptheentirestem,livingbranches,androots.This
processisknownassecondarygrowthitistheresultofcelldivisioninthe
vascularcambium,alateralmeristem,andsubsequentexpansionofthenew
cells.Thesecellsthengoontoformthickenedsecondarycellwalls,
composedmainlyofcellulose,hemicelluloseandlignin.Wherethe
differencesbetweenthefourseasonsaredistinct,growthcanoccurina
discreteannualorseasonalpattern,leadingtogrowthringsthesecan
usuallybemostclearlyseenontheendofalog,butarealsovisibleonthe
othersurfaces.Ifthedistinctivenessbetweenseasonsisannual,these
growthringsarereferredtoasannualrings.Wherethereislittleseasonal
differencegrowthringsarelikelytobeindistinctorabsent.
Iftherearedifferenceswithinagrowthring,thenthepartofagrowthring
nearestthecenterofthetree,andformedearlyinthegrowingseasonwhen
growthisrapid,isusuallycomposedofwiderelements.Itisusuallylighter
incolorthanthatneartheouterportionofthering,andisknownas
earlywoodorspringwood.Theouterportionformedlaterintheseasonis
thenknownasthelatewoodorsummerwood.[6]However,therearemajor
differences,dependingonthekindofwood(seebelow).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood

Diagramofsecondarygrowthina
treeshowingidealisedverticaland
horizontalsections.Anewlayerof
woodisaddedineachgrowing
season,thickeningthestem,existing
branchesandroots,toformagrowth
ring.

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Knots
Aknotisaparticulartypeofimperfectioninapieceofwooditwillaffect
thetechnicalpropertiesofthewood,usuallyreducingthelocalstrengthand
increasingthetendencyforsplittingalongthewoodgrain,butmaybe
exploitedforvisualeffect.Inalongitudinallysawnplank,aknotwill
appearasaroughlycircular"solid"(usuallydarker)pieceofwoodaround
whichthegrainoftherestofthewood"flows"(partsandrejoins).Withina
knot,thedirectionofthewood(graindirection)isupto90degrees
differentfromthegraindirectionoftheregularwood.
AknotonatreeattheGardenofthe
GodspublicparkinColorado
Springs,Colorado(October2006)

Inthetreeaknotiseitherthebaseofasidebranchoradormantbud.A
knot(whenthebaseofasidebranch)isconicalinshape(hencetheroughly
circularcrosssection)withtheinnertipatthepointinstemdiameterat
whichtheplant'svascularcambiumwaslocatedwhenthebranchformedas
abud.

Duringthedevelopmentofatree,thelowerlimbsoftendie,butmayremainattachedforatime,sometimesyears.
Subsequentlayersofgrowthoftheattachingstemarenolongerintimatelyjoinedwiththedeadlimb,butare
grownaroundit.Hence,deadbranchesproduceknotswhicharenotattached,andlikelytodropoutafterthetree
hasbeensawnintoboards.
Ingradinglumberandstructuraltimber,knotsareclassifiedaccordingtotheirform,size,soundness,andthe
firmnesswithwhichtheyareheldinplace.Thisfirmnessisaffectedby,amongotherfactors,thelengthoftimefor
whichthebranchwasdeadwhiletheattachingstemcontinuedtogrow.
Knotsmateriallyaffectcrackingandwarping,easeinworking,and
cleavabilityoftimber.Theyaredefectswhichweakentimberandlower
itsvalueforstructuralpurposeswherestrengthisanimportant
consideration.Theweakeningeffectismuchmoreseriouswhentimber
issubjectedtoforcesperpendiculartothegrainand/ortensionthan
whereunderloadalongthegrainand/orcompression.Theextentto
whichknotsaffectthestrengthofabeamdependsupontheirposition,
size,number,andcondition.Aknotontheuppersideiscompressed,
whileoneonthelowersideissubjectedtotension.Ifthereisaseason
checkintheknot,asisoftenthecase,itwillofferlittleresistanceto
thistensilestress.Smallknots,however,maybelocatedalongthe
neutralplaneofabeamandincreasethestrengthbypreventing
longitudinalshearing.Knotsinaboardorplankareleastinjurious
whentheyextendthroughitatrightanglestoitsbroadestsurface.
Knotswhichoccurneartheendsofabeamdonotweakenit.Sound
knotswhichoccurinthecentralportiononefourththeheightofthe
beamfromeitheredgearenotseriousdefects.

Woodknotinverticalsection

SamuelJ.Record,TheMechanicalPropertiesofWood[7]
Knotsdonotnecessarilyinfluencethestiffnessofstructuraltimber,thiswilldependonthesizeandlocation.
Stiffnessandelasticstrengtharemoredependentuponthesoundwoodthanuponlocalizeddefects.Thebreaking
strengthisverysusceptibletodefects.Soundknotsdonotweakenwoodwhensubjecttocompressionparallelto
thegrain.
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Insomedecorativeapplications,woodwithknotsmaybedesirabletoaddvisualinterest.Inapplicationswhere
woodispainted,suchasskirtingboards,fasciaboards,doorframesandfurniture,resinspresentinthetimbermay
continueto'bleed'throughtothesurfaceofaknotformonthsorevenyearsaftermanufactureandshowasa
yelloworbrownishstain.Aknotprimerpaintorsolution(knotting),correctlyappliedduringpreparation,maydo
muchtoreducethisproblembutitisdifficulttocontrolcompletely,especiallywhenusingmassproducedkiln
driedtimberstocks.

Heartwoodandsapwood
Heartwood(orduramen[8])iswoodthatasaresultofanaturallyoccurring
chemicaltransformationhasbecomemoreresistanttodecay.Heartwood
formationoccursspontaneously(itisageneticallyprogrammedprocess).
Onceheartwoodformationiscomplete,theheartwoodisdead.[9]Some
uncertaintystillexistsastowhetherheartwoodistrulydead,asitcanstill
chemicallyreacttodecayorganisms,butonlyonce.[10]
Heartwoodisoftenvisuallydistinctfromthelivingsapwood,andcanbe
distinguishedinacrosssectionwheretheboundarywilltendtofollowthe
growthrings.Forexample,itissometimesmuchdarker.However,other
processessuchasdecayorinsectinvasioncanalsodiscolorwood,evenin
woodyplantsthatdonotformheartwood,whichmayleadtoconfusion.
AsectionofaYewbranchshowing

Sapwood(oralburnum[8])istheyounger,outermostwoodinthegrowing
27annualgrowthrings,pale
[9]
sapwood,darkheartwood,andpith
treeitislivingwood, anditsprincipalfunctionsaretoconductwater
(centerdarkspot).Thedarkradial
fromtherootstotheleavesandtostoreupandgivebackaccordingtothe
linesaresmallknots.
seasonthereservespreparedintheleaves.However,bythetimethey
becomecompetenttoconductwater,allxylemtracheidsandvesselshave
losttheircytoplasmandthecellsarethereforefunctionallydead.Allwoodinatreeisfirstformedassapwood.
Themoreleavesatreebearsandthemorevigorousitsgrowth,thelargerthevolumeofsapwoodrequired.Hence
treesmakingrapidgrowthintheopenhavethickersapwoodfortheirsizethantreesofthesamespeciesgrowing
indenseforests.Sometimestrees(ofspeciesthatdoformheartwood)grownintheopenmaybecomeof
considerablesize,30cmormoreindiameter,beforeanyheartwoodbeginstoform,forexample,insecondgrowth
hickory,oropengrownpines.
Thetermheartwoodderivessolelyfromitspositionandnotfromanyvitalimportancetothetree.Thisis
evidencedbythefactthatatreecanthrivewithitsheartcompletelydecayed.Somespeciesbegintoform
heartwoodveryearlyinlife,sohavingonlyathinlayeroflivesapwood,whileinothersthechangecomesslowly.
Thinsapwoodischaracteristicofsuchspeciesaschestnut,blacklocust,mulberry,osageorange,andsassafras,
whileinmaple,ash,hickory,hackberry,beech,andpine,thicksapwoodistherule.Othersneverformheartwood.
Nodefiniterelationexistsbetweentheannualringsofgrowthandtheamountofsapwood.Withinthesame
speciesthecrosssectionalareaofthesapwoodisveryroughlyproportionaltothesizeofthecrownofthetree.If
theringsarenarrow,moreofthemarerequiredthanwheretheyarewide.Asthetreegetslarger,thesapwoodmust
necessarilybecomethinnerorincreasemateriallyinvolume.Sapwoodisthickerintheupperportionofthetrunk
ofatreethannearthebase,becausetheageandthediameteroftheuppersectionsareless.
Whenatreeisveryyoungitiscoveredwithlimbsalmost,ifnotentirely,totheground,butasitgrowsoldersome
orallofthemwilleventuallydieandareeitherbrokenofforfalloff.Subsequentgrowthofwoodmaycompletely
concealthestubswhichwillhoweverremainasknots.Nomatterhowsmoothandclearalogisontheoutside,itis
moreorlessknottynearthemiddle.Consequently,thesapwoodofanoldtree,andparticularlyofaforestgrown
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tree,willbefreerfromknotsthantheinnerheartwood.Sinceinmostusesofwood,knotsaredefectsthatweaken
thetimberandinterferewithitseaseofworkingandotherproperties,itfollowsthatagivenpieceofsapwood,
becauseofitspositioninthetree,maywellbestrongerthanapieceofheartwoodfromthesametree.
Itisremarkablethattheinnerheartwoodofoldtreesremainsassoundasitusuallydoes,sinceinmanycasesitis
hundreds,andinafewinstancesthousands,ofyearsold.Everybrokenlimborroot,ordeepwoundfromfire,
insects,orfallingtimber,mayaffordanentrancefordecay,which,oncestarted,maypenetratetoallpartsofthe
trunk.Thelarvaeofmanyinsectsboreintothetreesandtheirtunnelsremainindefinitelyassourcesofweakness.
Whateveradvantages,however,thatsapwoodmayhaveinthisconnectionareduesolelytoitsrelativeageand
position.
Ifatreegrowsallitslifeintheopenandtheconditionsofsoilandsiteremainunchanged,itwillmakeitsmost
rapidgrowthinyouth,andgraduallydecline.Theannualringsofgrowthareformanyyearsquitewide,butlater
theybecomenarrowerandnarrower.Sinceeachsucceedingringislaiddownontheoutsideofthewood
previouslyformed,itfollowsthatunlessatreemateriallyincreasesitsproductionofwoodfromyeartoyear,the
ringsmustnecessarilybecomethinnerasthetrunkgetswider.Asatreereachesmaturityitscrownbecomesmore
openandtheannualwoodproductionislessened,therebyreducingstillmorethewidthofthegrowthrings.Inthe
caseofforestgrowntreessomuchdependsuponthecompetitionofthetreesintheirstruggleforlightand
nourishmentthatperiodsofrapidandslowgrowthmayalternate.Sometrees,suchassouthernoaks,maintainthe
samewidthofringforhundredsofyears.Uponthewhole,however,asatreegetslargerindiameterthewidthof
thegrowthringsdecreases.
Differentpiecesofwoodcutfromalargetreemaydifferdecidedly,particularlyifthetreeisbigandmature.In
sometrees,thewoodlaidonlateinthelifeofatreeissofter,lighter,weaker,andmoreeventexturedthanthat
producedearlier,butinothertrees,thereverseapplies.Thismayormaynotcorrespondtoheartwoodand
sapwood.Inalargelogthesapwood,becauseofthetimeinthelifeofthetreewhenitwasgrown,maybeinferior
inhardness,strength,andtoughnesstoequallysoundheartwoodfromthesamelog.Inasmallertree,thereverse
maybetrue.

Color
Inspecieswhichshowadistinctdifferencebetweenheartwoodand
sapwoodthenaturalcolorofheartwoodisusuallydarkerthanthatofthe
sapwood,andveryfrequentlythecontrastisconspicuous(seesectionof
yewlogabove).Thisisproducedbydepositsintheheartwoodofchemical
substances,sothatadramaticcolordifferencedoesnotmeanadramatic
differenceinthemechanicalpropertiesofheartwoodandsapwood,
althoughtheremaybeadramaticchemicaldifference.

ThewoodofCoastRedwoodis
distinctivelyred.

SomeexperimentsonveryresinousLongleafPinespecimensindicatean
increaseinstrength,duetotheresinwhichincreasesthestrengthwhendry.Suchresinsaturatedheartwoodis
called"fatlighter".Structuresbuiltoffatlighterarealmostimpervioustorotandtermiteshowevertheyarevery
flammable.Stumpsofoldlongleafpinesareoftendug,splitintosmallpiecesandsoldaskindlingforfires.
Stumpsthusdugmayactuallyremainacenturyormoresincebeingcut.Spruceimpregnatedwithcruderesinand
driedisalsogreatlyincreasedinstrengththereby.
Sincethelatewoodofagrowthringisusuallydarkerincolorthantheearlywood,thisfactmaybeusedinjudging
thedensity,andthereforethehardnessandstrengthofthematerial.Thisisparticularlythecasewithconiferous
woods.Inringporouswoodsthevesselsoftheearlywoodnotinfrequentlyappearonafinishedsurfaceasdarker
thanthedenserlatewood,thoughoncrosssectionsofheartwoodthereverseiscommonlytrue.Exceptinthe
mannerjuststatedthecolorofwoodisnoindicationofstrength.
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Abnormaldiscolorationofwoodoftendenotesadiseasedcondition,indicatingunsoundness.Theblackcheckin
westernhemlockistheresultofinsectattacks.Thereddishbrownstreakssocommoninhickoryandcertainother
woodsaremostlytheresultofinjurybybirds.Thediscolorationismerelyanindicationofaninjury,andinall
probabilitydoesnotofitselfaffectthepropertiesofthewood.Certainrotproducingfungiimparttowood
characteristiccolorswhichthusbecomesymptomaticofweaknesshoweveranattractiveeffectknownasspalting
producedbythisprocessisoftenconsideredadesirablecharacteristic.Ordinarysapstainingisduetofungal
growth,butdoesnotnecessarilyproduceaweakeningeffect.

Watercontent
Wateroccursinlivingwoodinthreeconditions,namely:
1.inthecellwalls,
2.intheprotoplasmiccontentsofthecells,and
3.asfreewaterinthecellcavitiesandspaces.
Inheartwooditoccursonlyinthefirstandlastforms.Woodthatisthoroughlyairdriedretains816%ofthewater
inthecellwalls,andnone,orpracticallynone,intheotherforms.Evenovendriedwoodretainsasmall
percentageofmoisture,butforallexceptchemicalpurposes,maybeconsideredabsolutelydry.
Thegeneraleffectofthewatercontentuponthewoodsubstanceistorenderitsofterandmorepliable.Asimilar
effectofcommonobservationisinthesofteningactionofwateronrawhide,paper,orcloth.Withincertainlimits,
thegreaterthewatercontent,thegreateritssofteningeffect.
Dryingproducesadecidedincreaseinthestrengthofwood,particularlyinsmallspecimens.Anextremeexample
isthecaseofacompletelydryspruceblock5cminsection,whichwillsustainapermanentloadfourtimesas
greatasagreen(undried)blockofthesamesizewill.
Thegreateststrengthincreaseduetodryingisintheultimatecrushingstrength,andstrengthatelasticlimitin
endwisecompressionthesearefollowedbythemodulusofrupture,andstressatelasticlimitincrossbending,
whilethemodulusofelasticityisleastaffected.[11]

Structure
Woodisaheterogeneous,hygroscopic,cellularandanisotropicmaterial.Itconsistsofcells,andthecellwallsare
composedofmicrofibrilsofcellulose(40%50%)andhemicellulose(15%25%)impregnatedwithlignin
(15%30%).[12]
Inconiferousorsoftwoodspeciesthewoodcellsaremostlyofonekind,
tracheids,andasaresultthematerialismuchmoreuniforminstructure
thanthatofmosthardwoods.Therearenovessels("pores")inconiferous
woodsuchasoneseessoprominentlyinoakandash,forexample.
Thestructureofhardwoodsismorecomplex.[13]Thewaterconducting
capabilityismostlytakencareofbyvessels:insomecases(oak,chestnut,
ash)thesearequitelargeanddistinct,inothers(buckeye,poplar,willow)
toosmalltobeseenwithoutahandlens.Indiscussingsuchwoodsitis
customarytodividethemintotwolargeclasses,ringporousanddiffuse
porous.[14]

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Inringporousspecies,suchasash,blacklocust,catalpa,chestnut,elm,hickory,mulberry,andoak,[14]thelarger
vesselsorpores(ascrosssectionsofvesselsarecalled)arelocalisedinthepartofthegrowthringformedin
spring,thusformingaregionofmoreorlessopenandporoustissue.Therestofthering,producedinsummer,is
madeupofsmallervesselsandamuchgreaterproportionofwoodfibers.Thesefibersaretheelementswhichgive
strengthandtoughnesstowood,whilethevesselsareasourceofweakness.
Indiffuseporouswoodstheporesareevenlysizedsothatthewater
conductingcapabilityisscatteredthroughoutthegrowthringinsteadof
beingcollectedinabandorrow.Examplesofthiskindofwoodare
alder,[14]basswood,birch,[14]buckeye,maple,willow,andthePopulus
speciessuchasaspen,cottonwoodandpoplar.[14]Somespecies,suchas
walnutandcherry,areontheborderbetweenthetwoclasses,formingan
intermediategroup.

Earlywoodandlatewood
Insoftwood
Intemperatesoftwoodsthereoftenisa
markeddifferencebetweenlatewoodand
earlywood.Thelatewoodwillbedenser
thanthatformedearlyintheseason.When
MagnifiedcrosssectionofBlack
examinedunderamicroscopethecellsof
Walnut,showingthevessels,rays
denselatewoodareseentobeverythick
(whitelines)andannualrings:thisis
walledandwithverysmallcellcavities,
intermediatebetweendiffuseporous
whilethoseformedfirstintheseasonhave
andringporous,withvesselsize
thinwallsandlargecellcavities.The
declininggradually
strengthisinthewalls,notthecavities.
Hencethegreatertheproportionof
latewoodthegreaterthedensityandstrength.Inchoosingapieceofpinewhere
strengthorstiffnessistheimportantconsideration,theprincipalthingtoobserveis
thecomparativeamountsofearlywoodandlatewood.Thewidthofringisnot
nearlysoimportantastheproportionandnatureofthelatewoodinthering.

Earlywoodandlatewoodina
softwoodradialview,
growthringscloselyspaced
inRockyMountainDouglas
fir

Ifaheavypieceofpineiscomparedwithalightweightpieceitwillbeseenatonce
thattheheavieronecontainsalargerproportionoflatewoodthantheother,andis
thereforeshowingmoreclearlydemarcatedgrowthrings.Inwhitepinesthereis
notmuchcontrastbetweenthedifferentpartsofthering,andasaresultthewood
isveryuniformintextureandiseasytowork.Inhardpines,ontheotherhand,the
latewoodisverydenseandisdeepcolored,presentingaverydecidedcontrastto
thesoft,strawcoloredearlywood.

Itisnotonlytheproportionoflatewood,butalsoitsquality,thatcounts.In
specimensthatshowaverylargeproportionoflatewooditmaybenoticeablymore
porousandweighconsiderablylessthanthelatewoodinpiecesthatcontainbutlittle.Onecanjudgecomparative
density,andthereforetosomeextentstrength,byvisualinspection.
Nosatisfactoryexplanationcanasyetbegivenfortheexactmechanismsdeterminingtheformationofearlywood
andlatewood.Severalfactorsmaybeinvolved.Inconifers,atleast,rateofgrowthalonedoesnotdeterminethe
proportionofthetwoportionsofthering,forinsomecasesthewoodofslowgrowthisveryhardandheavy,while
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inotherstheoppositeistrue.Thequalityofthesitewherethetreegrowsundoubtedlyaffectsthecharacterofthe
woodformed,thoughitisnotpossibletoformulatearulegoverningit.Ingeneral,however,itmaybesaidthat
wherestrengthoreaseofworkingisessential,woodsofmoderatetoslowgrowthshouldbechosen.
Inringporouswoods
Inringporouswoodseachseason'sgrowthisalwayswelldefined,becausethe
largeporesformedearlyintheseasonabutonthedensertissueoftheyearbefore.
Inthecaseoftheringporoushardwoodsthereseemstoexistaprettydefinite
relationbetweentherateofgrowthoftimberanditsproperties.Thismaybebriefly
summedupinthegeneralstatementthatthemorerapidthegrowthorthewiderthe
ringsofgrowth,theheavier,harder,stronger,andstifferthewood.This,itmustbe
remembered,appliesonlytoringporouswoodssuchasoak,ash,hickory,and
othersofthesamegroup,andis,ofcourse,subjecttosomeexceptionsand
limitations.
Inringporouswoodsofgoodgrowthitisusuallythelatewoodinwhichthethick
walled,strengthgivingfibersaremostabundant.Asthebreadthofringdiminishes,
thislatewoodisreducedsothatveryslowgrowthproducescomparativelylight,
porouswoodcomposedofthinwalledvesselsandwoodparenchyma.Ingoodoak
theselargevesselsoftheearlywoodoccupyfrom6to10percentofthevolumeof
thelog,whileininferiormaterialtheymaymakeup25%ormore.Thelatewoodof
goodoakisdarkcoloredandfirm,andconsistsmostlyofthickwalledfiberswhich
formonehalformoreofthewood.Ininferioroak,thislatewoodismuchreduced
bothinquantityandquality.Suchvariationisverylargelytheresultofrateof
growth.

Earlywoodandlatewoodina
ringporouswood(ash)ina
Fraxinusexcelsiortangential
view,widegrowthrings

Wideringedwoodisoftencalled"secondgrowth",becausethegrowthoftheyoungtimberinopenstandsafter
theoldtreeshavebeenremovedismorerapidthanintreesinaclosedforest,andinthemanufactureofarticles
wherestrengthisanimportantconsiderationsuch"secondgrowth"hardwoodmaterialispreferred.Thisis
particularlythecaseinthechoiceofhickoryforhandlesandspokes.Herenotonlystrength,buttoughnessand
resilienceareimportant.TheresultsofaseriesoftestsonhickorybytheU.S.ForestServiceshowthat:
"Theworkorshockresistingabilityisgreatestinwideringedwoodthathasfrom5to14ringsperinch
(rings1.85mmthick),isfairlyconstantfrom14to38ringsperinch(rings0.71.8mmthick),and
decreasesrapidlyfrom38to47ringsperinch(rings0.50.7mmthick).Thestrengthatmaximumloadis
notsogreatwiththemostrapidgrowingwooditismaximumwithfrom14to20ringsperinch(rings1.3
1.8mmthick),andagainbecomeslessasthewoodbecomesmorecloselyringed.Thenaturaldeductionis
thatwoodoffirstclassmechanicalvalueshowsfrom5to20ringsperinch(rings1.35mmthick)andthat
slowergrowthyieldspoorerstock.Thustheinspectororbuyerofhickoryshoulddiscriminateagainsttimber
thathasmorethan20ringsperinch(ringslessthan1.3mmthick).Exceptionsexist,however,inthecaseof
normalgrowthupondrysituations,inwhichtheslowgrowingmaterialmaybestrongandtough."[15]
Theeffectofrateofgrowthonthequalitiesofchestnutwoodissummarizedbythesameauthorityasfollows:
"Whentheringsarewide,thetransitionfromspringwoodtosummerwoodisgradual,whileinthenarrow
ringsthespringwoodpassesintosummerwoodabruptly.Thewidthofthespringwoodchangesbutlittle
withthewidthoftheannualring,sothatthenarrowingorbroadeningoftheannualringisalwaysatthe
expenseofthesummerwood.Thenarrowvesselsofthesummerwoodmakeitricherinwoodsubstance
thanthespringwoodcomposedofwidevessels.Therefore,rapidgrowingspecimenswithwideringshave
morewoodsubstancethanslowgrowingtreeswithnarrowrings.Sincethemorethewoodsubstancethe
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greatertheweight,andthegreatertheweightthestrongerthewood,chestnutswithwideringsmusthave
strongerwoodthanchestnutswithnarrowrings.Thisagreeswiththeacceptedviewthatsprouts(which
alwayshavewiderings)yieldbetterandstrongerwoodthanseedlingchestnuts,whichgrowmoreslowlyin
diameter."[15]
Indiffuseporouswoods
Inthediffuseporouswoods,thedemarcationbetweenringsisnotalwayssoclearandinsomecasesisalmost(if
notentirely)invisibletotheunaidedeye.Conversely,whenthereisacleardemarcationtheremaynotbea
noticeabledifferenceinstructurewithinthegrowthring.
Indiffuseporouswoods,ashasbeenstated,thevesselsorporesareevensized,sothatthewaterconducting
capabilityisscatteredthroughouttheringinsteadofcollectedintheearlywood.Theeffectofrateofgrowthis,
therefore,notthesameasintheringporouswoods,approachingmorenearlytheconditionsintheconifers.In
generalitmaybestatedthatsuchwoodsofmediumgrowthaffordstrongermaterialthanwhenveryrapidlyor
veryslowlygrown.Inmanyusesofwood,totalstrengthisnotthemainconsideration.Ifeaseofworkingisprized,
woodshouldbechosenwithregardtoitsuniformityoftextureandstraightnessofgrain,whichwillinmostcases
occurwhenthereislittlecontrastbetweenthelatewoodofoneseason'sgrowthandtheearlywoodofthenext.

Monocotwood
Structuralmaterialthatresemblesordinary,"dicot"orconiferwoodinits
grosshandlingcharacteristicsisproducedbyanumberofmonocotplants,
andthesealsoarecolloquiallycalledwood.Ofthese,bamboo,botanically
amemberofthegrassfamily,hasconsiderableeconomicimportance,
largerculmsbeingwidelyusedasabuildingandconstructionmaterialin
theirownrightand,thesedays,inthemanufactureofengineeredflooring,
panelsandveneer.Anothermajorplantgroupthatproducematerialthat
ofteniscalledwoodarethepalms.Ofmuchlessimportanceareplantssuch
asPandanus,DracaenaandCordyline.Withallthismaterial,thestructure
andcompositionofthestructuralmaterialisquitedifferentfromordinary
wood.

Specificgravity

Trunksofthecoconutpalm,a
monocot,inJava.Fromthis
perspectivetheselooknotmuch
differentfromtrunksofadicotor
conifer

Thesinglemostrevealingpropertyofwoodasanindicatorofwoodquality
isspecificgravity(Timell1986),[16]asbothpulpyieldandlumberstrength
aredeterminedbyit.Specificgravityistheratioofthemassofasubstancetothemassofanequalvolumeof
waterdensityistheratioofamassofaquantityofasubstancetothevolumeofthatquantityandisexpressedin
massperunitsubstance,e.g.,gramspermillilitre(g/cm3org/ml).Thetermsareessentiallyequivalentaslongas
themetricsystemisused.Upondrying,woodshrinksanditsdensityincreases.Minimumvaluesareassociated
withgreen(watersaturated)woodandarereferredtoasbasicspecificgravity(Timell1986).[16]

Wooddensity
Wooddensityisdeterminedbymultiplegrowthandphysiologicalfactorscompoundedintoonefairlyeasily
measuredwoodcharacteristic(Elliott1970).[17]

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Age,diameter,height,radialgrowth,geographicallocation,siteandgrowingconditions,silviculturaltreatment,
andseedsource,alltosomedegreeinfluencewooddensity.Variationistobeexpected.Withinanindividualtree,
thevariationinwooddensityisoftenasgreatasorevengreaterthanthatbetweendifferenttrees(Timell1986).[16]
Variationofspecificgravitywithintheboleofatreecanoccurineitherthehorizontalorverticaldirection.

Hardandsoftwoods
Itiscommontoclassifywoodaseithersoftwoodorhardwood.Thewoodfromconifers(e.g.pine)iscalled
softwood,andthewoodfromdicotyledons(usuallybroadleavedtrees,e.g.oak)iscalledhardwood.Thesenames
areabitmisleading,ashardwoodsarenotnecessarilyhard,andsoftwoodsarenotnecessarilysoft.Thewell
knownbalsa(ahardwood)isactuallysofterthananycommercialsoftwood.Conversely,somesoftwoods(e.g.
yew)areharderthanmanyhardwoods.
Thereisastrongrelationshipbetweenthepropertiesofwoodandthepropertiesoftheparticulartreethatyielded
it.Thedensityofwoodvarieswithspecies.Thedensityofawoodcorrelateswithitsstrength(mechanical
properties).Forexample,mahoganyisamediumdensehardwoodthatisexcellentforfinefurniturecrafting,
whereasbalsaislight,makingitusefulformodelbuilding.Oneofthedensestwoodsisblackironwood.

Chemistryofwood
Thechemicalcompositionofwoodvariesfromspeciesto
species,butisapproximately50%carbon,42%oxygen,6%
hydrogen,1%nitrogen,and1%otherelements(mainly
calcium,potassium,sodium,magnesium,iron,andmanganese)
byweight.[18]Woodalsocontainssulfur,chlorine,silicon,
phosphorus,andotherelementsinsmallquantity.
Asidefromwater,woodhasthreemaincomponents.Cellulose,
acrystallinepolymerderivedfromglucose,constitutesabout
4143%.Nextinabundanceishemicellulose,whichisaround
Chemicalstructureoflignin,whichcomprises
20%indeciduoustreesbutnear30%inconifers.Itismainly
approximately30%ofwoodandisresponsiblefor
fivecarbonsugarsthatarelinkedinanirregularmanner,in
manyofitsproperties.
contrasttothecellulose.Ligninisthethirdcomponentat
around27%inconiferouswoodvs.23%indeciduoustrees.
Ligninconfersthehydrophobicpropertiesreflectingthefactthatitisbasedonaromaticrings.Thesethree
componentsareinterwoven,anddirectcovalentlinkagesexistbetweentheligninandthehemicellulose.Amajor
focusofthepaperindustryistheseparationoftheligninfromthecellulose,fromwhichpaperismade.
Inchemicalterms,thedifferencebetweenhardwoodandsoftwoodisreflectedinthecompositionofthe
constituentlignin.Hardwoodligninisprimarilyderivedfromsinapylalcoholandconiferylalcohol.Softwood
ligninismainlyderivedfromconiferylalcohol.[19]

Extractives
Asidefromthelignocellulose,woodconsistsofavarietyoflowmolecularweightorganiccompounds,called
extractives.Thewoodextractivesarefattyacids,resinacids,waxesandterpenes.[20]Forexample,rosinisexuded
byconifersasprotectionfrominsects.Theextractionoftheseorganicmaterialsfromwoodprovidestalloil,
turpentine,androsin.[21]
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Uses
Fuel
Woodhasalonghistoryofbeingusedasfuel,whichcontinuestothisday,mostlyinruralareasoftheworld.
Hardwoodispreferredoversoftwoodbecauseitcreateslesssmokeandburnslonger.Addingawoodstoveor
fireplacetoahomeisoftenfelttoaddambianceandwarmth.

Construction
Woodhasbeenanimportantconstructionmaterialsincehumansbeganbuilding
shelters,housesandboats.Nearlyallboatsweremadeoutofwooduntilthelate
19thcentury,andwoodremainsincommonusetodayinboatconstruction.Elmin
particularwasusedforthispurposeasitresisteddecayaslongasitwaskeptwet
(italsoservedforwaterpipebeforetheadventofmoremodernplumbing).
WoodtobeusedforconstructionworkiscommonlyknownaslumberinNorth
America.Elsewhere,lumberusuallyreferstofelledtrees,andthewordforsawn
planksreadyforuseistimber.InMedievalEuropeoakwasthewoodofchoicefor
allwoodconstruction,includingbeams,walls,doors,andfloors.Todayawider
varietyofwoodsisused:solidwooddoorsareoftenmadefrompoplar,small
knottedpine,andDouglasfir.
TheSaittaHouse,Dyker
Heights,Brooklyn,New
Yorkbuiltin1899ismade
ofanddecoratedin
wood. [22]

Newdomestichousinginmanypartsofthe
worldtodayiscommonlymadefrom
timberframedconstruction.Engineered
woodproductsarebecomingabiggerpart
oftheconstructionindustry.Theymaybe
usedinbothresidentialandcommercial
buildingsasstructuralandaesthetic

materials.
Inbuildingsmadeofothermaterials,woodwillstillbefoundasa
supportingmaterial,especiallyinroofconstruction,ininteriordoorsand
theirframes,andasexteriorcladding.
Woodisalsocommonlyusedasshutteringmaterialtoformthemouldinto
whichconcreteispouredduringreinforcedconcreteconstruction.

ThechurchesofKizhi,Russiaare
amongahandfulofWorldHeritage
Sitesbuiltentirelyofwood,without
metaljoints.SeeKizhiPogostfor
moredetails.

Woodflooring
Engineeredwood
Engineeredwoodproducts,gluedbuildingproducts"engineered"forapplicationspecificperformance
requirements,areoftenusedinconstructionandindustrialapplications.Gluedengineeredwoodproductsare
manufacturedbybondingtogetherwoodstrands,veneers,lumberorotherformsofwoodfiberwithgluetoforma
larger,moreefficientcompositestructuralunit.[23]

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Theseproductsincludegluedlaminatedtimber(glulam),woodstructural
panels(includingplywood,orientedstrandboardandcompositepanels),
laminatedveneerlumber(LVL)andotherstructuralcompositelumber
(SCL)products,parallelstrandlumber,andIjoists.[23]Approximately100
millioncubicmetersofwoodwasconsumedforthispurposein1991.[3]
Thetrendssuggestthatparticleboardandfiberboardwillovertake
plywood.
Woodunsuitableforconstructioninitsnativeformmaybebrokendown
Woodcanbecutintostraightplanks
mechanically(intofibersorchips)orchemically(intocellulose)andused
andmadeintoawoodflooring.
asarawmaterialforotherbuildingmaterials,suchasengineeredwood,as
wellaschipboard,hardboard,andmediumdensityfiberboard(MDF).Such
woodderivativesarewidelyused:woodfibersareanimportantcomponentofmostpaper,andcelluloseisusedas
acomponentofsomesyntheticmaterials.Woodderivativescanalsobeusedforkindsofflooring,forexample
laminateflooring.

Furnitureandutensils
Woodhasalwaysbeenusedextensivelyforfurniture,suchaschairsandbeds.Itisalsousedfortoolhandlesand
cutlery,suchaschopsticks,toothpicks,andotherutensils,likethewoodenspoon.

Nextgenerationwoodproducts
Furtherdevelopmentsincludenewligninglueapplications,recyclablefoodpackaging,rubbertirereplacement
applications,antibacterialmedicalagents,andhighstrengthfabricsorcomposites.[24]Asscientistsandengineers
furtherlearnanddevelopnewtechniquestoextractvariouscomponentsfromwood,oralternativelytomodify
wood,forexamplebyaddingcomponentstowood,newmoreadvancedproductswillappearonthemarketplace.
Moisturecontentelectronicmonitoringcanalsoenhancenextgenerationwoodprotection.[25]

Inthearts
Woodhaslongbeenusedasanartisticmedium.Ithasbeenusedtomakesculpturesandcarvingsformillennia.
ExamplesincludethetotempolescarvedbyNorthAmericanindigenouspeoplefromconifertrunks,oftenWestern
RedCedar(Thujaplicata),andtheMillenniumclocktower,[26]nowhousedintheNationalMuseumofScotlandin
Edinburgh.Itisalsousedinwoodcutprintmaking,andforengraving.
Certaintypesofmusicalinstruments,suchasthoseoftheviolinfamily,theguitar,theclarinetandrecorder,the
xylophone,andthemarimba,aretraditionallymademostlyorentirelyofwood.Thechoiceofwoodmaymakea
significantdifferencetothetoneandresonantqualitiesoftheinstrument,andtonewoodshavewidelydiffering
properties,rangingfromthehardanddenseafricanblackwood(usedforthebodiesofclarinets)tothelightbut
resonantEuropeanspruce(Piceaabies),whichistraditionallyusedforthesoundboardsofviolins.Themost
valuabletonewoods,suchastheripplesycamore(Acerpseudoplatanus),usedforthebacksofviolins,combine
acousticpropertieswithdecorativecolorandgrainwhichenhancetheappearanceofthefinishedinstrument.
Despitetheircollectivename,notallwoodwindinstrumentsaremadeentirelyofwood.Thereedsusedtoplay
them,however,areusuallymadefromArundodonax,atypeofmonocotcaneplant.

Sportsandrecreationalequipment

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Manytypesofsportsequipmentaremadeofwood,orwereconstructedof
woodinthepast.Forexample,cricketbatsaretypicallymadeofwhite
willow.ThebaseballbatswhicharelegalforuseinMajorLeagueBaseball
arefrequentlymadeofashwoodorhickory,andinrecentyearshavebeen
constructedfrommapleeventhoughthatwoodissomewhatmorefragile.
NBAcourtshavebeentraditionallymadeoutofparquetry.
Manyothertypesofsportsandrecreationequipment,suchasskis,ice
hockeysticks,lacrossesticksandarcherybows,werecommonlymadeof
woodinthepast,buthavesincebeenreplacedwithmoremodernmaterials
suchasaluminium,fiberglass,carbonfiber,titanium,andcomposite
materials.Onenoteworthyexampleofthistrendisthegolfclubcommonly
knownasthewood,theheadofwhichwastraditionallymadeof
persimmonwoodintheearlydaysofthegameofgolf,butisnowgenerally
madeofsyntheticmaterials.

Bacterialdegradation

Stringedinstrumentbowsareoften
madefrombrazilwood(alsocalled
pernambuco).

Littleisknownaboutthebacteriathatdegradecellulose.Symbioticbacteria
inXylophagamayplayaroleinthedegradationofsunkenwoodwhile
bacteriasuchasAlphaproteobacteria,Flavobacteria,Actinobacteria,
Clostridia,andBacteroideteshavebeendetectedinwoodsubmergedoverayear.[27]

Seealso
Burl
Carpentry
Driftwood
Dunnage
Forestry
Listofwoods
Parquetry
Pelletfuel

Pelletfuel
Pulpwood
Sawdust
Thermallymodified
wood
Tinder
Wooddrying
Woodeconomy

Woodeconomy
Woodplastic
composite
Woodpreservation
Woodwarping
Woodturning
Woodworm
Xylology

Xylology
Xylophagy
Xylotheque
Xylotomy

References
1.Hickey,M.King,C.(2001).TheCambridgeIllustratedGlossaryofBotanicalTerms.CambridgeUniversityPress.
2."GlobalForestResourcesAssessment2005/FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations"(PDF).
3.HorstH.Nimz,UweSchmitt,EckartSchwab,OttoWittmann,FranzWolf"Wood"inUllmann'sEncyclopediaof
IndustrialChemistry2005,WileyVCH,Weinheim.doi:10.1002/14356007.a28_305(https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F1435
6007.a28_305)
4."N.B.fossilsshoworiginsofwood".CBC.ca.August12,2011.RetrievedAugust12,2011.
5.Briffa,K.Shishov,V.V.Melvin,T.M.Vaganov,E.A.Grudd,H.Hantemirov,R.M.Eronen,M.Naurzbaev,M.M.
(2008)."Trendsinrecenttemperatureandradialtreegrowthspanning2000yearsacrossnorthwestEurasia".
PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences363(1501):22712284.
doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2199.PMC2606779.PMID18048299.
6.Woodgrowthandstructure(http://www.farmforestline.com.au/pages/2.1.2.1_wood.html)www.farmforestline.com.au
7.Record,SamuelJ(1914).TheMechanicalPropertiesofWood.J.Wiley&Sons.p.165.ASINB000863N3W.
8. "Duramen".EncyclopdiaBritannica8(11thed.).1911.p.692.
9.Capon2005,p.65.
10.Shigo1986,54.
11.Record,SamuelJ(1914).TheMechanicalPropertiesofWood.J.Wiley&Sons.p.48.ASINB000863N3W.
12."WoodPropertiesGrowthandStructure2015".treetesting.com.
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13."TimberPlusToolbox,Selectingtimber,Characteristicsoftimber,Structureofhardwoods".nationalvetcontent.edu.au.
14.Sperry,JohnS.Nichols,KirkL.Sullivan,JuneEEastlack,SondraE.(1994)."XylemEmbolisminringporous,
diffuseporous,andconiferoustreesofNorthernUtahandInteriorAlaska".Ecology75(6):17361752.
doi:10.2307/1939633.JSTOR1939633.
15.U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestProductsLaboratory.TheWoodHandbook:Woodasanengineeringmaterial(htt
p://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fplgtr/fplgtr113/fplgtr113.htm).GeneralTechnicalReport113.Madison,WI.
16.Timell,T.E.1986.Compressionwoodingymnosperms.SpringerVerlag,Berlin.2150p.
17.Elliott,G.K.1970.Wooddensityinconifers.CommonwealthFor.Bureau,Oxford,U.K.,Tech.Commun.8.44p.
18.JeanPierreBaretteClaudeHazardetJrmeMayer(1996).MmotechBoisetMatriauxAssocis.Paris:ditions
Casteilla.p.22.ISBN2713516455.
19.W.BoerjanJ.RalphM.Baucher(June2003)."Ligninbiosynthesis".Annu.Rev.PlantBiol.54(1):519549.
doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.134938.PMID14503002.
20.Mimms,AgnetaMichaelJ.KuckurekJefA.PyiatteElizabethE.Wright(1993).KraftPulping.ACompilationof
Notes.TAPPIPress.pp.67.ISBN0898523222.
21.Fiebach,KlemensGrimm,Dieter(2000)."Resins,Natural".Ullmann'sEncyclopediaofIndustrialChemistry.
doi:10.1002/14356007.a23_073.ISBN9783527306732.
22."SaittaHouseReportPart1
(http://www.dykerheightscivicassociation.com/saittareport.pdf)",DykerHeightsCivicAssociation.com
23."SearchAPATheEngineeredWoodAssociation"(PDF).apawood.org.
24."FPInnovations"(PDF).forintek.ca.
25."Systemforremotelymonitoringmoisturecontentonwoodenelements"IArakistain,OMunneEPPatent
EPO1382108.0
26.ProfessionalNetSolutions.com."TheMillenniumClockToweratEdinburghRoyalMuseum".Freespace.virgin.net.
Retrieved20111215.
27.ChristinaBienholdPetraPopRistovaFrankWenzhferThorstenDittmarAntjeBoetius(January2,2013)."How
DeepSeaWoodFallsSustainChemosyntheticLife".PLOSONE.

Footnotes
TheWoodinCultureAssociation(http://www.woodinculture.fi/en/)
LookupWoodin
TheWoodExplorer:Acomprehensivedatabaseofcommercialwood
Wiktionary,thefree
species(http://www.thewoodexplorer.com/)
dictionary.
APATheEngineeredWoodAssociation(http://www.apawood.org/l
evel_b.cfm?content=prd_main)
WikimediaCommonshas
Capon,Brian(2005).BotanyforGardeners(2nded.).Portland,OR:
mediarelatedtoWood.
TimberPublishing.ISBN0881926558.
Hoadley,R.Bruce(2000).UnderstandingWood:ACraftsmans
GuidetoWoodTechnology.TauntonPress.ISBN1561583588.
Shigo,Alex.(1986)ANewTreeBiologyDictionary.ShigoandTrees,Associates.ISBN0943563127
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wood&oldid=728404060"
Categories: Wood Artmaterials Biodegradablematerials Buildingmaterials Energycrops Forestry
Naturalmaterials Trees Woodworking Woodworkingmaterials Materials Naturalresources Botany
Woodproducts Plantanatomy Forestproducts
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon5July2016,at06:15.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmayapply.
Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisaregisteredtrademark
oftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.

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